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Recep Tayyip Erdogan

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan [b] (nacido el 26 de febrero de 1954) es un político turco que es el duodécimo y actual presidente de Turquía desde 2014. Anteriormente se desempeñó como el 25º primer ministro de 2003 a 2014 como parte del Partido de Justicia y Desarrollo (AKP), que cofundó en 2001. También se desempeñó como alcalde de Estambul de 1994 a 1998.

Erdoğan nació en Beyoğlu , Estambul , y estudió en la Academia Aksaray de Ciencias Económicas y Comerciales , antes de trabajar como consultor y gerente senior en el sector privado. Se volvió activo en la política local, fue elegido presidente del distrito de Beyoğlu del Partido del Bienestar en 1984 y presidente de Estambul en 1985. Después de las elecciones locales de 1994 , Erdoğan fue elegido alcalde de Estambul. Dijo en ese momento: " La democracia es como un tren: cuando llegamos a nuestro destino, nos bajamos ". [4] En 1998 fue condenado por incitar al odio religioso y prohibido de la política después de recitar un poema de Ziya Gökalp que comparaba las mezquitas con cuarteles y a los fieles con un ejército. Erdoğan fue liberado de prisión en 1999 y formó el AKP, abandonando las políticas abiertamente islamistas.

Erdoğan llevó al AKP a una victoria aplastante en las elecciones para la Gran Asamblea Nacional en 2002, y se convirtió en primer ministro después de ganar una elección parcial en Siirt en 2003. Erdoğan llevó al AKP a dos victorias electorales más en 2007 y 2011. Su mandato consistió en la recuperación económica de la crisis económica de 2001 , el inicio de las negociaciones de membresía de la UE y la reducción de la influencia militar en la política . A fines de 2012, su gobierno comenzó las negociaciones de paz con el Partido de los Trabajadores del Kurdistán (PKK) para poner fin al conflicto kurdo-turco , negociaciones que finalizaron tres años después.

En 2014, Erdoğan se convirtió en el primer presidente elegido directamente del país . La presidencia de Erdoğan ha estado marcada por un retroceso democrático y un cambio hacia un estilo de gobierno más autoritario . Sus políticas económicas han provocado altas tasas de inflación y la depreciación del valor de la lira turca . Ha intervenido en los conflictos en curso en Siria y Libia , lanzó operaciones contra el Estado Islámico , las Fuerzas Democráticas Sirias y las fuerzas de Asad , y ha hecho amenazas contra Grecia . Supervisó la transformación del sistema parlamentario de Turquía en un sistema presidencial , introduciendo límites de mandato y ampliando los poderes ejecutivos, y la crisis migratoria de Turquía . Erdoğan respondió a la invasión rusa de Ucrania en 2022 cerrando el Bósforo a los refuerzos navales rusos, negociando un acuerdo entre Rusia y Ucrania sobre la exportación de cereales y mediando en un intercambio de prisioneros. [5]

Vida temprana y educación

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan nació el 26 de febrero de 1954 en una familia musulmana conservadora pobre . [6] [7] La ​​familia de Erdoğan es originaria de Adjara , una región de Georgia . [8] Aunque se informó que Erdoğan dijo en 2003 que era de origen georgiano y que sus orígenes estaban en Batumi , [7] [9] más tarde lo negó. [7] Sus padres fueron Ahmet Erdoğan (1905-1988) y Tenzile Erdoğan ( née Mutlu; 1924-2011). [10]

Mientras Erdoğan asistía a la escuela en Estambul, pasaba la mayor parte de sus vacaciones de verano en Güneysu , Rize, de donde es originaria su familia. A lo largo de su vida, volvió a menudo a este hogar espiritual y en 2015 abrió una enorme mezquita en la cima de una montaña cerca de este pueblo. [11] La familia regresó a Estambul cuando Erdoğan tenía 13 años. [12]

