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Conflicto de Cachemira

India reclama la totalidad del antiguo estado principesco de la India británica de Jammu y Cachemira basándose en un instrumento de adhesión firmado en 1947. Pakistán reclama la mayor parte de la región basándose en su población de mayoría musulmana , mientras que China reclama las regiones en gran parte deshabitadas de Aksai Chin y el valle de Shaksgam .

El conflicto de Cachemira es un conflicto territorial sobre la región de Cachemira , principalmente entre India y Pakistán , y también entre China y la India en la parte noreste de la región. [1] [2] El conflicto comenzó después de la partición de la India en 1947, cuando tanto India como Pakistán reclamaron la totalidad del antiguo estado principesco de Jammu y Cachemira . Es una disputa sobre la región que se intensificó en tres guerras entre India y Pakistán y varias otras escaramuzas armadas. India controla aproximadamente el 55% de la superficie terrestre de la región que incluye Jammu , el valle de Cachemira , la mayor parte de Ladakh , el glaciar Siachen , [3] [4] y el 70% de su población; Pakistán controla aproximadamente el 30% de la superficie terrestre que incluye Azad Cachemira y Gilgit-Baltistán ; y China controla el 15% restante de la superficie terrestre, que incluye la región de Aksai Chin , el Tracto Trans-Karakoram , en su mayor parte deshabitado , y parte del sector Demchok . [3] [nota 1]

Después de la partición de la India y una rebelión en los distritos occidentales del estado , las milicias tribales paquistaníes invadieron Cachemira, lo que llevó al gobernante hindú de Jammu y Cachemira a unirse a la India. [11] La guerra indo-paquistaní resultante terminó con un alto el fuego mediado por la ONU a lo largo de una línea que finalmente se denominó Línea de Control . [12] [13] En 1962, China invadió y libró una guerra con la India a lo largo de la disputada frontera indochina, incluso en Ladakh administrada por la India , lo que marcó su entrada en el conflicto de Cachemira. [14] En 1965, Pakistán intentó infiltrarse en Cachemira administrada por la India para precipitar una insurgencia allí, lo que resultó en otra guerra librada por los dos países por la región. Después de más combates durante la guerra de 1971 , el Acuerdo de Simla estableció formalmente la Línea de Control entre los territorios bajo control indio y paquistaní. [15] [16] En 1999, un conflicto armado entre los dos países estalló nuevamente en Kargil sin ningún efecto sobre el status quo . [17]

En 1989, estalló una insurgencia armada contra el gobierno indio en el valle de Cachemira administrado por la India , basada en demandas de autodeterminación después de años de privación de derechos políticos y alienación, con apoyo logístico de Pakistán. [18] [19] [20] [21] Encabezada por un grupo que buscaba la creación de un estado independiente, la insurgencia fue asumida dentro de los primeros años de su estallido por grupos yihadistas respaldados por Pakistán que luchaban por fusionarse con Pakistán. [22] [23] [24] [25] La militancia continuó durante la década de 1990 y principios de la década de 2000, momento en el que estaba siendo impulsada en gran medida por militantes extranjeros [26] [27] y se extendió a partes de la región adyacente de Jammu [28] [29] [30] [31] —pero declinó después. La insurgencia fue combatida activamente en Jammu y Ladakh, donde reavivó las antiguas demandas de autonomía respecto del dominio de Cachemira y una mayor integración con la India. [32] [33] [34] [35] Los combates provocaron decenas de miles de víctimas, tanto combatientes como civiles. La militancia también provocó el éxodo de los hindúes de Cachemira del valle de Cachemira, predominantemente musulmán, a principios de los años 1990. La contrainsurgencia por parte del gobierno indio se acompañó de la represión de la población local y una mayor militarización de la región, mientras varios grupos insurgentes participaban en una variedad de actividades delictivas. [36] [37] [38] [39] La década de 2010 estuvo marcada por disturbios civiles en el valle de Cachemira, alimentados por una militarización inquebrantable, violaciones de derechos, mal gobierno y corrupción, [40] [41] en los que los jóvenes locales que protestaban se enfrentaron violentamente con las fuerzas de seguridad indias, [42] con manifestaciones a gran escala que tuvieron lugar durante los disturbios de 2010 desencadenados por un encuentro supuestamente escenificado, [43] [44] y durante los disturbios de 2016 que se produjeron tras el asesinato de un joven militante de un grupo yihadista , que había ganado popularidad a través de las redes sociales. [45] [46] [47] Más disturbios en la región estallaron después del ataque de Pulwama en 2019. [ 48]

Según los académicos, las fuerzas indias han cometido muchos abusos de los derechos humanos y actos de terrorismo contra la población civil de Cachemira, incluyendo ejecuciones extrajudiciales , violaciones , torturas y desapariciones forzadas . [49] [50] Según Amnistía Internacional , ningún miembro del ejército indio desplegado en Jammu y Cachemira ha sido juzgado por violaciones de los derechos humanos en un tribunal civil hasta junio de 2015 , aunque se han celebrado cortes marciales militares. [51] Amnistía Internacional también ha acusado al gobierno indio de negarse a procesar a los autores de abusos en la región. [52] Además, ha habido casos de abusos de los derechos humanos en Azad Cachemira , incluyendo, entre otros, represiones políticas y desapariciones forzadas. [53] Brad Adams , director para Asia de Human Rights Watch, dijo en 2006 que "aunque 'Azad' significa 'libre', los residentes de Azad Cachemira no son nada libres. Las autoridades paquistaníes gobiernan Azad Cachemira con estrictos controles sobre las libertades básicas". [54] Los informes de la OACDH sobre Cachemira publicaron dos informes sobre "la situación de los derechos humanos en la Cachemira administrada por la India y la Cachemira administrada por Pakistán".

Conflicto entre India y Pakistán

Fondo

El Imperio afgano durrani gobernó Cachemira desde 1752 [55] hasta su conquista en 1819 por el Imperio sij bajo el mando de Ranjit Singh . El rajá de Jammu Gulab Singh , que era vasallo del Imperio sij y un noble influyente en la corte sij, envió expediciones a varios reinos fronterizos y terminó rodeando Cachemira en 1840. Después de la Primera Guerra Anglo-Sikh (1845-1846), Cachemira fue cedida en virtud del Tratado de Lahore a la Compañía de las Indias Orientales , que la transfirió a Gulab Singh a través del Tratado de Amritsar , a cambio del pago de la indemnización adeudada por el imperio sij. Gulab Singh tomó el título de maharajá de Jammu y Cachemira.

Desde 1846 hasta la partición de la India en 1947, Cachemira fue gobernada por maharajás de la dinastía Dogra de Gulab Singh , como un estado principesco bajo la supremacía británica . El Raj británico manejaba la defensa, los asuntos externos y las comunicaciones para el estado principesco y situó a un residente británico en Srinagar para supervisar la administración interna. Según el censo de 1941, la población del estado era 77 por ciento musulmana, 20 por ciento hindú y 3 por ciento de otros (sijs y budistas). [56] A pesar de su mayoría musulmana, el gobierno principesco era un estado dominado abrumadoramente por los hindúes. [57] La ​​mayoría musulmana sufría los altos impuestos de la administración y tenía pocas oportunidades de crecimiento y progreso. [58]

Partición e invasión

El gobierno británico en el subcontinente indio terminó en 1947 con la creación de nuevos estados: los dominios de Pakistán y la India , como estados sucesores de la India británica . La supremacía británica sobre los 562 estados principescos indios terminó. Según la Ley de Independencia de la India de 1947 , "la soberanía de Su Majestad sobre los Estados indios caduca, y con ella, todos los tratados y acuerdos vigentes en la fecha de aprobación de esta Ley entre Su Majestad y los gobernantes de los Estados indios". [59] [60] A partir de entonces, los estados quedaron libres para elegir si unirse a la India o Pakistán o permanecer independientes. Jammu y Cachemira, el mayor de los estados principescos, tenía una población predominantemente musulmana gobernada por el maharajá hindú Hari Singh . Decidió permanecer independiente porque esperaba que los musulmanes del estado no estuvieran contentos con la adhesión a la India, y los hindúes y los sikhs se volverían vulnerables si se unía a Pakistán. [61] [62] El 11 de agosto, el maharajá destituyó a su primer ministro, Ram Chandra Kak , que había defendido la independencia. Los observadores y los académicos interpretan esta acción como una inclinación hacia la adhesión a la India. [62] [63] Los paquistaníes decidieron adelantarse a esta posibilidad arrebatando Cachemira por la fuerza si era necesario. [64]

Pakistán hizo varios esfuerzos para persuadir al maharajá de Cachemira para que se uniera a Pakistán. En julio de 1947, se cree que Mohammad Ali Jinnah le escribió al maharajá prometiéndole "todo tipo de trato favorable", a lo que siguieron las presiones de los líderes del partido de Jinnah, la Liga Musulmana , ante el Primer Ministro del Estado . Ante la indecisión del maharajá sobre la adhesión, los agentes de la Liga Musulmana trabajaron clandestinamente en Poonch para alentar a los musulmanes locales a una revuelta armada , explotando un malestar interno relacionado con quejas económicas. Las autoridades del Punjab paquistaní libraron una "guerra privada" al obstruir el suministro de combustible y productos básicos al Estado. Más tarde, en septiembre, funcionarios de la Liga Musulmana en la provincia de la Frontera Noroeste , incluido el Ministro Principal Abdul Qayyum Khan , ayudaron y posiblemente organizaron una invasión a gran escala de Cachemira por parte de miembros de la tribu pastún . [65] : 61  [66] Varias fuentes indican que los planes fueron ultimados el 12 de septiembre por el Primer Ministro Liaquat Ali Khan , basándose en propuestas preparadas por el Coronel Akbar Khan y Sardar Shaukat Hayat Khan . Un plan exigía organizar una insurgencia armada en los distritos occidentales del estado y el otro organizar una invasión tribal pastún . Ambos planes se pusieron en marcha. [67] [68]

La división de Jammu del estado se vio envuelta en la violencia de la Partición. Un gran número de hindúes y sikhs de Rawalpindi y Sialkot comenzaron a llegar en marzo de 1947 tras las masacres en Rawalpindi , trayendo "historias desgarradoras de atrocidades musulmanas". Según Ilyas Chattha, esto provocó una contraviolencia contra los musulmanes de Jammu , que tenía "muchos paralelos con la de Sialkot". [69] La violencia en los distritos orientales de Jammu que comenzó en septiembre, se convirtió en una "masacre" generalizada de musulmanes alrededor de octubre, organizada por las tropas Hindu Dogra del Estado y perpetrada por los hindúes locales, incluidos miembros del Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh , y los hindúes y sikhs desplazados de las áreas vecinas de Pakistán Occidental. El propio Maharajá estuvo implicado en algunos casos. Un gran número de musulmanes fueron asesinados. Otros huyeron a Pakistán Occidental, algunos de los cuales se dirigieron a los distritos occidentales de Poonch y Mirpur, que estaban en rebelión . Muchos de estos musulmanes creían que el maharajá ordenó las matanzas en Jammu, lo que instigó a los musulmanes de Pakistán Occidental a unirse al levantamiento en Poonch y ayudar en la formación del gobierno de Azad Cachemira. [70]

Las fuerzas rebeldes en los distritos occidentales de Jammu se organizaron bajo el liderazgo de Sardar Ibrahim , un líder de la Conferencia Musulmana . Tomaron el control de la mayor parte de las partes occidentales del estado el 22 de octubre. El 24 de octubre, formaron un gobierno provisional de Azad Cachemira (Cachemira libre) con sede en Palandri . [71]

Adhesión

El Instrumento de Adhesión de Cachemira a la India fue aceptado por el Gobernador General de la India, Lord Mountbatten .

El juez Mehr Chand Mahajan , candidato del maharajá para ser su próximo primer ministro, visitó a Nehru y Patel en Delhi el 19 de septiembre de 1947, solicitando suministros esenciales que habían sido bloqueados por Pakistán desde principios de septiembre. Comunicó la voluntad del maharajá de adherirse a la India. Sin embargo, Nehru exigió que el líder político encarcelado, el jeque Abdullah , fuera liberado de la prisión y se involucrara en el gobierno estatal. Sólo entonces permitiría que el estado se adhiriera. [72] [73] El maharajá liberó al jeque Abdullah el 29 de septiembre. [63]

Las tropas del maharajá no pudieron resistir el ataque de la milicia tribal en septiembre y octubre de 1947; estaban muy superadas en número y armamento por las milicias tribales, y también se enfrentaban a rebeliones internas de las tropas musulmanas. El maharajá hizo una petición urgente a Delhi para obtener ayuda militar. Ante la insistencia del gobernador general Lord Mountbatten , la India exigió al maharajá que se adhiriera antes de poder enviar tropas. En consecuencia, el maharajá firmó un instrumento de adhesión el 26 de octubre de 1947, que fue aceptado por el gobernador general al día siguiente. [74] [75] [76] Si bien el Gobierno de la India aceptó la adhesión, añadió la condición de que se sometería a una "remisión al pueblo" después de que el estado quedara libre de invasores, ya que "sólo el pueblo, no el maharajá, podía decidir dónde querían vivir los cachemires"; fue una adhesión provisional. [77] [78] [nota 2] El mayor partido político, la Conferencia Nacional , encabezado por el jeque Abdullah, respaldó la adhesión. En palabras del líder de la Conferencia Nacional , Syed Mir Qasim , la India tenía la justificación "legal" y "moral" para enviar al ejército gracias a la adhesión del maharajá y al apoyo del pueblo. [80] [nota 3]

Las tropas indias, que fueron trasladadas por aire en las primeras horas del 27 de octubre, aseguraron el aeropuerto de Srinagar. La ciudad de Srinagar estaba siendo patrullada por voluntarios de la Conferencia Nacional, en la que hindúes y sikhs se desplazaban libremente entre los musulmanes, una "visión increíble" para los periodistas visitantes. La Conferencia Nacional también colaboró ​​con el ejército indio para asegurar la ciudad. [81]

En el norte del estado se encontraba la Agencia Gilgit , que había sido arrendada por la India británica pero devuelta al maharajá poco antes de la Independencia. La población de Gilgit no estaba a favor de la adhesión del Estado a la India. Al percibir su descontento, el mayor William Brown, comandante del maharajá de los Scouts de Gilgit , se amotinó el 1 de noviembre de 1947, derrocando al gobernador Ghansara Singh. El golpe de estado incruento fue planeado por Brown hasta el último detalle bajo el nombre en clave de " Datta Khel " . Los líderes locales de Gilgit formaron un gobierno provisional ( Aburi Hakoomat ), nombrando al rajá Shah Rais Khan como presidente y a Mirza Hassan Khan como comandante en jefe. Pero el mayor Brown ya había telegrafiado a Khan Abdul Qayyum Khan pidiendo a Pakistán que asumiera el poder. Según el historiador Yaqoob Khan Bangash, el gobierno provisional carecía de influencia sobre la población, que tenía intensos sentimientos pro-Pakistán. [82] El agente político de Pakistán, Khan Mohammad Alam Khan, llegó el 16 de noviembre y se hizo cargo de la administración de Gilgit. [83] [84] Según varios estudiosos, los habitantes de Gilgit, así como los de Chilas, Koh Ghizr, Ishkoman, Yasin, Punial, Hunza y Nagar, se unieron a Pakistán por elección propia. [85] [86] [87] [88]

Guerra indo-paquistaní de 1947

Las fuerzas rebeldes de los distritos occidentales del Estado y los miembros de la tribu pakhtoon paquistaní [nota 4] [nota 5] avanzaron rápidamente hacia el sector de Baramulla . En el valle de Cachemira, los voluntarios de la Conferencia Nacional trabajaron con el ejército indio para expulsar a los "asaltantes". [nota 6] La Primera Guerra de Cachemira resultante duró hasta fines de 1948.

El ejército paquistaní proporcionó armas, municiones y suministros a las fuerzas rebeldes, que fueron bautizadas como el "Ejército Azad". Los oficiales del ejército paquistaní se pusieron "convenientemente" de permiso y los ex oficiales del Ejército Nacional Indio fueron reclutados para comandar las fuerzas. En mayo de 1948, el ejército paquistaní entró oficialmente en el conflicto, en teoría para defender las fronteras de Pakistán, pero hizo planes para avanzar hacia Jammu y cortar las líneas de comunicación de las fuerzas indias en el valle de Mendhar . [89] C. Christine Fair señala que este fue el comienzo del uso de fuerzas irregulares y "guerra asimétrica" ​​por parte de Pakistán para asegurar una negación plausible , lo que ha continuado desde entonces. [90]

El 1 de noviembre de 1947, Mountbatten voló a Lahore para una conferencia con Jinnah , proponiendo que, en todos los estados principescos donde el gobernante no accediera a un Dominio correspondiente a la población mayoritaria (que habría incluido Junagadh , Hyderabad y Cachemira), la adhesión debería decidirse por una "referencia imparcial a la voluntad del pueblo". Jinnah rechazó la oferta. Según el erudito indio AG Noorani , Jinnah terminó desperdiciando su influencia. [91]

Los soldados y miembros de tribus paquistaníes capturaron Rajouri el 7 de noviembre de 1947, lo que dio inicio a las masacres de Rajouri, en las que murieron más de 30.000 hindúes y sikhs, habitantes locales y refugiados de la Partición. Las masacres no terminarían hasta que el ejército indio recuperó Rajouri en abril de 1948. [92]

El 25 de noviembre, los miembros de las tribus y los soldados paquistaníes atacaron y tomaron Mirpur , y comenzaron la Masacre de hindúes y sijs de la zona. Se estima que más de 20.000 hindúes y sijs fueron asesinados en total. También se cometieron violaciones y otros crímenes después de la masacre. [93]

Según Jinnah, la India obtuvo la adhesión mediante "fraude y violencia". [94] Un plebiscito era innecesario y los estados debían adherirse de acuerdo con su población mayoritaria. Estaba dispuesto a instar a Junagadh a adherirse a la India a cambio de Cachemira. Para un plebiscito, Jinnah exigió la retirada simultánea de las tropas porque sentía que "el musulmán medio nunca tendría el coraje de votar por Pakistán" en presencia de tropas indias y con el jeque Abdullah en el poder. Cuando Mountbatten replicó que el plebiscito podría ser realizado por las Naciones Unidas, Jinnah, esperando que la invasión tuviera éxito y que Pakistán pudiera perder un plebiscito, rechazó nuevamente la propuesta, afirmando que los Gobernadores Generales deberían realizarlo en su lugar. Mountbatten señaló que era insostenible dada su posición constitucional y la India no aceptó la demanda de Jinnah de destituir al jeque Abdullah. [95] [nota 7]

Los primeros ministros Nehru y Liaquat Ali Khan se reunieron nuevamente en diciembre, cuando Nehru informó a Khan de la intención de la India de remitir la disputa a las Naciones Unidas en virtud del artículo 35 de la Carta de las Naciones Unidas, que permite a los Estados miembros llevar a la atención del Consejo de Seguridad situaciones "que probablemente pongan en peligro el mantenimiento de la paz internacional". [96]

Nehru y otros dirigentes indios temían desde 1947 que la adhesión "temporal" a la India pudiera irritar a la mayoría de los musulmanes de Cachemira. El vicepresidente Menon, secretario del Ministerio de Estado de Patel, admitió en una entrevista en 1964 que la India había sido absolutamente deshonesta en la cuestión del plebiscito. [97] El fiscal general Noorani culpa a muchos dirigentes indios y paquistaníes de la miseria del pueblo cachemir, pero dice que Nehru era el principal culpable. [98]

Mediación de la ONU

La India buscó una solución al problema en el Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU , a pesar de la oposición del jeque Abdullah . [nota 6] Tras la creación de la Comisión de las Naciones Unidas para la India y el Pakistán (UNCIP), el Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU aprobó la Resolución 47 el 21 de abril de 1948. La medida exigía un alto el fuego inmediato y pedía al Gobierno de Pakistán «que garantizara la retirada del estado de Jammu y Cachemira de los miembros de las tribus y los nacionales paquistaníes que no residieran allí normalmente y que hubieran entrado en el estado con el propósito de luchar». También pedía al Gobierno de la India que redujera sus fuerzas al mínimo, tras lo cual se deberían poner en práctica las circunstancias para la celebración de un plebiscito «sobre la cuestión de la adhesión del estado a la India o el Pakistán». Sin embargo, no fue hasta el 1 de enero de 1949 que se pudo poner en vigor el alto el fuego, firmado por el general Douglas Gracey en nombre de Pakistán y el general Roy Bucher en nombre de la India. [99] Sin embargo, tanto la India como el Pakistán no lograron llegar a un acuerdo de tregua debido a diferencias en la interpretación del procedimiento y el alcance de la desmilitarización. Un punto de conflicto fue si el ejército de Azad Cachemira debía disolverse durante la etapa de tregua o en la etapa del plebiscito. [100]

La Comisión de las Naciones Unidas sobre las Políticas Indígenas realizó tres visitas al subcontinente entre 1948 y 1949, tratando de encontrar una solución que fuera aceptable tanto para la India como para el Pakistán. [101] En agosto de 1948, informó al Consejo de Seguridad que "la presencia de tropas del Pakistán" en el interior de Cachemira representaba un "cambio material" en la situación. Se propuso un proceso de dos partes para la retirada de las fuerzas. En la primera parte, el Pakistán debía retirar sus fuerzas, así como a otros nacionales paquistaníes, del Estado. En la segunda parte, "cuando la Comisión haya notificado al Gobierno de la India" que se había completado la retirada del Pakistán, la India debía retirar la mayor parte de sus fuerzas. Una vez que se hubieran completado ambas retiradas, se celebraría un plebiscito. [102] [nota 8] La resolución fue aceptada por la India, pero rechazada en la práctica por el Pakistán. [nota 9]

El gobierno indio consideró que estaba en posesión legal de Jammu y Cachemira en virtud de la adhesión del Estado. La ayuda prestada por Pakistán a las fuerzas rebeldes y a las tribus pakhtunes se consideró un acto hostil y la posterior participación del ejército pakistaní se interpretó como una invasión del territorio indio. Desde la perspectiva india, el plebiscito tenía por objeto confirmar la adhesión, que ya estaba completa en todos los aspectos, y Pakistán no podía aspirar a una posición de igualdad con la India en la contienda. [103]

El Gobierno de Pakistán sostuvo que el estado de Jammu y Cachemira había firmado un acuerdo de suspensión de pagos con Pakistán que le impedía celebrar acuerdos con otros países. También sostuvo que el maharajá ya no tenía autoridad para ejecutar la adhesión porque su pueblo se había rebelado y él había tenido que huir de la capital. Creía que el movimiento de Azad Cachemira, así como las incursiones tribales, eran autóctonas y espontáneas, y que la asistencia que Pakistán les prestaba no estaba sujeta a críticas. [104]

En resumen, la India exigía un trato asimétrico de los dos países en los acuerdos de retirada, considerando a Pakistán como un "agresor", mientras que Pakistán insistía en la paridad. Los mediadores de la ONU tendían a la paridad, lo que no satisfacía a la India. [105] Al final, nunca se llevó a cabo ninguna retirada: la India insistía en que Pakistán tenía que retirarse primero y Pakistán sostenía que no había garantías de que la India se retirara después. [106] No se pudo llegar a ningún acuerdo entre los dos países sobre el proceso de desmilitarización. [nota 10]

El historiador de la Guerra Fría Robert J. McMahon afirma que los funcionarios estadounidenses culparon cada vez más a la India de rechazar varias propuestas de tregua de la UNCIP con el argumento de varios tecnicismos jurídicos dudosos, sólo para evitar un plebiscito. McMahon añade que tenían "razón", ya que una mayoría musulmana hizo que votar a favor de unirse a Pakistán fuera el "resultado más probable" y que posponer el plebiscito serviría a los intereses de la India. [107]

Los académicos han comentado que el fracaso de los esfuerzos de mediación del Consejo de Seguridad se debió al hecho de que el Consejo consideró la cuestión como una disputa puramente política sin investigar sus fundamentos legales. [nota 11] Documentos británicos desclasificados indican que Gran Bretaña y los EE. UU. habían dejado que sus cálculos de la Guerra Fría influyeran en su política en la ONU, haciendo caso omiso de los méritos del caso. [nota 12]

Plan Dixon

Sir Owen Dixon , mediador de la ONU

La UNCIP nombró a su sucesor, Sir Owen Dixon , para implementar la desmilitarización antes de un plebiscito estatal sobre la base del plan del general McNaughton, y para recomendar soluciones a los dos gobiernos. [108] [109] [110] Los esfuerzos de Dixon para un plebiscito estatal fracasaron debido al constante rechazo de la India a las diversas propuestas alternativas de desmilitarización, por lo que Dixon reprendió a la India con dureza. [111]

Dixon presentó entonces una propuesta alternativa, conocida ampliamente como el plan Dixon. Dixon no consideraba que el estado de Jammu y Cachemira fuera una unidad homogénea y, por lo tanto, propuso que el plebiscito se limitara al valle. Dixon estuvo de acuerdo en que la gente de Jammu y Ladakh estaba claramente a favor de la India; con igual claridad, los habitantes de Azad Cachemira y las áreas del norte querían ser parte de Pakistán. Esto dejó al valle de Cachemira y "quizás a algún país adyacente" alrededor de Muzaffarabad en un terreno político incierto. [112] Pakistán no aceptó este plan porque creía que el compromiso de la India con un plebiscito para todo el estado no debía abandonarse. [113] [114] [115]

Dixon también tenía preocupaciones de que los cachemires, al no ser gente de espíritu alegre, pudieran votar por miedo o bajo influencias indebidas. [116] Tras las objeciones de Pakistán, propuso que la administración del jeque Abdullah se mantuviera "en comisión" (en suspenso) mientras se celebraba el plebiscito. Esto no era aceptable para la India, que rechazó el plan de Dixon. Otro motivo para el rechazo de la India al plebiscito limitado fue que quería que las tropas indias permanecieran en Cachemira por "motivos de seguridad", pero no permitiría que las tropas paquistaníes lo hicieran. Sin embargo, el plan de Dixon había encapsulado una retirada de ambas partes. Dixon había creído que una administración neutral sería esencial para un plebiscito justo. [117]

Dixon llegó a la conclusión de que India nunca aceptaría unas condiciones y una desmilitarización que garantizaran un plebiscito libre y justo. [118] [119] El fracaso de Dixon también agravó las dudas del embajador estadounidense Loy Henderson sobre la sinceridad india y aconsejó a Estados Unidos que mantuviera distancia de la disputa de Cachemira, lo que Estados Unidos hizo posteriormente, y dejara el asunto en manos de las naciones de la Commonwealth para que intervinieran. [120]

Enfrentamiento militar de 1950

La convocatoria de la Asamblea Constituyente en la Cachemira india en julio de 1950 resultó polémica. Pakistán protestó ante el Consejo de Seguridad, que informó a la India de que esta decisión entraba en conflicto con los compromisos de las partes. La Conferencia Nacional rechazó esta resolución y Nehru la apoyó diciéndole al Dr. Graham que no recibiría ninguna ayuda para implementar la Resolución. [121] Un mes después, Nehru adoptó una actitud más conciliadora y dijo en una conferencia de prensa que las acciones de la Asamblea no afectarían el compromiso plebiscitario de la India. La demora causó frustración en Pakistán y Zafrullah Khan continuó diciendo que Pakistán no mantenía una mentalidad guerrera, pero que no sabía a qué llevaría la intransigencia india a Pakistán y a su pueblo. La India acusó a Pakistán de violaciones del alto el fuego y Nehru se quejó de "propaganda belicista" en Pakistán. [122] El 15 de julio de 1951, el Primer Ministro paquistaní se quejó de que la mayor parte del Ejército indio estaba concentrado en la frontera entre India y Pakistán. [123]

Los primeros ministros de ambos países intercambiaron telegramas acusándose mutuamente de malas intenciones. Liaquat Ali Khan rechazó la acusación de Nehru de propaganda belicista. [nota 13] Khan la calificó de distorsión del descontento de la prensa paquistaní con la India por su persistencia en no celebrar un plebiscito y de tergiversación del deseo de liberar Cachemira como una guerra contra la India. Khan también acusó a la India de aumentar su presupuesto de defensa en los últimos dos años, acusación que Nehru rechazó al tiempo que expresaba su sorpresa por el rechazo de Khan a la "virulenta" propaganda antiindia. Khan y Nehru también discreparon sobre los detalles de las declaraciones de no guerra. Khan presentó entonces un plan de paz que exigía la retirada de las tropas, el asentamiento de Cachemira mediante un plebiscito, la renuncia al uso de la fuerza, el fin de la propaganda bélica y la firma de un pacto de no guerra. [124] Nehru no aceptó el segundo y tercer componente de este plan de paz. El plan de paz fracasó. Si bien un líder de la oposición en Pakistán llamó a la guerra, los líderes tanto de la India como de Pakistán instaron a la calma para evitar un desastre. [125]

La Commonwealth había abordado la cuestión de Cachemira en enero de 1951. El primer ministro australiano, Robert Menzies, sugirió que se estacionara una fuerza de la Commonwealth en Cachemira; que se estacionara una fuerza conjunta indo-paquistaní en Cachemira y que el administrador del plebiscito tuviera derecho a reclutar tropas locales mientras se celebraba el plebiscito. Pakistán aceptó estas propuestas, pero la India las rechazó porque no quería que Pakistán, que a los ojos de la India era el "agresor", tuviera una posición de igualdad. [126] El Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU pidió a la India y al Pakistán que cumplieran las resoluciones del plebiscito que ambos habían aceptado en 1948 y 1949. Estados Unidos y Gran Bretaña propusieron que si los dos no podían llegar a un acuerdo, se consideraría un arbitraje. Pakistán estuvo de acuerdo, pero Nehru dijo que no permitiría que una tercera persona decidiera el destino de cuatro millones de personas. Korbel criticó la postura de la India respecto de una técnica "válida" y "recomendada" de cooperación internacional. [127] [128]

Sin embargo, la paz duró poco. Más tarde, en 1953, el jeque Abdullah, que por entonces estaba a favor de resolver el problema de Cachemira mediante un plebiscito, una idea que era "anatema" para el gobierno indio según el historiador Zutshi, [129] se peleó con el gobierno indio. Fue destituido y encarcelado en agosto de 1953. Su antiguo adjunto, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad , fue nombrado primer ministro y se desplegaron fuerzas de seguridad indias en el valle para controlar las calles. [130] [131]

La oferta plebiscitaria de Nehru

En mayo de 1953, el secretario de Estado de los EE. UU., John Foster Dulles, recomendó que India y Pakistán buscaran una solución bilateral. [132] [133] En esa época, el jeque Abdullah se peleó con el gobierno indio y perdió el apoyo de sus colegas en su gabinete. Fue destituido y encarcelado en agosto de 1953. Su ex viceministro, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad , fue nombrado primer ministro y se desplegaron fuerzas de seguridad indias en el valle para controlar las calles. [130] [131]

Ante la "autoridad limitada" de la India en Cachemira, Nehru decidió que era necesario encontrar una solución. La India no podía mantener Cachemira "a punta de bayoneta". A partir de julio de 1953, volvió a impulsar la opción del plebiscito en las conversaciones con Pakistán. En conversaciones bilaterales celebradas en Delhi en agosto de 1953, propuso que se nombrara un administrador del plebiscito en el plazo de seis meses. Aparte de exigir que el administrador del plebiscito no perteneciera a una de las principales potencias, no puso ninguna otra condición. [130] [131] El historiador Gowher Rizvi señala un "cambio radical" de la posición anterior de la India. "Nehru estaba ahora dispuesto a ofrecer prácticamente todo lo que Pakistán había estado pidiendo desde 1947". [134] Nehru sugirió que el plebiscito podría celebrarse en todas las regiones del estado y que éste podría dividirse en función de los resultados. Estaba abierto a un "enfoque diferente" para la reducción de tropas en el Estado a fin de permitir una votación libre. [130] [131]

El primer ministro paquistaní Bogra pudo regresar a su país triunfante. Sin embargo, ante las preguntas y críticas de sus colegas, su compromiso comenzó a tambalearse. La principal objeción de los líderes paquistaníes fue la exigencia de Nehru de reemplazar al administrador del plebiscito ( el almirante Nimitz , designado por el Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU) por alguien de una potencia neutral más pequeña que no tuviera intereses estratégicos en la región. Los paquistaníes sospecharon motivos siniestros y el tiempo se agotó. [135] [136]

Guerra fría

En febrero de 1954, Estados Unidos anunció que quería brindar ayuda militar a Pakistán. En mayo, Estados Unidos firmó un pacto militar con Pakistán por el cual este país recibiría equipo y entrenamiento militar. El presidente estadounidense intentó aliviar las preocupaciones de la India ofreciéndole armamento similar, pero fue un intento fallido. [137] Las dudas de Nehru sobre el pacto entre Estados Unidos y Pakistán lo hicieron hostil a un plebiscito. [138] En consecuencia, cuando se concluyó el pacto en mayo de 1954, Nehru retiró la oferta de plebiscito y declaró que el statu quo era la única opción restante. [139]

La retirada de Nehru de la opción del plebiscito fue un duro golpe para todos los implicados. [140] Los estudiosos han sugerido que la India nunca tuvo la intención seria de celebrar un plebiscito, y que la retirada llegó a significar una reivindicación de su creencia. [141] [145] [146]

El escritor indio Nirad C. Chaudhuri ha observado que la aceptación por parte de Pakistán del apoyo occidental garantizó su supervivencia. [147] Él creía que la India tenía la intención de invadir Pakistán dos o tres veces durante el período 1947-1954. Para el académico Wayne Wilcox, Pakistán fue capaz de encontrar apoyo externo para contrarrestar la "superioridad hindú", volviendo a la posición de seguridad grupal de principios del siglo XX. [148]

Guerra chino-india

En 1962, las tropas de la República Popular China y la India se enfrentaron en territorio reclamado por ambas. China obtuvo una rápida victoria en la guerra. [149] Aksai Chin , parte de la cual estaba bajo jurisdicción china antes de la guerra, [150] [151] [152] [153] permaneció bajo control chino desde entonces. Otra zona más pequeña, el Trans-Karakoram , fue demarcada como la Línea de Control (LOC) entre China y Pakistán, aunque parte del territorio del lado chino es reclamado por la India como parte de Cachemira. La línea que separa a la India de China en esta región se conoce como la " Línea de Control Actual ". [154]

Operación Gibraltar y la guerra indo-pakistaní de 1965

Tras su fracaso en la conquista de Cachemira en 1947, Pakistán apoyó numerosas "células encubiertas" en Cachemira utilizando agentes basados ​​en su embajada de Nueva Delhi. Después de su pacto militar con los Estados Unidos en la década de 1950, estudió intensamente la guerra de guerrillas mediante el compromiso con el ejército estadounidense. En 1965, decidió que las condiciones estaban maduras para una guerra de guerrillas exitosa en Cachemira. Con el nombre en código de " Operación Gibraltar ", se enviaron compañías a la Cachemira administrada por la India, la mayoría de cuyos miembros eran razakars (voluntarios) y muyahidines reclutados en la Cachemira administrada por Pakistán y entrenados por el ejército. Estas fuerzas irregulares fueron apoyadas por oficiales y hombres de la Infantería Ligera del Norte paramilitar y los Fusileros Azad de Cachemira , así como comandos del Grupo de Servicios Especiales . Se estima que alrededor de 30.000 infiltrados fueron enviados en agosto de 1965 como parte de la "Operación Gibraltar". [155]

El plan era que los infiltrados se mezclaran con la población local y la incitaran a la rebelión. Mientras tanto, comenzaría la guerra de guerrillas, destruyendo puentes, túneles y carreteras, así como instalaciones y aeródromos del ejército indio, creando las condiciones para una "insurrección armada" en Cachemira. [156] Si el intento fracasaba, Pakistán esperaba haber llamado la atención internacional sobre la cuestión de Cachemira. [157] Utilizando las sofisticadas armas recién adquiridas a través de la ayuda estadounidense, Pakistán creía que podría lograr victorias tácticas en una guerra rápida y limitada. [158]

Sin embargo, la "Operación Gibraltar" terminó en fracaso ya que los cachemires no se rebelaron. En cambio, entregaron a los infiltrados a las autoridades indias en cantidades sustanciales, y el ejército indio terminó luchando contra los regulares del ejército paquistaní. Pakistán afirmó que los hombres capturados eran "luchadores por la libertad" cachemires, una afirmación que fue desmentida por los medios internacionales. [159] [nota 14] El 1 de septiembre, Pakistán lanzó un ataque a través de la línea de alto el fuego, apuntando a Akhnoor en un esfuerzo por cortar las comunicaciones indias en Cachemira. En respuesta, India amplió la guerra lanzando un ataque al Punjab paquistaní a través de la frontera internacional. La guerra duró hasta el 23 de septiembre, terminando en un punto muerto. Tras el Acuerdo de Tashkent , ambas partes se retiraron a sus posiciones previas al conflicto y acordaron no interferir en los asuntos internos del otro.