Cuando era adolescente, el padre de Erdoğan le proporcionaba una asignación semanal de 2,5 liras turcas, menos de un dólar. Con ella, Erdoğan compraba postales y las revendía en la calle. Vendía botellas de agua a los conductores atrapados en el tráfico. Erdoğan también trabajaba como vendedor ambulante vendiendo simit (anillos de pan de sésamo), vistiendo una bata blanca y vendiendo el simit desde un carrito rojo de tres ruedas con los panecillos apilados detrás de un cristal. [12] En su juventud, Erdoğan jugó al fútbol semiprofesional en el Camialtıspor FC, un club local. [13] [1] [14] [15] Fenerbahçe quería que se transfiriera al club [ aclaración necesaria ] pero su padre lo impidió. [16] El estadio del club de fútbol local en el distrito donde creció, Kasımpaşa SK, lleva su nombre. [17] [18]

Erdoğan es miembro de la Comunidad de İskenderpaşa , una comunidad sufista turca de la tariqah Naqshbandi . [19] [20]

Educación

Erdoğan se graduó de la Escuela Primaria Kasımpaşa Piyale en 1965, y de la Escuela Secundaria İmam Hatip de Estambul , una escuela secundaria vocacional religiosa, en 1973. [21] El mismo camino educativo fue seguido por otros cofundadores del Partido AK . [22] Una cuarta parte del plan de estudios de las escuelas İmam Hatip implica el estudio del Corán , la vida del profeta islámico Mahoma y el idioma árabe . Erdoğan estudió el Corán en el İmam Hatip, donde sus compañeros de clase comenzaron a llamarlo hoca ("maestro" o "oficial religioso").

Erdoğan asistió a una reunión del grupo estudiantil nacionalista Unión Nacional de Estudiantes Turcos ( Milli Türk Talebe Birliği ), que buscaba formar una cohorte conservadora de jóvenes para contrarrestar el creciente movimiento de izquierdas en Turquía. Dentro del grupo, Erdoğan se distinguió por sus habilidades oratorias, desarrollando una inclinación por hablar en público y sobresaliendo frente a una audiencia. Ganó el primer lugar en un concurso de lectura de poesía organizado por la Comunidad de Pintores Técnicos Turcos, y comenzó a prepararse para discursos mediante la lectura y la investigación. Erdoğan comentaría más tarde sobre estos concursos como "un aumento de nuestro coraje para hablar frente a las masas". [23]

Erdoğan quería realizar estudios superiores en la Facultad de Ciencias Políticas de la Universidad de Ankara , conocida comúnmente como Mülkiye, pero sólo los estudiantes con diplomas de bachillerato regular podían solicitarlo, excluyendo así a los graduados de Imam Hatip. Mülkiye era conocida por su departamento de ciencias políticas, que formó a muchos estadistas y políticos en Turquía. Erdoğan fue entonces admitido en la Escuela Secundaria Eyüp, una escuela estatal regular. El hecho de que finalmente recibiera un diploma de bachillerato de esta escuela es un tema de debate. [24] [25]

Según su biografía oficial, Erdoğan posteriormente estudió administración de empresas en la Escuela de Economía y Ciencias Comerciales de Aksaray ( en turco : Aksaray İktisat ve Ticaret Yüksekokulu ), ahora conocida como la Facultad de Economía y Ciencias Administrativas de la Universidad de Mármara . [1] Tanto la autenticidad como el estatus de su título han sido objeto de disputas y controversias sobre si el diploma es legítimo y debe considerarse suficiente para hacerlo elegible como candidato a la presidencia. [26]

Carrera política temprana

El primer ministro Erdoğan el 18 de marzo de 2008, durante la ceremonia del Día de la Victoria y el Recuerdo de los Mártires de Çanakkale

En 1976, Erdoğan se dedicó a la política al unirse a la Unión Nacional de Estudiantes Turcos, un grupo de acción anticomunista . Ese mismo año, se convirtió en jefe de la sección juvenil de Beyoğlu del Partido de Salvación Nacional (MSP) islamista, [27] y más tarde fue ascendido a presidente de la sección juvenil de Estambul. [21] Ocupó este puesto hasta el golpe militar de 1980 que disolvió todos los partidos políticos principales. Pasó a ser consultor y alto ejecutivo en el sector privado tras el golpe.