Guerra indo-pakistaní de 1971 y Acuerdo de Simla

La línea de control entre India y Pakistán acordada en el Acuerdo de Simla (Mapa de la ONU)

La guerra indo-pakistaní de 1971 supuso una derrota para Pakistán y una rendición militar en Pakistán Oriental . Bangladesh se creó como un estado independiente con el apoyo de la India y la India emergió como una clara potencia regional en el sur de Asia. [160]

Se celebró una cumbre bilateral en Simla como seguimiento de la guerra, donde India presionó por la paz en el sur de Asia. [161] [162] En juego estaban 5.139 millas cuadradas (13.310 km2 ) del territorio de Pakistán capturado por India durante el conflicto, y más de 90.000 prisioneros de guerra retenidos en Bangladesh. India estaba dispuesta a devolverlos a cambio de una "solución duradera" a la cuestión de Cachemira. El diplomático JN Dixit afirma que las negociaciones en Simla fueron dolorosas y tortuosas, y casi fracasaron. El punto muerto se rompió en una reunión personal entre los primeros ministros Zulfikar Ali Bhutto e Indira Gandhi , donde Bhutto reconoció que la cuestión de Cachemira debería resolverse finalmente y eliminarse como un obstáculo en las relaciones entre India y Pakistán; que la línea de alto el fuego, que pasaría a llamarse Línea de Control , podría convertirse gradualmente en una frontera de iure entre India y Pakistán; y que tomaría medidas para integrar las partes de Jammu y Cachemira controladas por Pakistán en los territorios federales de Pakistán. [161] Sin embargo, solicitó que la declaración formal del Acuerdo no incluyera una solución final de la disputa de Cachemira, ya que pondría en peligro a su incipiente gobierno civil y llevaría a militares y otros elementos de línea dura al poder en Pakistán. [163]

En consecuencia, los dos países formularon y firmaron el Acuerdo de Simla , por el cual los países resolvieron resolver sus diferencias por medios pacíficos mediante negociaciones bilaterales y mantener la santidad de la Línea de Control. No se descartaron las negociaciones multilaterales, pero se condicionaron a que ambas partes estuvieran de acuerdo con ellas. [164] : 49–50  Para la India, esto significaba el fin de las negociaciones multilaterales de la ONU u otras negociaciones multilaterales. Sin embargo, Pakistán reinterpretó la redacción a la luz de una referencia a la "carta de la ONU" en el acuerdo, y sostuvo que aún podía recurrir a la ONU. Estados Unidos, el Reino Unido y la mayoría de los gobiernos occidentales están de acuerdo con la interpretación de la India. [165]

El Acuerdo de Simla también establecía que las dos partes se reunirían nuevamente para establecer una paz duradera. Al parecer, Bhutto pidió tiempo para preparar al pueblo de Pakistán y a la Asamblea Nacional para un acuerdo final. Los comentaristas indios afirman que no cumplió su promesa. Bhutto dijo a la Asamblea Nacional el 14 de julio que había forjado un acuerdo igualitario a partir de un comienzo desigual y que no había transigido en cuanto al derecho de libre determinación para Jammu y Cachemira. La reunión prevista nunca se llevó a cabo. [166]

Conflicto interno

Movimientos políticos durante el gobierno de Dogra (1846-1947)

En 1932, el jeque Abdullah , un cachemiro, y Chaudhry Ghulam Abbas , un jammuita, lideraron la fundación de la Conferencia Musulmana de Jammu y Cachemira para promover los derechos de los musulmanes en el estado. [167] En 1938, cambiaron el nombre del partido a Conferencia Nacional para que fuera representativo de todos los cachemires independientemente de su religión. [168] [169] La medida acercó a Abdullah a Jawaharlal Nehru , el líder en ascenso del partido del Congreso. [170] La Conferencia Nacional finalmente se convirtió en un miembro destacado de la Conferencia Popular de los Estados de toda la India , una confederación patrocinada por el Congreso de los movimientos políticos en los estados principescos.

Tres años después, se produjeron divisiones dentro de la Conferencia debido a diferencias políticas, regionales e ideológicas. Una facción de la dirigencia del partido se desencantó con las inclinaciones de Abdullah hacia Nehru y el Congreso, y su secularización de la política de Cachemira. [171] [172] [173] [174] En consecuencia, Abbas se separó de la Conferencia Nacional y revivió la antigua Conferencia Musulmana en 1941, en colaboración con Mirwaiz Yusuf Shah . Estos acontecimientos indicaron fisuras entre los cachemires étnicos y los jammuitas, así como entre los hindúes y los musulmanes de Jammu. [175] Los musulmanes de la región de Jammu hablaban punjabi y sentían una mayor afinidad con los musulmanes punjabi que con los cachemires del valle. [176] A su debido tiempo, la Conferencia Musulmana comenzó a alinearse ideológicamente con la Liga Musulmana de toda la India y apoyó su llamado a un "Pakistán" independiente . [171] La Conferencia Musulmana obtuvo apoyo popular entre los musulmanes de la región de Jammu y algunos del Valle. [177] [178] Por el contrario, la Conferencia Nacional de Abdullah gozó de influencia en el Valle. [178] Chitralekha Zutshi afirma que las lealtades políticas de los habitantes de Cachemira del Valle estaban divididas en 1947, pero la Conferencia Musulmana no logró sacar provecho de ello debido a su fraccionamiento y a la falta de un programa político definido. [179]

En 1946, la Conferencia Nacional lanzó el movimiento “Quit Kashmir” (Salid de Cachemira), en el que pedía al maharajá que entregara el poder al pueblo. El movimiento fue criticado por la Conferencia Musulmana, que acusó a Abdullah de hacerlo para aumentar su propia popularidad, que se estaba debilitando debido a su postura pro-India. En cambio, la Conferencia Musulmana lanzó una “campaña de acción” similar al programa de la Liga Musulmana en la India británica. Tanto Abdullah como Abbas fueron encarcelados. [180] El 22 de julio de 1947, la Conferencia Musulmana comenzó a pedir la adhesión del estado a Pakistán. [181]

Los hindúes Dogra de Jammu se organizaron originalmente bajo la bandera de All Jammu and Kashmir Rajya Hindu Sabha , con Prem Nath Dogra como miembro principal. [182] En 1942, Balraj Madhok llegó al estado como pracharak del Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). Estableció sucursales del RSS en Jammu y más tarde en el valle de Cachemira. Prem Nath Dogra también fue el presidente ( sanghchalak ) del RSS en Jammu. [183] ​​[184] En mayo de 1947, después del plan de Partición, el Hindu Sabha dio su apoyo a lo que el Maharaja pudiera decidir con respecto al estatus del estado, lo que en efecto significaba apoyo a la independencia del estado. Sin embargo, después del levantamiento comunal de la Partición y la invasión tribal, su posición cambió a apoyar la adhesión del estado a la India y, posteriormente, la plena integración de Jammu con la India. [185] [186] En noviembre de 1947, poco después de la adhesión del estado a la India, los líderes hindúes lanzaron el Jammu Praja Parishad con el objetivo de lograr la "integración total" de Jammu y Cachemira con la India, oponiéndose al "gobierno anti-Dogra dominado por los comunistas del jeque Abdullah". [183] ​​[187]

Autonomía y plebiscito (1947-1953)

El artículo 370 de la Constitución india otorga un estatus de autonomía especial al estado de Jammu y Cachemira , según el Instrumento de Adhesión . Este artículo especifica que el Estado debe estar de acuerdo con la aplicación de las leyes del parlamento indio, excepto las que se refieren a las comunicaciones, la defensa y los asuntos exteriores. El gobierno central no puede ejercer su poder para interferir en ninguna otra área de gobernanza del estado.

En una emisión del 2 de noviembre de 1947, el Primer Ministro Jawaharlal Nehru anunció que el destino de Cachemira sería decidido en última instancia por el pueblo, una vez que se estableciera la ley y el orden, a través de un referéndum "celebrado bajo auspicios internacionales como las Naciones Unidas". [188] El Gobierno de la India hizo una promesa similar cuando la disputa de Cachemira fue remitida al Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU el 1 de enero de 1948. [188] Según algunos relatos, Mountbatten tenía un acuerdo con Nehru de que más tarde se celebraría un referéndum sobre el futuro de la región. [189]

El jeque Abdullah juró como primer ministro del estado el 17 de marzo de 1948. En 1949, el gobierno indio obligó a Hari Singh a abandonar Jammu y Cachemira y ceder el gobierno al jeque Abdullah. Karan Singh , hijo del antiguo maharajá Hari Singh, fue nombrado Sadr-i-Riyasat (jefe constitucional del estado ) y gobernador del estado.

En 1951 se celebraron elecciones para la Asamblea Constituyente de Jammu y Cachemira , con 75 escaños asignados a la parte de Cachemira administrada por la India y 25 escaños reservados para la parte administrada por Pakistán. La Conferencia Nacional del jeque Abdullah ganó los 75 escaños en una elección amañada . [190] [191] En octubre de 1951, la Conferencia Nacional de Jammu y Cachemira bajo el liderazgo del jeque Abdullah formó la Asamblea Constituyente de Jammu y Cachemira para formular la Constitución del estado. En un principio, el jeque quería que la Asamblea Constituyente decidiera la adhesión del estado, pero Nehru no estuvo de acuerdo y declaró que ese "trato turbio" sería muy malo, ya que el asunto lo estaba decidiendo la ONU. [192]

Se decía que el jeque Abdullah gobernaba el estado de manera antidemocrática y autoritaria durante este período. [193]

Según la historiadora Zutshi, a finales de los años 40, la mayoría de los musulmanes cachemires de la Cachemira india todavía debatían el valor de la asociación del estado con la India o Pakistán. En los años 50, dice, las medidas represivas del gobierno de la Conferencia Nacional y la aparente determinación del estado indio de resolver la adhesión del estado a la India sin tener en cuenta a su pueblo llevaron a los musulmanes cachemires a ensalzar las virtudes de Pakistán y a condenar la arbitrariedad de la India en su ocupación del territorio, e incluso aquellos que habían estado a favor de la India empezaron a hablar en términos de la asociación del estado con Pakistán. [194]

A principios de 1949, el partido nacionalista hindú Jammu Praja Parishad, activo en la región de Jammu, inició una campaña contra las políticas de la Conferencia Nacional gobernante. El gobierno la reprimió rápidamente arrestando a 294 miembros del Praja Parishad, incluido Prem Nath Dogra, su presidente. Aunque se decía que las reformas agrarias de Sheikh habían beneficiado a la gente de las zonas rurales, el Praja Parishad se oponía a la "Ley de abolición de las propiedades terratenientes", diciendo que iba en contra de los derechos constitucionales de la India, ya que implementaba la adquisición de tierras sin compensación. El Praja Parishad también exigía la plena integración con el resto de la India, en directa contradicción con las demandas de la Conferencia Nacional de una autonomía completa del estado. El 15 de enero de 1952, los estudiantes organizaron una manifestación contra el izamiento de la bandera del estado junto con la bandera de la Unión India. Fueron penalizados, lo que dio lugar a una gran procesión el 8 de febrero. Se llamó a los militares y se impuso un toque de queda de 72 horas. N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar , el ministro del Gabinete Central de la India a cargo de los asuntos de Cachemira, vino a negociar la paz, lo que irritó al jeque Abdullah. [195] [191]

Para romper el estancamiento constitucional, Nehru invitó a la Conferencia Nacional a enviar una delegación a Delhi. El "Acuerdo de Delhi de 1952" se formuló para establecer el alcance de la aplicabilidad de la Constitución india a Jammu y Cachemira y la relación entre el Estado y el Centro. Se alcanzó entre Nehru y Abdullah el 24 de julio de 1952. Después de esto, la Asamblea Constituyente abolió la monarquía en Cachemira y adoptó un Jefe de Estado electo ( Sadr-i Riyasat ). Sin embargo, la Asamblea se mostró reacia a implementar las medidas restantes acordadas en el Acuerdo de Delhi. [196] [197]

En 1952, el jeque Abdullah abandonó su postura anterior de apoyar la adhesión a la India para insistir en la autodeterminación de los cachemires. [198]

En noviembre de 1952, el Praja Parishad emprendió una tercera campaña de desobediencia civil, que nuevamente condujo a la represión por parte del gobierno estatal. El Parishad acusó a Abdullah de comunalismo (sectarismo), de favorecer los intereses musulmanes en el estado y sacrificar los intereses de los demás. El Jana Sangh se unió a Hindu Mahasabha y Ram Rajya Parishad para lanzar una agitación paralela en Delhi. En mayo de 1953, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee , un destacado líder indio de la época y fundador del partido nacionalista hindú Bharatiya Jana Sangh (más tarde evolucionado como BJP ), intentó entrar en Jammu y Cachemira después de negarse a obtener un permiso, citando sus derechos como ciudadano indio a visitar cualquier parte del país. Abdullah le prohibió la entrada y lo arrestó de inmediato cuando lo intentó. Se estima que 10.000 activistas fueron encarcelados en Jammu, Punjab y Delhi, incluidos miembros del Parlamento. Desafortunadamente, Mukherjee murió mientras estaba detenido el 23 de junio de 1953, lo que provocó un escándalo en toda la India y precipitó una crisis que se salió de control. [199] [196]

Los observadores afirman que Abdullah se enojó porque sintió que su "poder absoluto" estaba siendo comprometido en la India. [200]

Mientras tanto, la promesa de Nehru de convocar un referéndum para el pueblo de Cachemira no se materializó. El jeque Abdullah defendió la independencia total y supuestamente se unió a los Estados Unidos para conspirar contra la India. [201]

El 8 de agosto de 1953, el jeque Abdullah fue destituido como primer ministro por el Sadr-i-Riyasat Karan Singh bajo la acusación de haber perdido la confianza de su gabinete . Se le negó la oportunidad de demostrar su mayoría en el pleno de la cámara. También fue encarcelado en 1953, mientras que el adjunto disidente del jeque, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, fue nombrado nuevo primer ministro del estado . [202]

Período de integración y ascenso del separatismo en Cachemira (1954-1974)

Según toda la información que tengo, el 95 por ciento de los musulmanes de Cachemira no desean ser ciudadanos indios ni seguir siéndolo. Por lo tanto, dudo de que sea sensato intentar mantener a la gente por la fuerza en un lugar donde no desea quedarse. Esto no puede dejar de tener graves consecuencias políticas a largo plazo, aunque en un primer momento puede resultar beneficioso para la política y agradar a la opinión pública.

Bakshi Mohammad implementó todas las medidas del "Acuerdo de Delhi de 1952". [204] En mayo de 1954, como consecuencia del acuerdo de Delhi, [205] el Presidente de la India dictó la Orden de la Constitución (Aplicación a Jammu y Cachemira) de 1954 , en virtud del Artículo 370, con el consentimiento del Gobierno del Estado de Jammu y Cachemira. En esa orden, se agregó el Artículo 35A a la Constitución de la India para facultar a la legislatura del estado de Jammu y Cachemira a definir a los "residentes permanentes" del estado y otorgarles derechos y privilegios especiales. [206]

El 15 de febrero de 1954, bajo el liderazgo de Bakshi Mohammad, la Asamblea Constituyente de Jammu y Cachemira ratificó la adhesión del estado a la India . [207] [208] El 17 de noviembre de 1956, la Asamblea adoptó la Constitución de Jammu y Cachemira y entró en pleno vigor el 26 de enero de 1957. [209] El 24 de enero de 1957, la ONU aprobó una resolución que establecía que las decisiones de la Asamblea Constituyente no constituirían una disposición final del Estado, que debía llevarse a cabo mediante un plebiscito libre e imparcial. [210]

Mientras tanto, en la región de Azad Jammu y Cachemira administrada por Pakistán , en febrero de 1955 comienza el levantamiento de Poonch contra la destitución de Sardar Ibrahim Khan por parte del gobierno. La rebelión no sería sofocada hasta 1956. [211]

Tras el derrocamiento del jeque Abdullah, su lugarteniente Mirza Afzal Beg formó el Frente Plebiscitario el 9 de agosto de 1955 para luchar por la exigencia del plebiscito y la liberación incondicional del jeque Abdullah. Las actividades del Frente Plebiscitario finalmente condujeron a la institución del infame caso de la Conspiración de Cachemira en 1958 y otros dos casos. El 8 de agosto de 1958, Abdullah fue arrestado por los cargos relacionados con estos casos. [212]

El Ministro del Interior de la India, Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant , durante su visita a Srinagar en 1956, declaró que el Estado de Jammu y Cachemira era parte integral de la India y que no podía haber ninguna posibilidad de un plebiscito para determinar su estatus de nuevo, insinuando que la India resistiría los esfuerzos plebiscitarios de ahí en adelante. [213]

Después de los disturbios masivos debidos a la desaparición de la reliquia sagrada del Santuario de Hazratbal el 27 de diciembre de 1963, el Gobierno del Estado retiró todos los cargos en el caso de la conspiración de Cachemira como decisión diplomática, el 8 de abril de 1964. El jeque Abdullah fue liberado y regresó a Srinagar, donde fue recibido con gran entusiasmo por la gente del valle. Después de su liberación, se reconcilió con Nehru. Nehru pidió al jeque Abdullah que actuara como puente entre la India y Pakistán y que hiciera que el presidente Ayub Khan de Pakistán aceptara venir a Nueva Delhi para las conversaciones para una solución final del problema de Cachemira. El presidente Ayub Khan también envió telegramas a Nehru y al jeque Abdullah con el mensaje de que, como Pakistán también era parte en la disputa de Cachemira, cualquier resolución del conflicto sin su participación no sería aceptable para Pakistán. El jeque Abdullah viajó a Pakistán en la primavera de 1964. El presidente Ayub Khan mantuvo extensas conversaciones con él para explorar diversas vías para resolver el problema de Cachemira y aceptó ir a Delhi a mediados de junio para conversar con Nehru, como él había sugerido. Incluso se fijó la fecha de su visita propuesta y se comunicó a Nueva Delhi. Sin embargo, mientras Abdullah todavía estaba en Pakistán, llegaron noticias de la repentina muerte de Nehru el 27 de mayo de 1964. La iniciativa de paz murió con Nehru. [214]

Tras la muerte de Nehru en 1964, Abdullah estuvo preso entre 1965 y 1968 y en 1971 se exilió de Cachemira durante 18 meses. También se prohibió el Frente Plebiscitario , supuestamente para impedir que él y el Frente Plebiscitario, al que apoyaba, participaran en las elecciones de Cachemira. [215]

El 21 de noviembre de 1964, los artículos 356 y 357 de la Constitución de la India se extendieron al estado, en virtud de los cuales el Gobierno central puede asumir el gobierno del estado y ejercer sus poderes legislativos. El 24 de noviembre de 1964, la Asamblea de Jammu y Cachemira aprobó una enmienda constitucional que cambiaba el cargo electo de Sadr-i-Riyasat por el de "Gobernador" nominado por el gobierno central y cambiaba el nombre de "Primer Ministro" por el de "Ministro Principal", lo que se considera el "fin del camino" del artículo 370 y de la autonomía constitucional garantizada por él. [209] El 3 de enero de 1965, antes de las elecciones a la Asamblea de 1967 , la Conferencia Nacional de Jammu y Cachemira se disolvió y se fusionó con el Congreso Nacional Indio , como una marcada estrategia centralizadora. [216]

Después de la guerra indo-pakistaní de 1965 , los nacionalistas de Cachemira Amanullah Khan y Maqbool Bhat , junto con Hashim Qureshi , formaron en 1966 otro Frente Plebiscitario en Azad Cachemira con un brazo armado llamado Frente de Liberación Nacional (NLF), con el objetivo de liberar Cachemira de la ocupación india y luego liberar todo Jammu y Cachemira. Más tarde, en 1976, Maqbool Bhat es arrestado a su regreso al valle. Amanullah Khan se mudó a Inglaterra y allí el NLF pasó a llamarse Frente de Liberación de Jammu y Cachemira (JKLF).

Poco después de la guerra de 1965, el activista pandit y escritor de Cachemira, Prem Nath Bazaz, escribió que la abrumadora mayoría de los musulmanes de Cachemira no eran amigos de la India y querían deshacerse de la estructura política, pero no querían usar la violencia para este propósito. Añadió: "Haría falta otro cuarto de siglo de represión y un cambio generacional para que el enfoque pacifista se convirtiera decisivamente en lucha armada, calificando a los cachemires de 'secesionistas renuentes'". [217]

En 1966, el líder de la oposición india, Jayaprakash, escribió a la Primera Ministra india, Indira Gandhi, que India gobierna Cachemira por la fuerza. [217]

En 1974, la ley de sujetos estatales fue abolida oficialmente en Gilgit Baltistán, lo que permitía a cualquier paquistaní establecerse y comprar tierras. [218]

Renacimiento de la Conferencia Nacional (1975-1983)

En 1971, la declaración de independencia de Bangladesh fue proclamada el 26 de marzo por el jeque Mujibur Rahman, y posteriormente estalló la Guerra de Liberación de Bangladesh en el antiguo Pakistán Oriental entre Pakistán y Bangladesh, al que más tarde se unió la India, y posteriormente estalló la guerra en la frontera occidental de la India entre India y Pakistán, las cuales culminaron en la creación de Bangladesh .

Se dice que, Sheikh Abdullah, al observar el alarmante giro de los acontecimientos en el subcontinente, se dio cuenta de que para la supervivencia de la región, había una necesidad urgente de dejar de perseguir políticas de confrontación y promover la solución de los problemas mediante un proceso de reconciliación y diálogo. Los críticos de Sheikh sostienen la opinión de que renunció al preciado objetivo del plebiscito para obtener el puesto de Primer Ministro. Comenzó conversaciones con la entonces Primera Ministra Indira Gandhi para normalizar la situación en la región y llegó a un acuerdo con ella, llamado acuerdo Indira-Sheikh de 1975 , renunciando a la demanda de un plebiscito en lugar de que se le diera al pueblo el derecho a autogobernarse por un gobierno elegido democráticamente (como se prevé en el artículo 370 de la Constitución de la India ), en lugar del "gobierno títere" que se dice que había gobernado el estado hasta entonces. [219] Sheikh Abdullah revivió la Conferencia Nacional , y el Frente Plebiscitario de Mirza Afzal Beg se disolvió en el NC . Sheikh asumió nuevamente el cargo de Ministro Principal de Jammu y Cachemira después de 11 años. Más tarde, en 1977, el Gobierno central y el gobernante Partido del Congreso retiraron su apoyo, por lo que la Asamblea Estatal tuvo que ser disuelta y se convocaron elecciones de mitad de período. El partido de Sheikh, la Conferencia Nacional , obtuvo una mayoría (47 de 74 escaños) en las elecciones posteriores, con la promesa de restaurar la autonomía de Jammu y Cachemira, y Sheikh Abdullah fue reelegido como Ministro Principal. La elección de la Asamblea de 1977 se considera la primera elección "libre y justa" en el estado de Jammu y Cachemira. [209] [220] [221]

Permaneció como Ministro Principal de Jammu y Cachemira hasta su muerte en 1982. Más tarde, su hijo mayor, Farooq Abdullah, lo sucedió como Ministro Principal del estado .

Durante las elecciones a la Asamblea de 1983 , Indira Gandhi hizo una campaña agresiva, planteando el fantasma de una "invasión musulmana" en la región de Jammu debido a la Ley de Reubicación, aprobada por el entonces gobierno del CN, que dio a los cachemires que se fueron a Pakistán entre 1947 y 1954 el derecho a regresar, reclamar sus propiedades y reasentarse. Por otro lado, Farooq Abdullah se alió con el Mirwaiz Maulvi Mohammed Farooq para las elecciones y denunció que la autonomía del estado había sido erosionada por sucesivos gobiernos del Partido del Congreso. Las estrategias rindieron dividendos y el Congreso ganó 26 escaños, mientras que el CN ​​consiguió 46. Salvo algún distrito electoral extraño, todas las victorias del Congreso fueron en las regiones de Jammu y Ladakh, mientras que el CN ​​arrasó en el valle de Cachemira. Se dice que estas elecciones consolidaron la polarización política en líneas religiosas en el estado de Jammu y Cachemira. [222] [223]

Tras los resultados de las elecciones de 1983, los nacionalistas hindúes del estado exigían un control más estricto del gobierno central sobre el estado, mientras que los musulmanes de Cachemira querían preservar la autonomía del estado. Los grupos fundamentalistas islámicos clamaban por un plebiscito. Maulvi Farooq cuestionó la afirmación de que ya no había una disputa sobre Cachemira. Dijo que el movimiento popular en favor del plebiscito no moriría, aunque la India creyó que así sería cuando murió el jeque Abdullah. [223]

En 1983, algunos eruditos de la política cachemira testificaron que los cachemires siempre habían querido ser independientes, pero los más serios también se dieron cuenta de que eso no era posible, considerando el tamaño y las fronteras de Cachemira. [223]

Según el historiador Mridu Rai , durante tres décadas los políticos escogidos por Delhi en Cachemira habían apoyado la adhesión del Estado a la India a cambio de generosos desembolsos por parte de Delhi. Rai afirma que se celebraron elecciones estatales en Jammu y Cachemira, pero, a excepción de las elecciones de 1977 y 1983 , ninguna elección estatal fue justa. [224]

El activista pandit de Cachemira Prem Nath Bazaz escribió que si se celebraran elecciones libres, la mayoría de los escaños los ganarían aquellos no amigos de la India. [217]

El ascenso del movimiento separatista y el islamismo (1984-1986)

En la década de 1980, se produjeron en Cachemira protestas cada vez más intensas contra la India. La yihad soviética-afgana y la revolución islámica en Irán se estaban convirtiendo en fuentes de inspiración para un gran número de jóvenes musulmanes de Cachemira. Las autoridades estatales respondieron con un uso cada vez mayor de la fuerza bruta a las simples demandas económicas. Tanto el Frente de Liberación de Jammu y Cachemira (JKLF), partidario de la independencia, como los grupos islamistas pro-Pakistán, incluido el JIJK, movilizaron los sentimientos antiindios, que estaban creciendo rápidamente entre la población de Cachemira. [225] En 1984 se produjo un pronunciado aumento de la violencia terrorista en Cachemira. Cuando el militante del Frente de Liberación de Cachemira Maqbool Bhat fue ejecutado en febrero de 1984, estallaron huelgas y protestas de los nacionalistas de Cachemira en la región. Un gran número de jóvenes de Cachemira participaron en manifestaciones generalizadas contra la India, que se enfrentaron a duras represalias por parte de las fuerzas estatales indias. [226] [227] Los críticos del entonces Ministro Principal, Farooq Abdullah, afirmaron que Abdullah estaba perdiendo el control. Su visita a la Cachemira administrada por Pakistán se convirtió en una vergüenza, donde según Hashim Qureshi , compartió una plataforma con el Frente de Liberación de Cachemira. Aunque Abdullah afirmó que fue en nombre de Indira Gandhi y su padre, para que los sentimientos allí pudieran "conocerse de primera mano", pocas personas le creyeron. También hubo acusaciones de que había permitido que los grupos terroristas de Khalistan se entrenaran en la provincia de Jammu, aunque esas acusaciones nunca se probaron. El 2 de julio de 1984, Ghulam Mohammad Shah , que tenía el apoyo de Indira Gandhi, reemplazó a su cuñado Farooq Abdullah y se convirtió en el ministro principal de Jammu y Cachemira, después de que Abdullah fuera destituido, en lo que se denominó un "golpe" político. [227]

En 1986 algunos miembros del JKLF cruzaron a Pakistán para recibir entrenamiento en armas, pero el Jamaat Islami Jammu Kashmir, que consideraba que el nacionalismo cachemiro contradecía el universalismo islámico y su propio deseo de fusionarse con Pakistán, no apoyó al movimiento JKLF. Incluso ese mismo año, el miembro del Jamaat Syed Ali Shah Geelani, que más tarde se convirtió en partidario de la revuelta armada de Cachemira, instó a que la solución de la cuestión de Cachemira se alcanzara por medios pacíficos y democráticos. [228] Para lograr su objetivo de autodeterminación para el pueblo de Jammu y Cachemira, la posición declarada del Jamaat Islami era que las cuestiones de Cachemira se resolvieran por medios constitucionales y mediante el diálogo. [229]

La administración de Shah, que no tenía el mandato del pueblo, recurrió a los islamistas y opositores de la India, en particular a los molvi Iftikhar Hussain Ansari, Mohammad Shafi Qureshi y Mohinuddin Salati, para ganar algo de legitimidad a través de sentimientos religiosos. Esto dio espacio político a los islamistas que anteriormente habían perdido abrumadoramente, supuestamente debido a un fraude masivo, [230] en las elecciones estatales de 1983. [227] En 1986, Shah decidió construir una mezquita dentro de las instalaciones de un antiguo templo hindú dentro del área de la Nueva Secretaría Civil en Jammu para que estuviera disponible para los empleados musulmanes para el 'Namaz'. La gente de Jammu salió a las calles para protestar contra esta decisión, lo que llevó a un enfrentamiento entre hindúes y musulmanes. [231] A su regreso al valle de Cachemira en febrero de 1986, Gul Shah tomó represalias e incitó a los musulmanes de Cachemira diciendo Islam khatrey mein hey (trad. El Islam está en peligro). Como resultado, la violencia entre comunidades se apoderó de la región, en la que los hindúes fueron el blanco de ataques, especialmente los pandits de Cachemira, quienes más tarde, en el año 1990, huyeron del valle en gran número. Durante los disturbios de Anantnag en febrero de 1986 , aunque ningún hindú fue asesinado, muchas casas y otras propiedades pertenecientes a hindúes fueron saqueadas, quemadas o dañadas. [232] [233]

El shah recurrió al ejército para frenar la violencia contra los hindúes, pero no tuvo demasiado éxito. Su gobierno fue destituido el 12 de marzo de 1986 por el entonces gobernador Jagmohan , tras los disturbios comunales en el sur de Cachemira. Esto llevó a Jagmohan a gobernar el estado directamente.

Se dice que Jagmohan no supo distinguir entre las formas seculares y las expresiones islamistas de la identidad cachemira, y por ello vio esa identidad como una amenaza. Esta falla fue explotada por los islamistas del valle, quienes desafiaron las políticas "nacionalistas hindúes" implementadas durante el mandato de Jagmohan, y de ese modo ganaron impulso. La lucha política fue entonces presentada como un conflicto entre la Nueva Delhi "hindú" (Gobierno central), y sus esfuerzos por imponer su voluntad en el estado, y la Cachemira "musulmana", representada por los islamistas políticos y los clérigos. [234] La inclinación pro hindú de Jagmohan en la administración condujo a un aumento en el atractivo del Frente Unido Musulmán. [235]

Elecciones estatales de 1987

Una alianza de partidos islámicos se organizó en el Frente Unido Musulmán (MUF) para competir en las elecciones estatales de 1987. [ 236] Culturalmente, el creciente énfasis en el secularismo condujo a una reacción violenta con los partidos islámicos ganando popularidad. [237] El manifiesto electoral del MUF hizo hincapié en la necesidad de resolver todos los problemas pendientes de acuerdo con el acuerdo de Simla , trabajar por la unidad islámica y contra la interferencia política del centro. Su lema era querer la ley del Corán en la Asamblea. [238]

En estas elecciones se registró la mayor participación. Votó el 80% de la gente del Valle. El MUF obtuvo la victoria en solo 4 de los 43 distritos electorales en disputa a pesar de su alto porcentaje de votos del 31 por ciento (esto significa que su voto oficial en el Valle fue mayor a un tercio). Se creía ampliamente que las elecciones habían sido manipuladas por el partido gobernante Conferencia Nacional , aliado con el Congreso Nacional Indio . [239] [240] [241] [242] En ausencia de manipulación, los comentaristas creen que el MUF podría haber ganado entre quince y veinte escaños, una afirmación admitida por el líder de la Conferencia Nacional Farooq Abdullah . [242] [243] El académico Sumantra Bose , por otro lado, opina que el MUF habría ganado la mayoría de los distritos electorales en el Valle de Cachemira. [244]

BBC News informó que Khem Lata Wukhloo, que era líder del Partido del Congreso en ese momento, admitió el fraude generalizado en Cachemira. Declaró: Recuerdo que hubo un fraude masivo en las elecciones de 1987. Los candidatos perdedores fueron declarados ganadores. Eso sacudió la fe de la gente común en las elecciones y en el proceso democrático. [245]

Mientras tanto, en Gilgit Baltistán, administrado por Pakistán, tiene lugar la Masacre de Gilgit de 1988, patrocinada por el Estado y liderada por Osama bin Laden y otros grupos extremistas. [246]

Insurgencia popular y militancia de 1989

En los años transcurridos desde 1990, los musulmanes de Cachemira y el gobierno indio han conspirado para abolir las complejidades de la civilización cachemira. El mundo que habitaba ha desaparecido: el gobierno estatal y la clase política, el imperio de la ley, casi todos los habitantes hindúes del valle, el alcohol, los cines, los partidos de cricket, los picnics a la luz de la luna en los campos de azafrán, las escuelas, las universidades, la prensa independiente, los turistas y los bancos. En esta reducción de la realidad civil, los paisajes de Cachemira se redefinen: no son los lagos y los jardines mogoles ni los triunfos históricos de la agricultura, la artesanía y la cocina cachemiras, sino dos entidades que se enfrentan sin intermediarios: la mezquita y el campamento militar.

—  El periodista británico James Buchan [247]

En 1989, una insurgencia popular y armada generalizada [248] [249] comenzó en Cachemira. Después de la elección de la asamblea legislativa estatal de 1987, algunos de los resultados fueron cuestionados. Esto resultó en la formación de alas militantes y marcó el comienzo de la insurgencia muyahidín , que continúa hasta el día de hoy. [250] [251] La India sostiene que la insurgencia fue iniciada en gran parte por muyahidines afganos que entraron en el valle de Cachemira después del final de la guerra soviética-afgana . [251] Yasin Malik , líder de una facción del Frente de Liberación de Jammu y Cachemira (JKLF), fue uno de los cachemires que organizaron la militancia en Cachemira, junto con Ashfaq Majeed Wani , Javaid Ahmad Mir y Abdul Hamid Sheikh. Desde 1995, Malik ha renunciado al uso de la violencia y pide métodos estrictamente pacíficos para resolver la disputa. Malik desarrolló diferencias con uno de los líderes de alto rango, Farooq Siddiqui (alias Farooq Papa), por rechazar las demandas de una Cachemira independiente y tratar de llegar a un acuerdo con el Primer Ministro indio. Esto resultó en una división en la que Bitta Karate , Salim Nanhaji y otros camaradas de alto rango se unieron a Farooq Papa. [252] [253] Pakistán afirma que estos insurgentes son ciudadanos de Jammu y Cachemira, y se están levantando contra el ejército indio como parte de un movimiento de independencia. Amnistía Internacional ha acusado a las fuerzas de seguridad en la Cachemira controlada por la India de explotar una Ley de Fuerzas Armadas (Poderes Especiales) que les permite "detener a prisioneros sin juicio". El grupo argumenta que la ley, que permite a las fuerzas de seguridad detener a individuos por hasta dos años sin presentar cargos, viola los derechos humanos de los prisioneros. [254] [255] En 2011, la comisión estatal de derechos humanos dijo que tenía evidencia de que 2.156 cuerpos habían sido enterrados en 40 fosas en los últimos 20 años. [255] Las autoridades niegan tales acusaciones. Las fuerzas de seguridad afirman que los muertos no identificados son militantes que podrían haber venido originalmente de fuera de la India. También afirman que muchas de las personas desaparecidas han cruzado a la Cachemira administrada por Pakistán para participar en actividades militantes. [255] Sin embargo, según la comisión estatal de derechos humanos, entre los cuerpos identificados había 574 de "locales desaparecidos", y según el informe anual de derechos humanos de Amnistía Internacional (2012) era suficiente para "desmentir la afirmación de las fuerzas de seguridad de que eran militantes". [256]

La India afirma que estos insurgentes son grupos terroristas islámicos de la Cachemira administrada por Pakistán y Afganistán, que luchan por convertir Jammu y Cachemira en parte de Pakistán. [255] [257] Los analistas indios [258] y el JKLF han acusado a Pakistán de entrenar y respaldar a los terroristas. [259] [260] La India afirma que los terroristas han matado a muchos ciudadanos en Cachemira y han cometido violaciones de los derechos humanos, al tiempo que niega que sus propias fuerzas armadas sean responsables de abusos contra los derechos humanos. En una visita a Pakistán en 2006, el ex Ministro Principal de Cachemira Omar Abdullah señaló que los militantes extranjeros estaban involucrados en asesinatos imprudentes y caos en nombre de la religión. [261] Las autoridades indias dijeron en 2008 y 2021 que la militancia estaba en declive. [250] [262]

El gobierno paquistaní niega que apoye a los terroristas, limitándose a decir que en el pasado ha apoyado a "luchadores por la libertad". [263] En octubre de 2008, el presidente paquistaní Asif Ali Zardari llamó "terroristas" a los separatistas de Cachemira en una entrevista con The Wall Street Journal . [264] Estos comentarios provocaron indignación entre muchos cachemires, algunos de los cuales desafiaron el toque de queda impuesto por el ejército indio para quemarlo en efigie. [265]

En 2008, el líder separatista Mirwaiz Umar Farooq dijo al Washington Post que desde 1989, junto a la insurgencia en la Cachemira administrada por la India, ha existido un movimiento de protesta pacífico "puramente indígena, puramente cachemiro" [266]. El movimiento se creó por la misma razón que la insurgencia y comenzó después de las controvertidas elecciones de 1987. Según las Naciones Unidas, los cachemires tienen quejas contra el gobierno indio, en concreto contra el ejército indio, que ha cometido violaciones de los derechos humanos. [266] [262] [267]

En 1994, la ONG Comisión Internacional de Juristas envió una misión de investigación a Cachemira. La misión de la CIJ llegó a la conclusión de que el derecho de libre determinación al que los pueblos de Jammu y Cachemira adquirieron derecho como parte del proceso de partición no se había ejercido ni abandonado y, por lo tanto, seguía siendo ejercible. [268] Afirmó además que, como el pueblo de Cachemira tenía derecho a la libre determinación, de ello se deducía que su insurgencia era legítima. Sin embargo, de ello no se deducía que el Pakistán tuviera derecho a prestar apoyo a los militantes. [269]

Éxodo de los pandits de Cachemira entre 1989 y 1990

Debido a la creciente insurgencia y la militancia islámica en el valle de Cachemira, los pandits de Cachemira se vieron obligados a huir del valle. [270] Fueron blanco de grupos militantes como el Frente de Liberación de Jammu y Cachemira , Lashkar-e-Taiba y Jaish-e-Mohammed . El 4 de enero de 1990, el periódico Aftab, con sede en Srinagar, publicó un mensaje en el que amenazaba a todos los hindúes con abandonar Cachemira de inmediato, y lo atribuyó a la organización militante Hizbul Mujahideen . [271] [272] En los meses anteriores, alrededor de 300 hombres y mujeres hindúes, pandits de Cachemira, habían sido asesinados y las mujeres violadas. La mezquita emitió un comunicado en un altavoz pidiendo a los hindúes que abandonaran Cachemira sin sus mujeres. El 19 de enero de 1990, los pandits de Cachemira huyeron de Cachemira debido a atrocidades como asesinatos y violaciones en grupo. [273] [274]

El 21 de enero de 1990, dos días después de que Jagmohan asumiera el cargo de gobernador de Jammu y Cachemira, se produjo la masacre de Gawkadal en Srinagar, cuando las tropas paramilitares indias de la Fuerza de Policía de Reserva Central abrieron fuego contra un grupo de manifestantes de Cachemira en lo que algunos autores han descrito como "la peor masacre de la historia de Cachemira" (junto con la masacre de Bijbehara en 1993). [275] Al menos 50 personas fueron asesinadas, [276] y algunos informes de muertes llegaron a 280. [277] Después de la masacre, se produjeron más manifestaciones y, en enero de 1990, se cree que las fuerzas paramilitares indias mataron a unos 300 manifestantes. [278] Como afirmó Human Rights Watch en un informe de mayo de 1991, "En las semanas que siguieron [a la masacre de Gawakadal], cuando las fuerzas de seguridad abrieron fuego contra las multitudes que marchaban y los militantes intensificaron sus ataques contra la policía y los sospechosos de ayudarlos, la guerra civil de Cachemira comenzó en serio". [279]

El éxodo masivo comenzó el 1 de marzo de 1990, cuando cientos de miles de pandits de Cachemira abandonaron el estado; de los aproximadamente 300.000 [280] [281] [282] a 600.000 [283] [284] hindúes que vivían en el valle de Cachemira en 1990, solo entre 2.000 y 3.000 vivían allí en 2016. [285]

Conflicto de 1999 en Kargil

Ubicación del conflicto.

A mediados de 1999, supuestos insurgentes y soldados paquistaníes de la Cachemira paquistaní se infiltraron en Jammu y Cachemira. Durante la temporada de invierno, las fuerzas indias se desplazan regularmente a altitudes más bajas, ya que las severas condiciones climáticas hacen que sea casi imposible para ellas proteger los altos picos cerca de la Línea de Control. Esta práctica es seguida tanto por el ejército de la India como por el de Pakistán. El terreno dificulta que ambos lados mantengan un estricto control fronterizo sobre la Línea de Control. Los insurgentes se aprovecharon de esto y ocuparon picos de montaña vacíos en la cordillera de Kargil con vista a la autopista en la Cachemira india que conecta Srinagar y Leh . Al bloquear la autopista, podían cortar el único enlace entre el valle de Cachemira y Ladakh . Esto resultó en un conflicto a gran escala entre los ejércitos indio y paquistaní. La etapa final implicó importantes batallas por parte de las fuerzas indias y paquistaníes, con la India recuperando la mayoría de los territorios [286] [287] en poder de las fuerzas paquistaníes.

El temor a que la guerra de Kargil se convirtiera en una guerra nuclear llevó al entonces presidente de los Estados Unidos Bill Clinton a presionar a Pakistán para que se retirara. El ejército paquistaní retiró sus tropas restantes de la zona, poniendo fin al conflicto. La India recuperó el control de los picos de Kargil, que ahora patrulla y vigila durante todo el año.

Participación de Al Qaeda en la década de 2000

En una "Carta al pueblo estadounidense" escrita por Osama bin Laden en 2002, afirmó que una de las razones por las que luchaba contra Estados Unidos era su apoyo a la India en la cuestión de Cachemira. [288] Durante un viaje a Delhi en 2002, el Secretario de Defensa de Estados Unidos, Donald Rumsfeld, sugirió que Al Qaeda estaba activa en Cachemira, aunque no tenía ninguna prueba contundente. [289] [290] Una investigación realizada por un periodista del Christian Science Monitor en 2002 afirmó haber desenterrado pruebas de que Al Qaeda y sus afiliados estaban prosperando en la Cachemira administrada por Pakistán con la aprobación tácita de la agencia de Inteligencia Interservicios de Pakistán (ISI). [291] En 2002, un equipo integrado por personal del Servicio Aéreo Especial y de la Fuerza Delta fue enviado a la Cachemira administrada por la India para buscar a Osama bin Laden después de que se informara de que estaba siendo protegido por el grupo militante cachemiro Harkat-ul-Mujahideen . [292] Los funcionarios estadounidenses creían que Al Qaeda estaba ayudando a organizar una campaña de terror en Cachemira para provocar un conflicto entre la India y el Pakistán. Su estrategia era obligar a Pakistán a trasladar sus tropas a la frontera con la India, aliviando así la presión sobre los elementos de Al Qaeda que se ocultaban en el noroeste de Pakistán. Los analistas de inteligencia estadounidenses dicen que los operativos de Al Qaeda y los talibanes en la Cachemira administrada por el Pakistán están ayudando a los terroristas entrenados en Afganistán a infiltrarse en la Cachemira administrada por la India. [293] Fazlur Rehman Khalil , el líder de Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, firmó la declaración de guerra santa de Al Qaeda de 1998, que llamaba a los musulmanes a atacar a todos los estadounidenses y sus aliados. [294] En 2006, Al Qaeda afirmó haber establecido un ala en Cachemira, lo que preocupó al gobierno indio. [295] El teniente general del ejército indio HS Panag, GOC-in-C del Comando Norte, dijo a los periodistas que el ejército ha descartado la presencia de Al Qaeda en Jammu y Cachemira administrados por la India. Dijo que no hay evidencia para verificar los informes de los medios de comunicación de una presencia de Al Qaeda en el estado. Descartó los vínculos de Al Qaeda con los grupos militantes en Cachemira, incluidos Lashkar-e-Taiba y Jaish-e-Mohammed . Sin embargo, afirmó que tenían información sobre los fuertes vínculos de Al Qaeda con las operaciones de Lashkar-e-Taiba y Jaish-e-Mohammed en Pakistán. [296] Durante una visita a Pakistán en enero de 2010, el secretario de Defensa de Estados Unidos, Robert Gates, afirmó que Al Qaeda estaba tratando de desestabilizar la región y planeaba provocar una guerra nuclear entre India y Pakistán.[297]

En junio de 2011, un ataque con aviones no tripulados estadounidenses mató a Ilyas Kashmiri , jefe de Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami , un grupo militante de Cachemira asociado con Al Qaeda. [298] [299] Bruce Riedel describió a Kashmiri como un miembro "prominente" de Al Qaeda, [300] mientras que otros lo describieron como el jefe de operaciones militares de Al Qaeda. [301] Para entonces, Waziristán se había convertido en el nuevo campo de batalla para los militantes de Cachemira que luchaban contra la OTAN en apoyo de Al Qaeda. [302] Ilyas Kashmiri fue acusado por Estados Unidos de participar en un complot contra Jyllands-Posten , el periódico danés en el centro de la controversia sobre las caricaturas de Mahoma publicadas en Jyllands-Posten . [303] En abril de 2012, Farman Ali Shinwari, ex miembro de los grupos separatistas de Cachemira Harkat-ul-Mujahideen y Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami , fue nombrado jefe de Al Qaeda en Pakistán. [304]

2008-presente

El Día de la Solidaridad con Cachemira se celebra cada 5 de febrero en Pakistán. Esta pancarta fue colgada en Islamabad .

En marzo de 2008, se registraron dos incidentes separados en la Cachemira administrada por la India: una explosión cerca de la secretaría civil y el tribunal superior, y un tiroteo entre fuerzas de seguridad y militantes que dejó cinco muertos. El tiroteo comenzó cuando las fuerzas de seguridad allanaron una casa en las afueras de la ciudad capital de Srinagar que albergaba a militantes. [305] El ejército indio ha estado llevando a cabo operaciones de acordonamiento y búsqueda contra militantes en la Cachemira administrada por la India desde que estalló la violencia en 1989. [305]

En mayo de 2008, el gobierno del estado de Jammu y Cachemira decidió transferir 100 acres (0,40 km2 ) de tierra a un fideicomiso que administra el santuario hindú de Amarnath en el valle de Cachemira, de mayoría musulmana. [306] Esta tierra se iba a utilizar para construir un refugio para albergar temporalmente a los peregrinos hindúes durante su peregrinación anual al templo de Amarnath . [307] Las fuerzas de seguridad indias, incluido el ejército, respondieron rápidamente para mantener el orden. Más de 40 manifestantes desarmados fueron asesinados. [308] [309] Las protestas más grandes vieron a más de medio millón de personas ondeando banderas paquistaníes y llorando por la libertad en una manifestación el 18 de agosto, según la revista Time . [307] [310] La situación provocó reacciones internacionales de los líderes separatistas y las Naciones Unidas. [311] [267] Después de los disturbios de 2008, los movimientos secesionistas recibieron un impulso. [312] [307] Estas manifestaciones han sido ajenas al hecho de que el gobierno de la India emprende con mucha regularidad actividades para ayudar a la comunidad musulmana y dona tierras y otras propiedades a las Juntas Waqf sistematizadas . [313] [314] A pesar de las protestas, las elecciones estatales de noviembre-diciembre de 2008 en la Cachemira administrada por la India registraron una alta participación electoral de más del 60% del total de electores registrados. [315] [316]

Imagen de votantes durante las elecciones generales parlamentarias celebradas en Jammu y Cachemira, India, en 2004 y 2009. Un grafiti de boicot en el casco antiguo de Srinagar.

En 2009, comenzaron las protestas por la presunta violación y asesinato de dos mujeres jóvenes en Shopian, en el sur de Cachemira. [317] El verano siguiente se produjeron de nuevo protestas a gran escala cuyo detonante inmediato fue un falso encuentro organizado por los militares en Machil , Kupwara . [318] En estos disturbios de 2010 en Cachemira se manifestaron sentimientos separatistas, consignas a favor de la independencia, manifestantes que desafiaron los toques de queda, atacaron a las fuerzas de seguridad con piedras y quemaron vehículos policiales y edificios gubernamentales. [319] [320] [321] Las fuerzas de seguridad de Jammu y Cachemira dispararon munición real contra los manifestantes, lo que provocó 112 muertes. Las protestas se calmaron después de que el gobierno indio anunciara un paquete de medidas destinadas a desactivar las tensiones en septiembre de 2010. [322]

Revelations made on 24 September 2013 by the former Indian army chief General V. K. Singh claim that the state politicians of Jammu and Kashmir are funded by the army secret service to keep the general public calm and that this activity has been going on since Partition.[323][324][325]

In October 2014, Indian and Pakistani troops traded LOC gunfire – the small-arms and mortar exchanges – which Indian officials called the worst violation of a 2003 ceasefire – left soldiers and civilians dead. Thousands of people fled their homes on both sides after the violence erupted on 5 October.[326]

The 2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election was held from 25 November – 20 December. Despite repeated boycott calls by separatist Hurriyat leaders,[327] elections recorded highest voters turnout in last 25 years, that is more than 65% which is more than usual voting percentage in other states of India.[328][329][330] Phase wise voting percentage is as follows (table):

The European Parliament welcomed the smooth conduct of the State Legislative Elections in the Jammu and Kashmir despite boycott calls.[336] The EU in its message said, "The high voter turnout figure proves that democracy is firmly rooted in India. The EU would like to congratulate India and its democratic system for conduct of fair elections, unmarred by violence, in the state of Jammu and Kashmir".[336][337]

On 8 July 2016, a militant leader Burhan Wani was cornered by the security forces and killed. Following his death, protests and demonstrations led to an "amplified instability" in the Kashmir valley. Curfews were imposed in all 10 districts of Kashmir, over 100 civilians died and over 17,000 were injured in clashes with the police.[338][339][340] More than 600 have pellet injuries to the face. To prevent volatile rumours, cellphone and internet services were blocked, and newspapers were also restricted in many parts of the region.[341]

An attack by four militants on an Indian Army base on 18 September 2016, also known as the 2016 Uri attack, resulted in the death of 19 soldiers as well as the militants themselves.[342] Response took various forms, including the postponement of the 19th SAARC summit,[343] asking the Russian government to call off a joint military exercise with Pakistan,[344][345] and the 'Indian Motion Picture Producers Association' decision to suspend work with Pakistan.[346] On the Pakistani side, military alertness was raised and some Pakistan International Airlines flights suspended. The Pakistani government denied any role and raised the issue of human rights violations by Indian security forces.[347]

Indian police in Kashmir valley confronting violent protesters in December 2018

In the deadliest incident since 2016, Jaish-e-Mohammed (JEM) carried and claimed responsibility for a suicide bomb attack on a military convoy in Pulwama that killed over 40 Indian soldiers on 14 February 2019.[348] In retaliation 12 Indian fighter jets dropped bombs on a "terrorist camp" in Pakistan-controlled territory at of Kashmir, allegedly killing around 350 members in terrorist camps. As India trespassed Pakistan's air space, the incidents escalated the tension between India and Pakistan starting the 2019 India–Pakistan border standoff and skirmishes.[349][350][351][352][353] In March 2019, a peace offer was fixed, ending the hostilities, and with both countries agreeing to fight terrorism.[354][355]

In August 2019, India revoked the special status of Jammu and Kashmir through Parliament, abolishing Article 370 and rendering the state Constitution infructuous. Further both houses of the Indian parliament passed a bill to reorganise the state into two union territories.[356][357] This was followed by a strict preventive pre-emptive state lockdown, which lasted until 5 February 2021 (A preventative lockdown was put in place after the death of Syed Ali Shah Geelani for 2 to 5 days).[358][359][360] LOC border clashes in November 2020 and onwards resulted in 24 deaths of both military personnel and civilians.[361][362]

National stances

Indian view

Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession in October 1947 under which he acceded the State of Jammu and Kashmir to the Union of India.

India has officially stated that it believes Kashmir to be an integral part of India, though the then Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh, stated after the 2010 Kashmir Unrest that his government was willing to grant autonomy to the region within the purview of the Indian constitution if there was consensus among political parties on this issue.[367][368] The Indian viewpoint is succinctly summarised by the Indian Ministry of External affairs.[369][370] —

Additional Indian viewpoints regarding the broader debate over the Kashmir conflict include:

According to a poll in an Indian newspaper Indians were keener to keep control of Kashmir than Pakistanis. 67% of urban Indians want New Delhi to be in full control of Kashmir.[395]

Michigan State University scholar Baljit Singh, interviewing Indian foreign policy experts in 1965, found that 77 percent of them favoured discussions with Pakistan on all outstanding problems including the Kashmir dispute. However, only 17 percent were supportive of holding a plebiscite in Kashmir. The remaining 60 percent were pessimistic of a solution due to a distrust of Pakistan or a perception of threats to India's internal institutions. They contended that India's secularism was far from stable and the possibility of Kashmir separating from India or joining Pakistan would endanger Hindu–Muslim relations in India.[396]

In 2008, the death toll from the last 20 years was estimated by Indian authorities to be over 47,000.[397]

In 2017 India's Union Home Minister, Rajnath Singh, demanded that Pakistan desist from demanding a plebiscite in Jammu and Kashmir, saying: "If at all a referendum is required, it is needed in Pakistan, where people should be asked whether they want to continue in Pakistan or are demanding the country's merger with India".[398]

Pakistani view

Map of Kashmir as drawn by the Government of Pakistan

Pakistan maintains that Kashmir is the "jugular vein of Pakistan"[399] and a currently disputed territory whose final status must be determined by the people of Kashmir.[400][401] Pakistan's claims to the disputed region are based on the rejection of Indian claims to Kashmir, namely the Instrument of Accession. Pakistan insists that the Maharaja was not a popular leader, and was regarded as a tyrant by most Kashmiris. Pakistan maintains that the Maharaja used brute force to suppress the population.[402]

Pakistan claims that Indian forces were in Kashmir before the Instrument of Accession was signed with India, and that therefore Indian troops were in Kashmir in violation of the Standstill Agreement, which was designed to maintain the status quo in Kashmir (although India was not signatory to the Agreement, which was signed between Pakistan and the Hindu ruler of Jammu and Kashmir).[403][404]

From 1990 to 1999, some organisations reported that the Indian Armed Forces, its paramilitary groups, and counter-insurgent militias were responsible for the deaths of 4,501 Kashmiri civilians. During the same period, there were records of 4,242 women between the ages of 7–70 being raped.[405][406] Similar allegations were also made by some human rights organisations.[407]

In short, Pakistan holds that:

Human rights organisations have strongly condemned Indian troops for widespread rape and murder of innocent civilians while accusing these civilians of being militants.[415][416][417]

A poll by an Indian newspaper shows 48% of Pakistanis want Islamabad "to take full control" of Kashmir, while 47% of Pakistanis support Kashmiri independence.[395]

Former Pakistani President General Pervez Musharraf on 16 October 2014 said that Pakistan needs to incite those fighting in Kashmir,[419][420] "We have source (in Kashmir) besides the (Pakistan) army…People in Kashmir are fighting against (India). We just need to incite them," Musharraf told a TV channel.[419][420]

In 2015 Pakistan's outgoing National Security Advisor Sartaj Aziz said that Pakistan wished to have third party mediation on Kashmir, but it was unlikely to happen unless by international pressure.[421] "Under Shimla Accord it was decided that India and Pakistan would resolve their disputes bilaterally," Aziz said. "Such bilateral talks have not yielded any results for the last 40 years. So then what is the solution?"[421]

Chinese view

China has generally supported Pakistan against India on Kashmir.[258][422] China has also stated that Aksai Chin is an integral part of China and does not recognise its inclusion in the Kashmir region. It also disputes the region's boundary with Tibet at various locations.

Kashmiri views

Water dispute

In 1948, Eugene Black, then executive director of the World Bank, offered his services to solve the tension over water control. In the early days of independence, the fact that India was able to shut off the Central Bari Doab Canals at the time of the sowing season, causing significant damage to Pakistan's crops. Nevertheless, military and political clashes over Kashmir in the early years of independence appear to have been more about ideology and sovereignty rather than over the sharing of water resources. However, the minister of Pakistan has stated the opposite.[444]

The Indus Waters Treaty was signed by both countries in September 1960, giving exclusive rights over the three western rivers of the Indus river system (Jhelum, Chenab and Indus) to Pakistan, and over the three eastern rivers (Sutlej, Ravi and Beas) to India, as long as this does not reduce or delay the supply to Pakistan. India therefore maintains that they are not willing to break the established regulations and they see no more problems with this issue.

Efforts to end the dispute

There has been little meaningful dialogue to end the long-standing conflict. As of 2024, India holds the territorially advantageous position. Proposed solutions include independence for Kashmir, formal partition between India and Pakistan, and greater autonomy for the states of Azad Kashmir and Jammu and Kashmir.[445]

Settlement formulas

Rajaji-Abdullah formula

The Rajaji-Abdullah formula, named after C. Rajagopalachari and Sheikh Abdullah, also simply called the Rajaji formula, was in Abdullah's words "an honourable solution which would not give a sense of victory either to India or Pakistan and at the same time would ensure a place of honour to the people of Kashmir".[446] The discussions in 1964 covered numerous options, a plebiscite, status quo, further division etc., however seemed to point towards a condominium, a shared government, a confederation and a United Nations trust territory.[446][447] Abdullah would act as the mediator between India and Pakistan.[447] While the exact nature of the proposed settlement was never made public, Ayub Khan would go on to write in his biography that the proposal was "absurd".[448]

Chenab formula

In 2005, General Musharraf, as well as other Pakistani leaders, sought to resolve the Kashmir issue through the Chenab formula road map. Borrowing a term used by Owen Dixon, Musharraf's Chenab Formula assigns Ladakh to India, Gilgit-Baltistan (G-B) to Pakistan, proposes a plebiscite in the Kashmir Valley and splits Jammu into two-halves.[449] On 5 December 2006, Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf told an Indian TV channel that Pakistan would give up its claim on Kashmir if India accepted some of his peace proposals, including a phased withdrawal of troops, self-governance for locals, no changes in the borders of Kashmir, and a joint supervision mechanism involving India, Pakistan, and Kashmir.[450] Musharraf stated that he was ready to give up the United Nations' resolutions regarding Kashmir.[451]

Later, the government of Pakistan said that this was Musharraf's personal opinion.[452] However Satinder Lambah, India's special envoy to Pakistan, says that while talks reduced due the Mumbai attacks, the formula was not disowned.[453]

Contemporary views on UN resolutions

Many neutral parties to the dispute have noted that the UN resolution on Kashmir is no longer relevant.[454] The European Union holds the view that the plebiscite is not in Kashmiris' interest.[455] The report notes that the UN conditions for such a plebiscite have not been, and can no longer be, met by Pakistan.[456] The Hurriyat Conference observed in 2003 that a "plebiscite [is] no longer an option".[457]

A 2002 Market and Opinion Research International (MORI) survey, on the basis of 850 interviews, found that within Indian-administered Kashmir, 61% of respondents said they felt they would be better off as Indian citizens, with 33% saying that they did not know, and the remaining 6% favouring Pakistani citizenship. However, this support for India was mainly in the Ladakh and Jammu regions, not the Kashmir Valley, where only 9% of the respondents said that they would be better off with India.[458] [neutrality is disputed]

According to a 2007 poll conducted by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies in New Delhi involving around 400 people, 87% of respondents in the Kashmir Valley prefer independence over union with India or Pakistan.[459] A survey by Chatham House, on the basis of 3,774 face-to face interviews in Indian administered Jammu and Kashmir and Pakistan administered Azad Kashmir,[note 15] found that support for independence stood at 43% and 44% respectively.[460]

Pakistan's relation with militants

In a 2001 commentary entitled Pakistan's Role in the Kashmir Insurgency in Jane's Intelligence Review, the author noted that "the nature of the Kashmir conflict has been transformed from what was originally a secular, locally based struggle (conducted via the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front – JKLF) to one that is now largely carried out by foreign militants and rationalized in pan-Islamic religious terms." The majority of militant organisations are composed of foreign mercenaries, mostly from the Pakistani Punjab.[461]

In 2010, with the support of its intelligence agencies, Pakistan again 'boosted' Kashmir militants, and recruitment of mujahideen in the Pakistani state of Punjab has increased.[462]

[463] In 2011, the FBI revealed that Pakistan's spy agency ISI paid millions of dollars into a United States–based non-governmental organisation to influence politicians and opinion-makers on the Kashmir issue and arrested Syed Ghulam Nabi Fai.[464]

Some political analysts say that the Pakistan state policy shift and mellowing of its aggressive stance may have to do with its total failure in the Kargil War and the subsequent 9/11 attacks. These events put pressure on Pakistan to alter its position on terrorism.[465]

Former President of Pakistan and the ex-chief of the Pakistan military Pervez Musharraf, stated in an interview in London, that the Pakistani government indeed helped to form underground militant groups and "turned a blind eye" towards their existence because they wanted India to discuss Kashmir.[466]

According to former Indian Prime-minister Manmohan Singh, one of the main reasons behind the conflict was Pakistan's "terror-induced coercion". He further stated at a Joint Press Conference with United States President Barack Obama in New Delhi that India is not afraid of resolving all the issues with Pakistan including that of Kashmir "but it is our request that you cannot simultaneously be talking and at the same time the terror machine is as active as ever before. Once Pakistan moves away from this terror-induced coercion, we will be very happy to engage productively with Pakistan to resolve all outstanding issues."[467]

In 2009, the President of Pakistan Asif Zardari asserted at a conference in Islamabad that Pakistan had indeed created Islamic militant groups as a strategic tool for use in its geostrategic agenda and "to attack Indian forces in Jammu and Kashmir".[468] Former president of Pakistan and the ex-chief of the Pakistan military Pervez Musharraf also stated in an interview that Pakistani government helped to form underground militant groups to fight against Indian troops in Jammu and Kashmir and "turned a blind eye" towards their existence because they wanted India to discuss Kashmir.[466] The British Government have formally accepted that there is a clear connection between Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and three major militant outfits operating in Jammu and Kashmir, Lashkar-e-Tayiba, Jaish-e-Mohammed and Harkat-ul-Mujahideen.[469][470] The militants are provided with "weapons, training, advice and planning assistance" in Punjab and Kashmir by the ISI which is "coordinating the shipment of arms from the Pakistani side of Kashmir to the Indian side, where Muslim insurgents are waging a protracted war".[471]

Throughout the 1990s, the ISI maintained its relationship with extremist networks and militants that it had established during the Afghan war to utilise in its campaign against Indian forces in Kashmir.[citation needed] Joint Intelligence/North (JIN) has been accused of conducting operations in Jammu and Kashmir and also Afghanistan.[472] The Joint Signal Intelligence Bureau (JSIB) provide communications support to groups in Kashmir.[472] According to Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, both former members of the National Security Council, the ISI acted as a "kind of terrorist conveyor belt" radicalising young men in the Madrassas of Pakistan and delivering them to training camps affiliated with or run by Al-Qaeda and from there moving them into Jammu and Kashmir to launch attacks.[473]

Reportedly, about Rs. 24 million are paid out per month by the ISI to fund its activities in Jammu and Kashmir.[474] Pro-Pakistani groups were reportedly favoured over other militant groups.[474] Creation of six militant groups in Kashmir, which included Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), was aided by the ISI.[475][476] According to American Intelligence officials, ISI is still providing protection and help to LeT.[476] The Pakistan Army and ISI also LeT volunteers to surreptitiously penetrate from Pakistan Administrated Kashmir to Jammu and Kashmir.[477]

In the past, Indian authorities have alleged several times that Pakistan has been involved in training and arming underground militant groups to fight Indian forces in Kashmir.[478]

Human rights abuses

The Freedom in the World 2006 report categorised Indian-administered Kashmir as "partly free", and Pakistan-administered Kashmir, as well as the country of Pakistan, as "not free".[479] In the Freedom in the World 2024 report both Indian-administered Kashmir and Pakistani-administered Kashmir were categorized as "not free",[480][481] while India and Pakistan themselves were both categorized as "partly free".[482][483]

Indian administered Kashmir

A soldier guards the roadside checkpoint outside Srinagar International Airport in January 2009.

Crimes by state forces are done inside Kashmir Valley which is the location of the present conflict.[484]

The 2010 Chatham House opinion poll of the people of Indian administered Jammu and Kashmir found that overall concern, in the entire state, over human rights abuses was 43%.[485] In the surveyed districts of the Muslim majority Kashmir Valley, where the desire for Independence is strongest,[486] there was a high rate of concern over human rights abuses. (88% in Baramulla, 87% in Srinagar, 73% in Anantnag and 55% in Badgam).[485] However, in the Hindu and Buddhist majority areas of the state, where pro-India sentiment is extremely strong,[486] concern over human rights abuses was low (only 3% in Jammu expressed concerns over human rights abuses).[485]

Several international agencies and the UN have reported human rights violations in Indian-administered Kashmir. In a 2008 press release the OHCHR spokesmen stated "The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights is concerned about the recent violent protests in Indian-administered Kashmir that have reportedly led to civilian casualties as well as restrictions to the right to freedom of assembly and expression."[267] A 1996 Human Rights Watch report accuses the Indian military and Indian-government backed paramilitaries of "committ[ing] serious and widespread human rights violations in Kashmir."[487] Jammu and Kashmir Coalition of Civil Society labels the happenings in Kashmir as war crimes and genocide and have issued a statement that those responsible should be tried in court of law.[488][489] Some of the massacres by security forces include Gawakadal massacre, Zakoora and Tengpora massacre and Handwara massacre. Another such alleged massacre occurred on 6 January 1993 in the town of Sopore. TIME magazine described the incident as such: "In retaliation for the killing of one soldier, paramilitary forces rampaged through Sopore's market, setting buildings ablaze and shooting bystanders. The Indian government pronounced the event 'unfortunate' and claimed that an ammunition dump had been hit by gunfire, setting off fires that killed most of the victims."[490] A state government inquiry into 22 October 1993 Bijbehara killings, in which the Indian military fired on a procession and killed 40 people and injured 150, found out that the firing by the forces was 'unprovoked' and the claim of the military that it was in retaliation was 'concocted and baseless'. However, the accused are still to be punished.[491] In its report of September 2006, Human Rights Watch stated:

Indian security forces claim they are fighting to protect Kashmiris from militants and Islamic extremists, while militants claim they are fighting for Kashmiri independence and to defend Muslim Kashmiris from an abusive Indian army. In reality, both sides have committed widespread and numerous human rights abuses and violations of international humanitarian law (or the laws of war).[492]

Many human rights organisations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch (HRW) have condemned human rights abuses in Kashmir by Indians such as "extra-judicial executions", "disappearances", and torture.[493] Bans on religious gatherings are also reportedly enforced.[494] The "Armed Forces Special Powers Act" grants the military, wide powers of arrest, the right to shoot to kill, and to occupy or destroy property in counterinsurgency operations. Indian officials claim that troops need such powers because the army is only deployed when national security is at serious risk from armed combatants. Such circumstances, they say, call for extraordinary measures. Human rights organisations have also asked the Indian government to repeal[495] the Public Safety Act, since "a detainee may be held in administrative detention for a maximum of two years without a court order."[496] A 2008 report by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees determined that Indian Administered Kashmir was only 'partly free'.[497] A recent report by Amnesty International stated that up to 20,000 people have been detained under a law called AFSPA in Indian-administered Kashmir.[496][493][498][499]

Some human rights organisations have alleged that Indian Security forces have killed hundreds of Kashmiris through the indiscriminate use of force and torture, firing on demonstrations, custodial killings, encounters and detentions.[500][501][502][503] The government of India denied that torture was widespread[501] and stated that some custodial crimes may have taken place but that "these are few and far between".[501] According to cables leaked by the WikiLeaks website, US diplomats in 2005 were informed by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) about the use of torture and sexual humiliation against hundreds of Kashmiri detainees by the security forces.[504] The cable said Indian security forces relied on torture for confessions and that the human right abuses are believed to be condoned by the Indian government.[505] SHRC also accused Indian army of forced labour.[506]

There have been claims of disappearances by the police or the army in Kashmir by several human rights organisations.[507] Human rights groups in Kashmir have documented more than three hundred cases of "disappearances" since 1990 but lawyers believe the number to be far higher because many relatives of disappeared people fear reprisal if they contact a lawyer.[508][509][510] In 2016 Jammu and Kashmir Coalition of Civil Society said there are more than 8000 forced disappearances.[488] State Human Rights Commission (SHRC) has found 2,730 bodies buried into unmarked graves, scattered in three districts — Bandipora, Baramulla, and Kupwara — of North Kashmir, believed to contain the remains of victims of unlawful killings and enforced disappearances by Indian security forces.[511][512][513][514] SHRC stated that about 574 of these bodies have already been identified as those of disappeared locals.[515] In 2012, the Jammu and Kashmir State government stripped its State Information Commission (SIC) department of most powers after the commission asked the government to disclose information about the unmarked graves. This state action was reportedly denounced by the former National Chief Information Commissioner.[516] Amnesty International has called on India to "unequivocally condemn enforced disappearances" and to ensure that impartial investigations are conducted into mass graves in its Kashmir region. The Indian state police confirms as many as 331 deaths while in custody and 111 enforced disappearances since 1989.[497][496][493][498] A report from the Indian Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) claimed that the seven people killed in 2000 by the Indian military, were innocent civilians.[517][518] The Indian Army has decided to try the accused in the General Court Martial.[519] It was also reported that the killings that were allegedly committed in "cold-blood" by the Army, were actually in retaliation for the murder of 36 civilians [Sikhs] by militants at Chattisingpora in 2000.[519] The official stance of the Indian Army was that, according to its own investigation, 97% of the reports about human rights abuses have been found to be "fake or motivated".[520] However, there have been at least one case where civilians have been killed in 'fake encounters' by Indian army personnel for cash rewards.[521] According to a report by Human Rights Watch:

Indian security forces have assaulted civilians during search operations, tortured and summarily executed detainees in custody and murdered civilians in reprisal attacks. Rape most often occurs during crackdowns, cordon-and-search operations during which men are held for identification in parks or schoolyards while security forces search their homes. In these situations, the security forces frequently engage in collective punishment against the civilian population, most frequently by beating or otherwise assaulting residents, and burning their homes. Rape is used as a means of targetting women whom the security forces accuse of being militant sympathizers; in raping them, the security forces are attempting to punish and humiliate the entire community.[522]

The allegation of mass rape incidents as well as forced disappearances are reflected in a Kashmiri short documentary film by an Independent Kashmiri film-maker, the Ocean of Tears produced by a non-governmental non-profit organisation called the Public Service Broadcasting Trust of India and approved by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India). The film depicts mass rape incidents in Kunan Poshpora and Shopian as facts and alleges that Indian Security Forces were responsible.[523][524]

Médecins Sans Frontières conducted a research survey in 2005 that found 11.6% of the interviewees who took part had been victims of sexual abuse since 1989.[525][526] This empirical study found that witnesses to rape in Kashmir was comparatively far higher than the other conflict zones such as Sierra Leone and Sri Lanka. 63% of people had heard of rape and 13% of the people had witnessed a rape. Dr Seema Kazi holds the security forces more responsible for raping than militants due to rape by the former being larger in scale and frequency. In areas of militant activity the security forces use rape to destroy morale of Kashmiri resistance.[527] Dr Seema Kazi says these rapes cannot be ignored as rare occurrences nor should be ignored the documented acknowledgement of individual soldiers that they were ordered to rape.[528] Kazi explains rape in Kashmir as a cultural weapon of war:

In the particular context of Kashmir where an ethnic Muslim minority population is subject to the repressive dominance of a predominantly Hindu State, the sexual appropriation of Kashmiri women by State security forces exploits the cultural logic of rape whereby the sexual dishonour of individual women is coterminous with the subjection and subordination of Kashmiri men and the community at large.[529]

Former Chief Justice of Jammu and Kashmir High Court noted in his report on human rights in Kashmir: "It is hard to escape the conclusion that the security forces who are overwhelmingly Hindu and Sikh, see it as their duty to beat an alien population into submission."[530]

Some surveys have found that in the Kashmir region itself (where the bulk of separatist and Indian military activity is concentrated), popular perception holds that the Indian Armed Forces are more to blame for human rights violations than the separatist groups. Amnesty International criticized the Indian Military regarding an incident on 22 April 1996, when several armed forces personnel forcibly entered the house of a 32-year-old woman in the village of Wawoosa in the Rangreth district of Jammu and Kashmir. They reportedly molested her 12-year-old daughter and raped her other three daughters, aged 14, 16, and 18. When another woman attempted to prevent the soldiers from attacking her two daughters, she was beaten. Soldiers reportedly told her 17-year-old daughter to remove her clothes so that they could check whether she was hiding a gun. They molested her before leaving the house.[498]

According to an op-ed published in a BBC journal, the emphasis of the movement after 1989, ″soon shifted from nationalism to Islam.″ It also claimed that the minority community of Kashmiri Pandits, who have lived in Kashmir for centuries, were forced to leave their homeland.[531] Reports by the Indian government state 219 Kashmiri pandits were killed and around 140,000 migrated due to millitancy while over 3000 remained in the valley.[532][533] The local organisation of Pandits in Kashmir, Kashmir Pandit Sangharsh Samiti claimed that 399 Kashmiri Pandits were killed by insurgents.[534][535] Al Jazeera states that 650 Pandits were murdered by militants.[536] Human Rights Watch also blamed Pakistan for supporting militants in Kashmir, in same 2006 report it says, "There is considerable evidence that over many years Pakistan has provided Kashmiri militants with training, weapons, funding and sanctuary. Pakistan remains accountable for abuses committed by militants that it has armed and trained."[492][537][538]

Our people were killed. I saw a girl tortured with cigarette butts. Another man had his eyes pulled out and his body hung on a tree. The armed separatists used a chainsaw to cut our bodies into pieces. It wasn't just the killing but the way they tortured and killed.

— A crying old Kashmiri Hindu in refugee camps of Jammu to a BBC news reporter[531]

The violence was condemned and labelled as ethnic cleansing in a 2006 resolution passed by the United States Congress.[539] It stated that the Islamic terrorists infiltrated the region in 1989 and began an ethnic cleansing campaign to convert Kashmir into a Muslim state. According to the same resolution, since then nearly 400,000 Pandits were either murdered or forced to leave their ancestral homes.[540]

According to a Hindu American Foundation report, the rights and religious freedom of Kashmiri Hindus have been severely curtailed since 1989, when there was an organised and systematic campaign by Islamist militants to cleanse Hindus from Kashmir. Less than 4,000 Kashmiri Hindus remain in the valley, reportedly living with daily threats of violence and terrorism.[541] Sanjay Tickoo, who heads the KPSS, an organisation which looks after Pandits who remain in the Valley, says the situation is complex. On one hand the community did face intimidation and violence but on the other hand he says there was no genocide or mass murder as suggested by Pandits who are based outside of Kashmir.[536]

The displaced Pandits, many of whom continue to live in temporary refugee camps in Jammu and Delhi, are still unable to safely return to their homeland.[541] The lead in this act of ethnic cleansing was initially taken by the Jammu & Kashmir Liberation Front and the Hizbul Mujahideen. According to Indian media, all this happened at the instigation of Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) by a group of Kashmiri terrorist elements who were trained, armed and motivated by the ISI. Reportedly, organisations trained and armed by the ISI continued this ethnic cleansing until practically all the Kashmiri Pandits were driven out after having been subjected to numerous indignities and brutalities such as rape, torture, forcible seizure of property etc.[542]

The separatists in Kashmir deny these allegations. The Indian government is also trying to reinstate the displaced Pandits in Kashmir. Tahir, the district commander of a separatist Islamic group in Kashmir, stated: "We want the Kashmiri Pandits to come back. They are our brothers. We will try to protect them." But the majority of the Pandits, who have been living in pitiable conditions in Jammu, believe that, until insurgency ceases to exist, return is not possible.[531] Mustafa Kamal, brother of Union Minister Farooq Abdullah, blamed security forces, former Jammu and Kashmir governor Jagmohan and PDP leader Mufti Sayeed for forcing the migration of Kashmiri Pandits from the Valley.[543] Jagmohan denies these allegations.[531] Pro-India politician Abdul Rashid says Pandits forced the migration on themselves so Muslims can be killed. He says the plan was to leave Muslims alone and bulldoze them freely.[544]

The CIA has reported that at least 506,000 people from Indian Administered Kashmir are internally displaced, about half of who are Hindu Pandits.[545][546] The United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCR) reports that there are roughly 1.5 million refugees from Indian-administered Kashmir, the bulk of who arrived in Pakistan-administered Kashmir and in Pakistan after the situation on the Indian side worsened in 1989 insurgency.[547]

Pakistan administered Kashmir

Azad Kashmir

The 2010 Chatham House opinion poll of Azad Kashmir's people found that overall concerns about human rights abuses in 'Azad Kashmir' was 19%.[485] The district where concern over human rights abuses was greatest was Bhimber where 32% of people expressed concern over human rights abuses.[485] The lowest was in the district of Sudanhoti where concern over human rights abuses was a mere 5%.[485]

Claims of religious discrimination and restrictions on religious freedom in Azad Kashmir have been made against Pakistan.[548] The country is also accused of systemic suppression of free speech and demonstrations against the government.[549][548] UNHCR reported that a number of Islamist militant groups, including al-Qaeda, operate from bases in Pakistani-administered Kashmir with the tacit permission of ISI[547][548] There have also been several allegations of human rights abuse.[547]

In 2006, Human Rights Watch accused ISI and the military of systemic torture with the purpose of "punishing" errant politicians, political activists and journalists in Azad Kashmir.[550] According to Brad Adams, the Asia director at Human Rights Watch, the problems of human rights abuses in Azad Kashmir were not "rampant" but they needed to be addressed, and that the severity of human rights issues in Indian-administered Kashmir were "much, much, much greater".[551] A report titled "Kashmir: Present Situation and Future Prospects", submitted to the European Parliament by Emma Nicholson, was critical of the lack of human rights, justice, democracy, and Kashmiri representation in the Pakistan National Assembly.[552] According to the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, Pakistan's ISI operates in Pakistan-administered Kashmir and is accused of involvement in extensive surveillance, arbitrary arrests, torture, and murder.[548] The 2008 report by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees determined that Pakistan-administered Kashmir was 'not free'.[548] According to Shaukat Ali, chairman of the International Kashmir Alliance, "On one hand Pakistan claims to be the champion of the right of self-determination of the Kashmiri people, but she has denied the same rights under its controlled parts of Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan".[553]

After the 2011 elections, Azad Kashmir Prime Minister Sardar Attique Ahmad Khan stated that there were mistakes in the voters list which have raised questions about the credibility of the elections.[554]

In December 1993, the blasphemy laws of Pakistan were extended to Pakistan Administered Kashmir. The area is ruled directly through a chief executive Lt. Gen. Mohammed Shafiq, appointed by Islamabad with a 26-member Northern Areas Council.[555]

UNCR reports that the status of women in Pakistani-administered Kashmir is similar to that of women in Pakistan. They are not granted equal rights under the law, and their educational opportunities and choice of marriage partner remain "circumscribed". Domestic violence, forced marriage, and other forms of abuse continue to be issues of concern. In May 2007, the United Nations and other aid agencies temporarily suspended their work after suspected Islamists mounted an arson attack on the home of two aid workers after the organisations had received warnings against hiring women. However, honour killings and rape occur less frequently than in other areas of Pakistan.[547]

Scholar Sumantra Bose comments that the uprising remained restricted to the Indian side and did not spill over into Pakistani-administered Kashmir despite a lack of democratic freedoms on the Pakistani side. Bose offers a number of possible explanations for this. Azad Kashmir's strong pro-Pakistan allegiances and a relatively smaller population are suggested as reasons. But Bose believes that a stronger explanation was that Pakistan had itself been a military-bureaucratic state for most of its history without stable democratic institutions. According to Bose, the Kashmiri Muslims had higher expectations from India which turned out to be a "moderately successful" democracy and it was in this context that Kashmiri Muslim rage spilled over after the rigging of the elections in 1987.[556] The residents of Azad Kashmir are also mostly Punjabi, differing in ethnicity from Kashmiris in the Indian administered section of the state.[557]

Gilgit-Baltistan

The main demand of the people of Gilgit-Baltistan is constitutional status for the region as a fifth province of Pakistan.[558][559] However, Pakistan claims that Gilgit-Baltistan cannot be given constitutional status due to Pakistan's commitment to the 1948 UN resolution.[559][560] In 2007, the International Crisis Group stated that "Almost six decades after Pakistan's independence, the constitutional status of the Federally Administered Northern Areas (Gilgit and Baltistan), once part of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir and now under Pakistani control, remains undetermined, with political autonomy a distant dream. The region's inhabitants are embittered by Islamabad's unwillingness to devolve powers in real terms to its elected representatives, and a nationalist movement, which seeks independence, is gaining ground. The rise of sectarian extremism is an alarming consequence of this denial of basic political rights".[561] A two-day conference on Gilgit-Baltistan was held on 8–9 April 2008 at the European Parliament in Brussels under the auspices of the International Kashmir Alliance.[562] Several members of the European Parliament urged the government of Pakistan to establish democratic institutions and the rule of law in the area.[562][563]

In 2009, the Pakistani government implemented an autonomy package for Gilgit-Baltistan, which entails rights similar to those of Pakistan's other provinces.[558] Gilgit-Baltistan thus gains province-like status without actually being conferred such status constitutionally.[558][560] Direct rule by Islamabad has been replaced by an elected legislative assembly under a chief minister.[558][560] The 2009 reform has not satisfied locals who demand citizenship rights and it has continued to leave Gilgit Baltistan's constitutional status within Pakistan undefined; although it has added to the self-identification of the territory. According to Antia Mato Bouzas, the PPP-led Pakistani government had attempted a compromise between its official position on Kashmir and the demands of a population where the majority may have pro-Pakistan sentiments.[564]

There has been criticism and opposition to this move in Pakistan, India, and Pakistan-administered Kashmir.[565] The move has been dubbed a cover-up to hide the real mechanics of power, which allegedly are under the direct control of the Pakistani federal government.[566] The package was opposed by Pakistani Kashmiri politicians who claimed that the integration of Gilgit-Baltistan into Pakistan would undermine their case for the independence of Kashmir from India.[567] 300 activists from Kashmiri groups protested during the first Gilgit-Baltistan legislative assembly elections, with some carrying banners reading "Pakistan's expansionist designs in Gilgit-Baltistan are unacceptable"[559] In December 2009, activists from nationalist Kashmiri groups staged a protest in Muzaffarabad to condemn the alleged rigging of elections and the killing of an 18-year-old student.[568]

Map legality

As with other disputed territories, each government issues maps depicting their claims in Kashmir territory, regardless of actual control. Due to India's Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1961, it is illegal in India to exclude all or part of Kashmir from a map (or to publish any map that differs from those of the Survey of India).[569]

Statistics

Since 1989 and by 2006, over 50,000 people are claimed by Human Rights Watch to have died during the conflict,[492] with at least 20,000 of them civilian.[570] In 2008, authorities said that 43,000 people have been killed in the violence.[305] Data released in 2011 by Jammu and Kashmir government stated that, in the last 21 years, 43,460 people have been killed in the Kashmir insurgency. Of these, 21,323 are militants, 13,226 civilians killed by militants, 3,642 civilians killed by security forces, and 5,369 policemen killed by militants.[571]

According to the Government of India Home Ministry, 2008 was the year with the lowest civilian casualties in 20 years, with 89 deaths, compared to a high of 1,413 in 1996.[572] In 2008, 85 security personnel died compared to 613 in 2001, while 102 militants were killed. The human rights situation improved, with only one custodial death, and no custodial disappearances. Many analysts say Pakistan's preoccupation with jihadis within its own borders explains the relative calm.[573] In March 2009, Abdullah stated that only 800 militants were active in the state and out of these only 30% were Kashmiris.[574]

In 2016 Jammu and Kashmir Coalition of Civil Society said there had been 70,000 plus killings,[when?] a majority committed by the Indian armed forces.[488] The pro-Pakistan Hurriyat group has claimed a higher death toll of 80,000 including civilians, security forces and militants.[575]

Natural disaster diplomacy

The 2005 Kashmir earthquake, which killed over 80,000 people, led to India and Pakistan finalising negotiations for the opening of a road for disaster relief through Kashmir.[576] 2014 India–Pakistan floods was also followed by statements of cooperation by leaders of both countries.[577][578][579][580]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ China's secondary role mentioned in various sources.[5][6][7][8][9][10]
  2. ^ Kashmiri leader Sheikh Abdullah noted in the UN Security Council in 1948: "the (plebiscite) offer (was) made by the Prime Minister of India when, I think, he had not the slightest need for making it, for Kashmir was in distress... The Government of India could have easily accepted the accession and said, 'All right, we accept your accession and we shall render this help.' There was no necessity for the Prime Minister of India to add the proviso while accepting the accession that 'India does not want to take advantage of the difficult situation in Kashmir.'[79]
  3. ^ Panigrahi, Jammu and Kashmir, the Cold War and the West (2009, p. 54) "According to Mir Qasim, Nehru was unwilling to send Indian army. He was insistent that the Government could not send its forces at the request of the Maharaja "although he wanted to accede to India," unless the accession was endorsed by the people of Kashmir... Sheikh Abduallah who was listening to the debate from an anteroom scribbled a note for Nehru requesting him to send the army to save Kashmir from the invaders."
  4. ^ Snedden, Kashmir The Unwritten History (2013, pp. 46–47): "[O]n 28 October [1947], The Times, while referring to the anti-Indian 'raiding forces', was still able to identify four elements among the 3,000 or so 'Muslim rebels and tribesmen' in J&K: 1) 'Muslim League agents and agitators from Pakistan'; 2) 'villagers who have raised the Pakistan flag and attacked Kashmir officials'; 3) 'Pathan [Pakhtoon] tribesmen'; 4) 'Muslim deserters from Kashmir State forces who have taken their arms with them'."
  5. ^ Snedden, Kashmir The Unwritten History (2013, p. 68): "Nehru informed [the Chief Ministers] that 'the actual tribesmen among the raiders are probably limited in numbers, the rest are ex-servicemen [of Poonch]'."
  6. ^ a b c Mīr Qāsim, Sayyid (1992). My Life and Times. Allied Publishers Limited. ISBN 9788170233558. On the battlefield, the National Conference volunteers were working shoulder-to-shoulder with the Indian army to drive out the invaders....Sheikh Abdullah was not in favor of India seeking the UN intervention because he was sure the Indian army could free the entire State of the invaders.
  7. ^ George Cunningham, the Governor of NWFP, observed: "The tragedy is that Jinnah could, I believe, have got India's agreement to a plebiscite under impartial control, 10 days ago, but as the tribes were then in the ascendant for the time being he thought he would hold out a bit longer for better terms. It looks as if he may now have lost his chance."[95]
  8. ^ Brecher (1953, p. 92): 'India was "to begin to withdraw the bulk of their forces" only after "the Commission shall have notified (it) that the tribesmen and Pakistan nationals...have withdrawn...and further, that the Pakistan forces are being withdrawn." Moreover, the withdrawal of Indian forces was to be conducted "in stages to be agreed upon with the Commission," not with Pakistan.'
  9. ^ Korbel (1953, p. 502): "Though India accepted the resolution, Pakistan attached to its acceptance so many reservations, qualifications and assumptions as to make its answer 'tantamount to rejection'."
  10. ^ Korbel (1953, pp. 506–507): "When a further Security Council resolution urged the governments of India and Pakistan to agree within thirty days on the demilitarization of Kashmir, on the basis of Dr. Graham's recommendation, Pakistan once more accepted and India once more refused....Dr. Graham met the Indian request for retaining in Kashmir 21,000 men, but continued to propose 6,000 soldiers on the Azad side. Pakistan could not accept the first provision and India continued to insist on its stand concerning the Azad forces. The meeting, which ended in failure, was accompanied by bitter comments in the newspapers of both India and Pakistan about United Nations intervention in the Kashmir dispute."
  11. ^
    • Korbel (1953, p. 507): "With the hindsight of six years, the Council's approach, though impartial and fair, appears to have been inadequate in that it did not reflect the gravity of the Kashmir situation.... The Security Council did not deal with either of these arguments [India's assumption of the legal validity of the accession and Pakistan's refusal to recognize its validity]. Nor did it consider the possibility of asking the International Court of Justice for an advisory opinion on the juridical aspect of the conflict under Article 96 of the Charter. Nor did it invoke any provisions of Chapter VII of the Charter, which deals with 'acts of aggression'."
    • Subbiah (2004, p. 180): "From the beginning, the Security Council framed the problem as primarily a political dispute rather than looking to a major legal underpinning of the dispute: the Instrument of Accession's validity or lack thereof."
  12. ^
    • Ankit (2013, p. 276): To Cadogan [Britain's permanent representative at the UN], irrespective of "whether forces in question are organised or disorganised or whether they are controlled by, or enjoy the convenience of, Government of Pakistan," India was entitled to take measures for self-defence: repelling invaders, pursuing invaders into Pakistan under Article 51 of the UN Charter and charging Pakistan as aggressor under Article 35.
    • Ankit (2013, p. 279): Mountbatten, too, pleaded directly with Attlee along political as well as personal lines: "I am convinced that this attitude of the United States and the United Kingdom is completely wrong and will have far reaching results. Any prestige I may previously have had with my Government has of course been largely lost by my having insisted that they should make a reference to the United Nations with the assurance that they would get a square deal there."
  13. ^
    • Choudhury, Golam (1968). Pakistan's Relations with India: 1947–1966. Praeger. pp. 178. Indian leaders...continued to express the hope that partition would ultimately be undone; in particular they envisaged the possibility of annexing East Pakistan. Pakistan's resentment...was confined to a disputed area...when as a result of Indian intransigence the prospects of a peaceful solution of the Kashmir issue seemed bleak, there were outbursts of anti-Indian feelings in Pakistan...Alleged talk of 'holy war' or Jehad referred to the disputed territory of Kashmir. But in India, leaders, press and even scholars had no hesitation in expressing the hope of undoing the partition and thus annihilating Pakistan.
    • Choudhury, Golam (1968). Pakistan's Relations with India: 1947–1966. Praeger. pp. 175. Most of those quotations related to the period after the signing of the Liaquat-Nehru Agreement of April 8, 1950 under which India and Pakistan undertook not to permit propaganda in either country...seeking to incite war between the two countries. The government of Pakistan initiated twenty-seven complaints of flagrant violation of the Agreement by a number of influential Indian newspapers, but no effective action was taken by the Indian government, the plea being that its scope for action was limited by the India constitution. The Pakistan government pointed out that, if this were the position, the government of India should not have undertaken an international obligations which it was not in a position to carry out. The government of India made only eight complaints about alleged violation of the Agreement.
    • Choudhury, Golam (1968). Pakistan's Relations with India: 1947–1966. Praeger. pp. 166. Liaquat drew attention to the continuous and blatant propaganda for war against Pakistan, and indeed for the very liquidation of Pakistan, carried on by the Indian press, prominent leaders and political parties which openly adopted as an article of creed the undoing of partition.- which meant nothing but liquidation of Pakistan. No doubt there had been talk of Jehad or liberation of the Muslim population of Kashmir in Pakistan but...Pakistan's grievances have always been confined to Kashmir which...is a disputed territory. It was wrong to construe expressions giving vent to feelings of frustration over the failure of peaceful methods of solution in Kashmir as a desire for war against India. But, in India, the creation of Pakistan itself is still regarded as a tragic mistake which ought to be corrected.
  14. ^ Varshney, Three Compromised Nationalisms (1992, p. 216): Independent observers could get no evidence of it. The New York Times found that "most of the prisoners captured thus far do not speak the Kashmiri dialect. They speak... Punjabi and other dialects."... The Washington Post remarked: "The Moslem Pakistanis, led by President Ayub, had expected the infiltrators to be able to produce a general uprising and this is Ayub's first disappointment."... Once again, it seemed clear that whatever the state of their relationship with India, Kashmiris did not wish to embrace Pakistan.
  15. ^ Gilgit Baltistan was not included in the survey

Citations

  1. ^ Yahuda, Michael (2 June 2002). "China and the Kashmir crisis". BBC. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
  2. ^ Chang, I-wei Jennifer (9 February 2017). "China's Kashmir Policies and Crisis Management in South Asia". United States Institute of Peace. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
  3. ^ a b Slater, Christopher L.; Hobbs, Joseph J. (2003). Essentials of World Regional Geography (4 ed.). Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning. p. 312. ISBN 9780534168100. LCCN 2002106314 – via Internet Archive. India now holds about 55% of the old state of Kashmir, Pakistan 30%, and China 15%.
  4. ^ Malik, V. P. (2010). Kargil from Surprise to Victory (paperback ed.). HarperCollins Publishers India. p. 54. ISBN 9789350293133.
  5. ^ a b "Signing with the Red Chinese". Time (magazine). 15 March 1963. Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 28 October 2019.
  6. ^ "Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
  7. ^ "Jammu & Kashmir". European Foundation for South Asian Studies (EFSAS). Retrieved 4 May 2020.
  8. ^ Snow, Shawn (19 September 2016). "Analysis: Why Kashmir Matters". The Diplomat. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
  9. ^ Hobbs, Joseph J. (March 2008). World Regional Geography. CengageBrain. p. 314. ISBN 978-0495389507.
  10. ^ Margolis, Eric (2004). War at the Top of the World: The Struggle for Afghanistan, Kashmir and Tibet (paperback ed.). Routledge. p. 56. ISBN 9781135955595.
  11. ^ Copland, Ian (2003). "Review of War and Diplomacy in Kashmir: 1947-48. By C. Dasgupta". Pacific Affairs. 76 (1): 144–145. ISSN 0030-851X. JSTOR 40024025. As is well known, this Hindu-ruled Muslim majority state could conceivably have joined either India or Pakistan, but procrastinated about making a choice until a tribal invasion - the term is not contentious - forced the ruler's hand.
  12. ^ Lyon, Peter (2008). Conflict Between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia. ABC-Clio. p. 80. ISBN 9781576077122.
  13. ^ "Kashmir | History, People, & Conflict". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 April 2015.
  14. ^ Bose, Sumantra (2003), Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace, Harvard University Press, p. 76, ISBN 0-674-01173-2, The intervening years [between 1958 and 1962] were notable for China's entry into the international politics of the Kashmir conflict. China's relations with India deteriorated precipitously after the Chinese annexation of Tibet in 1959, and rising tensions flared into a military conflict in late 1962 at a number of disputed border flashpoints stretching in an east-west arc along the Himalayan ranges, including a desolate area called Aksai Chin on Ladakh's frontier with Tibet and China's Xinjiang province.
  15. ^ "Simla Agreement". Bilateral/Multilateral Documents. Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
  16. ^ Fortna, Virginia (2004). Peace time: cease-fire agreements and the durability of peace. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11512-2.
  17. ^ MacDonald, Myra (2017). Defeat is an Orphan: How Pakistan Lost the Great South Asian War. Oxford University Press. pp. 27, 53, 64, 66, 67. ISBN 978-1-84904-858-3. p. 27: It was not so much that India won the Great South Asian War but that Pakistan lost it.
    p. 53: The story of the Kargil War—Pakistan's biggest defeat by India since 1971 —is one that goes to the heart of why it lost the Great South Asian War.
    p. 64: Afterwards, Musharraf and his supporters would claim that Pakistan won the war militarily and lost it diplomatically. In reality, the military and diplomatic tides turned against Pakistan in tandem.
    p. 66: For all its bravado, Pakistan had failed to secure even one inch of land.
    p. 66-67:Less than a year after declaring itself a nuclear-armed power, Pakistan had been humiliated diplomatically and militarily.
  18. ^ Ganguly 2016, p. 10: "In December I989, an indigenous, ethno-religious insurgency erupted in the Indian-controlled portion of the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir. The internal dimensions of this crisis, like that in the Punjab, also stemmed primarily from various shortcomings in India's federal order.".
  19. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 273: "The year 1989 marked the beginning of a continuing insurgency, fuelled by covert support from Pakistan. The uprising had its origins in Kashmiri frustration at the state’s treatment by Delhi. The imposition of leaders chosen by the centre, with the manipulation of local elections, and the denial of what Kashmiris felt was a promised autonomy boiled over at last in the militancy of the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front, a movement devoted to political, not religious, objectives.".
  20. ^ Hussain 2018, p. 104: "In the late 1980s, a small group of Kashmiris who had lost faith in Indian democracy decided to take the long-standing conflict between India and Pakistan to a new level. These individuals, mostly jailed MUF political activists, collectively decided to go to Pakistani-administered Kashmir in search of training and weapons. Inspired by the ideology of the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF), a party that advocated for an independent Kashmir, these individuals, with the support of Pakistan intelligence agencies, initiated an armed rebellion in the Valley and popularized the slogan of aazadi (Khan, 1992, 131–41).".
  21. ^ Mathur, Shubh (2016). The Human Toll of the Kashmir Conflict: Grief and Courage in a South Asian Borderland. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 21–. ISBN 978-1-137-54622-7. writers like Baba (2014), Bose (2005), Schofield (2010) and Robinson (2013) see it as an indigenous Kashmiri response to the decades of political repression and the denial of the Kashmiri right to self-determination.
  22. ^ Chowdhary 2016, pp. 111–112: "As militancy gained ground, there was mushrooming of militant organisations with different ideologies and different objectives. While India remained the common target for all these organisations, there were lot of internal differences. The difference was not merely represented by the ultimate objectives of JKLF (complete independence of erstwhile princely state of Jammu and Kashmir from both India and Pakistan) and Hizb (merger with Pakistan) but also with regard to the role of religion in the movement. A number of outfits like Allah Tigers were keen on enforcing ‘Islamic’ code on the people as well. It ‘went about smashing Srinagar’s bars, closing down cinema halls, video parlours and beauty parlours, saying that they were un-Islamic. It was decreed that all women would wear the burqa, and dress according to Islamic tradition’ (Sidhva, 1992: 40–2). There were others who saw armed militancy in Kashmir as part of the Pan-Islamic struggle being waged at the global level. These were jehadis who entered the scenario of militancy quite early. Lashkar-e-Toiba, according to Sikand, entered Kashmir in 1990 and intensified its activities in 1993.".
  23. ^ Hussain 2021, (p. 324) "Pakistani support gave a religious tone to the armed insurgency in Kashmir, overshadowing the nationalist vision of an independent and united state of Jammu and Kashmir. ... Fearful that the independent ideology of the JKLF would sideline their interests in the Valley, Pakistan abandoned the JKLF and supported militant groups that would advocate Kashmir’s accession to Pakistan." (p. 325) "After the intervention of Pakistan in Kashmir post 1989, the Jamaat saw Kashmir as a part of the worldwide Muslim community, and its incorporation into the Muslim state of Pakistan as the first step toward eventual unity of all Muslims. Thereafter, the party provided a religious rationale for advocating Kashmir’s accession to Pakistan, and defined the armed struggle against India as a holy war—a jihad. ... In the early 1990s, the Jamaat took center stage in the militant movement, and its armed wing, the Hizbul Mujahideen (HM), gave the jihad a practical shape. This powerful group, funded and supported by Pakistan’s intelligence services, molded the insurgency to suit Pakistan’s interests." (p. 326) "Pakistan also nurtured several small Valley Islamist groups like the Allah Tigers, Al-Umar, and the Muslim Mujahedeen to fragment the support base of the JKLF and popularize the idea of waging an armed struggle along Islamic lines. ... The JKLF’s increasing marginalization in the Valley was accompanied by the suppression of the organization in Pakistan-administered Kashmir.".
  24. ^ Warikoo 2011, p. 78: "During the first phase of militancy in Kashmir which started in 1989, the Islamist militant groups strived to “bring structural changes at cultural levels of Kashmir society”, seeking to Islamicize the socio-political set-up in the Valley to bring it in tune with the Islamic state of Pakistan and the Muslim Ummah. Though militancy in Kashmir was launched initially by the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) ostensibly to achieve azadi (independence), within a few months a number of militant groups emerged advocating Nizam-e-Mustafa as the objective of their struggle. Now the term azadi gave way to jihad. Various Islamist groups like Jamaat-e-Islami and its militant wing Hizbul Mujahideen, women’s wing Dukhtaran-e-Millat, Jamiat- ul-Mujahideen, Allah Tigers, Jamiat-ul-Ulemma Islam, Al Badr, Al Jihad Force, Al Umar Mujahideen, Muslim Mujahideen, Islamic Students League, Zia Tigers etc. proclaimed the objective of their struggle as Islamicization of socio-political and economic set-up, merger of Kashmir with Pakistan, unification of Ummah and establishment of an Islamic Caliphate.".
  25. ^ Webb 2012, p. 44: "The first wave of militancy from 1988 through to 1991 was very much an urban, middle-class affair dominated by the secular, pro-independence Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) (Schofield 1996: 240). Much of the fighting was concentrated in Srinagar, and also certain rural centers such as Anantnag, Baramulla and Kupwara, while most of the militants were unemployed university graduates who had campaigned for the MUF in the 1987 election. ... Gradually the number of militant groups began to increase, with the JKLF losing its position of dominance to the Islamist, pro-Pakistan Hizbul-Mujahideen in the early 1990s (Jones 2008; Kumar 2002). The rise of Islamic, pro-Pakistan groups is frequently associated with a shift to a more rural-based militancy (Howard 1999: 40).".
  26. ^ Chowdhary 2016, p. 112: "According to [Sikand], after the Mujahideen victory in Afghanistan in 1992, ‘numerous jihadist outfits in Pakistan began turning their attention towards Kashmir. By the late 1990s, these Pakistani jihadists were playing a key role in the fighting in Kashmir, eclipsing even local Kashmiri groups’ (Sikand, 2001: 222). Harkat-ul-Ansar, Al-Faran, Harkat-ul-Mujahideen and Jaish-e-Mohammed were such organisations that dominated the scenario of militancy at different points in time. The increased number of foreign militants in the period after mid-1990s gets reflected from the large percentage of the killing of these militants by Indian security forces as compared to the local militants – from 5.7 per cent foreign militants killed in 1995, the percentage was increased to 53.9 per cent in 2000 and 69.38 per cent in 2003 (Routray, 2012: 182).".
  27. ^ Behera 2006, 155: "With the Hazratbal siege and surrender of JKLF militants in April 1993, the insurgency took a new course. It became increasingly difficult for the Hizb-ul-Mujahideen to recruit members of the Kashmiri cadre. Attributing this to fatigue, Pakistan decided to push more Afghan veterans, Pakistani nationals, and foreign mercenaries into the Valley. This trend gathered momentum in 1996, when the Taliban marched into Kabul.".
  28. ^ Kumar & Puri 2009, p. 268: "By the end of the 1990s, there were more Pakistanis than Kashmiris amongst the mujahideen. The Lashkar’s list of ‘martyred commanders’, for example, named men from all over Pakistan. The mujahideen had more sophisticated arms, communications and planning, and they inflicted much greater damage in raids on army and police posts, convoys and barracks, government buildings and civilians. Within Kashmir, conflict spread from the Kashmir valley to the Muslim majority districts of Jammu, where Hindus and nomads began to be targeted in the border villages.".
  29. ^ Bhatia 2020, p. 8: "Insurgency originated in Kashmir as an indigenous secessionist movement. However, by the time it spread widely to various parts of Jammu, it had turned extremist and ruthlessly violent in character due to the involvement of non-Kashmiri militants sneaking in from across the India–Pakistan borders. For around a decade, insurgency was at its peak in various parts of Jammu, resulting in public killings due to frequent incidents of blasts and attacks by militants in and around Jammu city.".
  30. ^ Bose 2021, p. 100: "With the help of the renegades, the Indian forces were able to reassert control over most of the Kashmir Valley. Guerrilla activity moved out to remote, forested parts of the Valley, and in the late 1990s a new, deadly theatre of insurgency opened up in the Jammu region’s Rajouri and Poonch districts (on which more below), in addition to the Doda-Kishtwar zone.".
  31. ^ Bhatia 2021, p. 84: "That being so, when Kashmir-based insurgency spread to parts of Jammu in the late 1990s and early 2000, many Muslim youth of these districts joined insurgency alongside Kashmiris and many extremist Pakistan-backed groups. Insurgency, thus, took a brutal shape when it hit these regions and many communal killings have been recorded during those periods. Hindus were targeted and killed in a few villages, during marriage ceremonies and while travelling in buses (Swami, 1998, Puri, 2008). In these districts, the responses of the Hindu communities was also extreme, as many vehemently endorsed the right-wing politics.".
  32. ^ Zutshi 2019, p. 133: "Far from desiring autonomy from India, Jammu and Ladakhi politics was based on demands for autonomy from Kashmir and its repressive governments instead, and greater integration with India. … The insurgency, thus, widened the divides among the sub-regions of Kashmir, the long-term repercussions of which on state politics are only recently becoming clearer.".
  33. ^ Behera 2006, (p. 115) "The winter of 1989–90 marked the onset of the Kashmiri insurgency … while the Ladakhi Buddhists began their violent agitation for status as a union territory in August 1989. The next few years witnessed a growing communalization of the political idiom, strategies, and goals of various political movements in the state. Where the Kashmiris cast their demand for secession in terms of a Hindu-Muslim divide, especially after the Pandit exodus in 1990, the Buddhists mobilized against the Kashmiris on the basis of a Buddhist-Muslim divide, which they also extended to the Shias of Leh, who are almost all of Balti stock and ethnically similar to Ladakhi Buddhists." (p. 122) "After suffering political and economic neglect at the hands of successive state governments, Jammu began making demands again as well. These ranged from a separate state of Jammu to regional autonomy and a regional council. Significantly, the proposals were all rooted in Jammu’s regional aspirations, while the religious (Hindu) identity remained dormant.".
  34. ^ Schofield 2003, pp. 184–185:"Neither the Buddhists of Ladakh nor the Hindus of Jammu share the objectives of the Muslim Kashmiris of the valley. Their main concern has been to press for autonomy against dominance from the more populous valley. … In Ladakh, the troubles between Muslims of the Kargil district and Buddhists which erupted in 1989 have now subsided. … However, even the Muslims of Jammu, who are not Kashmiri speaking, do not necessarily support the demands of the valley Kashmiri Muslims. … Mistrust, however, remains between Muslims and the displaced Kashmiri Pandits, some of whom are now demanding a separate homeland in the valley for the 700,000 Pandits living in different parts of India.".
  35. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 273–274: "Upwards of 100,000 of [Kashmiri Hindus] left the state during the early 1990s; their cause was quickly taken up by the Hindu right. As the government sought to locate ‘suspects’ and weed out Pakistani ‘infiltrators’, the entire population was subjected to a fierce repression. By the end of the 1990s, the Indian military presence had escalated to approximately one soldier or paramilitary policeman for every five Kashmiris, and some 30,000 people had died in the conflict. Subsequent years saw a reduction in violence coupled with widespread participation in Indian elections, and a consequent lowering of troop strength despite the absence of a settlement. The general consensus is that the Kashmiris seek a degree of regional autonomy, not a union with Pakistan.".
  36. ^ Kumar & Puri 2009, p. 268: "The Indian government adopted increasingly draconian measures in response, and civilians were frequently trapped in the battle between Indian troops and the Islamic militias. The counter-insurgency policy of using erstwhile mujahideen to fight present ones worsened an already fragile law and order infrastructure, letting in revenge killings. By the end of the decade, more than 35,000 people had been killed, the vast majority Muslim, and families who had lost one member at the hands of Islamic militias and another at the hands of the security forces were more a norm than exceptions in the Kashmir valley.".
  37. ^ Bose 2021, pp. 131–132: "That new phase of the Kashmir conflict came to be symbolised not by the gun-wielding insurgent – armed militancy did not revive significantly – but by the stone-pelter. Mass stone-pelting at the enforcers of the state-of-exception regime revived a decades-old tradition of protest in the Valley, which had been temporarily displaced by the Kalashnikov-carrying insurgents from 1990 to the mid-2000s. Major stone-pelting uprisings led by a new generation of youth born in the 1990s broke out in the Kashmir Valley in 2010 and again in 2016, and during the decade the stone replaced the AK-47s wielded by the previous generation as the weapon of everyday struggle.".
  38. ^ Webb 2012, p. 49: "Since mid-2010, Srinagar and other areas of the Valley have been regularly shut down by violent protests, strikes and curfews, as a new generation of Kashmiris who have grown up surrounded by political violence continue to press the claim for separation from India.".
  39. ^ Snedden 2021, p. 280: "In 2010, over 120 ‘unarmed’ Kashmiris were killed by police in protests that followed the security forces’ alleged staged killings of three Kashmiri civilians in Kupwara District.75 (Six Army personnel were later court martialled and sentenced to life imprisonment, but were bailed in 2017 pending a retrial.) One of the protesters was a young Kashmiri whose death further enraged Kashmiris.".
  40. ^ Chowdhary 2016, p. 151: "However, it was in 2010 that Kashmir witnessed massive resistance politics. For five months of summer, the normal political processes came to a halt and whole of Kashmir was overtaken by separatist upsurge. The background to this upsurge was provided by the continuous eruption over the incidents of human rights violations by the security forces. Though there were other protests in the early months of 2010, it was the case of the killing of three civilians in Machail sector that resulted in massive protests. The killing of 17-year-old boy Tufail Mattoo during these protests led to further protests. In a cycle of protests and killing during the protests around 110 people were killed. The protests with each killing became intensified.".
  41. ^ Bose 2021, pp. 180–181: "In July 2016, the Kashmir Valley descended into a maelstrom of violence that lasted six months before tapering off in early 2017. The trigger was the death of Burhan Wani, a militant in his early twenties. ... His career as a guerrilla was rather curious. Although he was an active militant for almost six years and evaded capture by hiding out in the forested upper reaches of Tral, he is not known to have engaged in any significant operations against the Indian forces. That may explain the longevity of his guerrilla existence – six years is an unusually long time for a militant to survive on the run in Kashmir. ... During his guerrilla years, Burhan Wani became a household name in the Kashmir Valley – as a social-media celebrity. He used Facebook to post photographs of himself and his comrades, and audio and video clips in which he sermonised about armed struggle and resistance.".
  42. ^ Snedden 2021, pp. 280–281: "In July 2016, severely agitated Kashmiris staged massive protests after the Indian security forces killed the young, high-profile and popular, Kashmiri militant, Burhan Wani, from the Hizbul Mujahideen. According to Indian Army officers, Wani was a ‘Facebook fighter’: he ‘fought’ using social media rather than in actual kinetic operations against India’s security forces. Kashmiris saw him otherwise: they considered him to be a more moderate and inclusive fighter, a ‘poster boy’ militant, even ‘a phenomenon, the glamorous hero of an almost romantic anti-State rebellion’.".
  43. ^ Kazi 2018, pp. 173–174: "In 2016 Kashmir witnessed an extraordinary revolt in the aftermath of the extrajudicial murder of Burhan Wani, a young militant commander, in an encounter with the army and the police in Pulwama. Unlike previous protests that spread from urban to rural areas, Wani’s death prompted a spontaneous mass revolt across Kashmir, especially in rural areas of southern Kashmir that had been relatively pacified. The Indian state sought to contain the uprising through a brutal, punitive response, resulting in a spate of killings, the blinding of civilians through the use of pellet guns, the destruction of civilian property, violence and assault against women by security forces, the arrest and/or disappearance of protesting youths, and a blockade of civil supplies amid an undeclared albeit formidable siege across Kashmir Valley.".
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  104. ^ Gupta, Jammu and Kashmir 2012, pp. 156–: "At the next meeting the Security Council appointed Sir Owen Dixon as the U.N. representative for India and Pakistan on 12 April 1950. He was to implement the McNaughton proposals for the demilitarization of the State."
  105. ^ Josef Korbel (8 December 2015). Danger in Kashmir. Princeton University Press. pp. 168–. ISBN 978-1-4008-7523-8. It called upon India and Pakistan 'to prepare and execute within a period of five months from the date of this resolution a programme of demilitarization on the basis of principles 2 of General McNaughton's proposal.; It further decided to replace the United Nations Commission by a representative entrusted with arbitrary powers 'to interpret the agreements reached by the parties for demilitarization,' in case they should agree in this most important matter. It also requested this representative to make any suggestions which would in his opinion expedite and offer an enduring solution to the Kashmir dispute.
  106. ^ Victoria Schofield (30 May 2010). Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War. I.B.Tauris. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-0-85773-078-7. On 27 May 1950 the Australian jurist, Sir Owen Dixon, arrived in the sub-continent, as the one man successor to UNCIP...Patel wrote to Nehru that Dixon was working to bring about an agreement on the question of demilitarisation.
  107. ^ Gupta, Jammu and Kashmir 2012, p. 160–: "He summed up his impressions in very strong language, sharply taking India to task for its negative attitude towards the various alternative demilitarization proposals."
  108. ^ Snedden, Christopher (2005), "Would a plebiscite have resolved the Kashmir dispute?", South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 28 (1): 64–86, doi:10.1080/00856400500056145, S2CID 145020726
  109. ^ Gupta, Jammu and Kashmir 2012, pp. 161–: "In any case, Pakistan turned down the proposal on the ground that India's commitment for a plebiscite in the whole of Jammu and Kashmir should not be departed from."
  110. ^ Josef Korbel (8 December 2015). Danger in Kashmir. Princeton University Press. pp. 173–. ISBN 978-1-4008-7523-8. India, Pakistan insisted, was committed to a plebiscite in the State of Jammu and Kashmir as a whole.
  111. ^ Hilal, A.Z. (1997). "Kashmir dispute and UN mediation efforts: An historical perspective". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 8 (2): 75. This time it was Pakistan who refused to accept his proposal, arguing that Pakistan considered it a breach of India's agreement that: 'The destination of the state....as a whole should be decided by a single plebiscite taken over the entire state'.
  112. ^ Snedden, Christopher (2005). "Would a plebiscite have resolved the Kashmir dispute?". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 28: 64–86. doi:10.1080/00856400500056145. S2CID 145020726.
  113. ^ Gupta, Jammu and Kashmir 2012, pp. 161–162: "Troops of both countries were to be excluded from the limited plebiscite area...On 16 August 1950 the Indian Prime Minister rejected the plan for limited plebiscite on the following grounds:...4)The security of the State necessitated the presence of Indian troops and the exclusion of the Pakistani troops from the plebiscite area. India would not depart from that principle. Sir Owen Dixon disagreed with the Indian position. He aired his views that a neutral administration was necessary for a fair plebiscite, that the exclusion of Indian troops...were essential prerequisites of the same."
  114. ^ Bradnock, Robert W. (998), "Regional geopolitics in a globalising world: Kashmir in geopolitical perspective", Geopolitics, 3 (2): 11, doi:10.1080/14650049808407617, More importantly, Dixon concluded that it was impossible to get India's agreement to any reasonable terms. 'In the end I became convinced that India's agreement would never be obtained to demilitarisation in any such form, or to provisions governing the period of the plebiscite of any such character, as would in my opinion permit of the plebiscite being conducted in conditions sufficiently guarding against intimidation and other forms of influence and abuse by which the freedom and fairness of the plebiscite might be imperilled.
  115. ^ Victoria Schofield (2000). Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War. I.B.Tauris. pp. 83–. ISBN 978-1-86064-898-4. Yet again the question of demilitarisation was the sticking point, causing Dixon to conclude: 'In the end I became convinced that India's agreement would never be obtained to demilitarisation in any such form, or to provisions governing the period of the plebiscite of any such character, as would in my opinion permit of the plebiscite being conducted in conditions sufficiently guarding against intimidation and other forms of influence and abuse by which the freedom and fairness of the plebiscite might be imperilled'. Without such demilitarisation, the local 'Azad' and regular Pakistani forces were not prepared to withdraw from the territory they had retained.
  116. ^ Schaffer, The Limits of Influence 2009, pp. 30–: "The failure of the Dixon mission seems to have sharpened even further Ambassador Henderson's already deep suspicions of Indian motives and good faith. He concluded that growing resentment in India about the allegedly pro-Pakistan attitude of the United States on Kashmir—which he reported had been quietly stimulated by Nehru himself-made it desirable to have Britain and other commonwealth countries take the lead in working out a solution...Washington appears to have heeded the ambassador's advice."
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Bibliography

Further reading

Pre-independence history

Partition and post-independence

External links