Tres años después, en 1983, Erdoğan siguió los pasos de la mayoría de los seguidores de Necmettin Erbakan y se unió al recién fundado Partido del Bienestar (PR). El nuevo partido, al igual que sus predecesores, se adhirió a la corriente islamista de Erbakan , la Visión Nacional . Erdoğan se convirtió en presidente del distrito de Beyoğlu en 1984 y jefe de su rama de Estambul en 1985. Erdoğan se presentó a las elecciones parlamentarias parciales de 1986 como candidato en el sexto distrito electoral de Estambul, pero no logró ser elegido. Tres años después, Erdoğan se presentó a la alcaldía del distrito de Beyoğlu, quedando en segundo lugar con el 22,8% de los votos. [28]

En las elecciones generales de 1991 , el Partido del Bienestar duplicó con creces su porcentaje de votos en Estambul en comparación con cuatro años antes, alcanzando el 16,7%. En un principio, se pensó que Erdoğan, que encabezaba la lista de distrito de su partido, había sido elegido para el parlamento. Sin embargo, como producto del sistema de representación proporcional de lista abierta adoptado durante el mandato anterior, después de que se tabularan todos los votos que expresaban una preferencia por un candidato, fue Mustafa Baş quien obtuvo el escaño asignado al Partido del Bienestar. Una diferencia de aproximadamente 4.000 votos preferenciales separó a los dos, con ~13.000 de Baş frente a ~9.000 de Erdoğan. [29]

Alcalde de Estambul (1994-1998)

En las elecciones locales de 1994 , Erdoğan se presentó como candidato a la alcaldía de Estambul . Era un candidato joven y desconocido en un campo abarrotado. A lo largo de la campaña, los medios de comunicación se burlaron de él y sus oponentes lo trataron como un patán. [30] En una sorpresa, ganó con el 25,19% del voto popular, lo que lo convirtió en la primera vez que un alcalde de Estambul era elegido de su partido político. Su victoria coincidió con una ola de victorias del Partido del Bienestar en todo el país, ya que ganaron 28 alcaldías provinciales (la mayor cantidad de cualquier partido) y numerosos escaños metropolitanos, incluida la capital, Ankara.

Erdoğan gobernó de manera pragmática, centrándose en cuestiones básicas. Su objetivo era abordar los problemas crónicos que asolaban la metrópoli, como la escasez de agua , la contaminación (en particular los problemas de recolección de residuos) y el tráfico gravemente congestionado. Emprendió una renovación de la infraestructura: amplió y modernizó la red de agua con la instalación de cientos de kilómetros de nuevas tuberías y construyó más de cincuenta puentes, viaductos y tramos de autopista para mitigar el tráfico. Se construyeron instalaciones de reciclaje de última generación y se redujo la contaminación del aire mediante un plan para cambiar al gas natural. Cambió los autobuses públicos por otros respetuosos con el medio ambiente. Tomó precauciones para prevenir la corrupción, utilizando medidas para garantizar que los fondos municipales se utilizaran con prudencia. Pagó una parte importante de la deuda de dos mil millones de dólares de la Municipalidad Metropolitana de Estambul e invirtió cuatro mil millones de dólares en la ciudad. [31] También abrió el Ayuntamiento a la gente, dio su dirección de correo electrónico y estableció líneas directas municipales. [32]

Erdoğan inició la primera mesa redonda de alcaldes durante la conferencia de Estambul , que dio lugar a un movimiento mundial organizado de alcaldes. Un jurado internacional de siete miembros de las Naciones Unidas otorgó por unanimidad a Erdoğan el premio ONU-Hábitat . [33]

Prisión

En diciembre de 1997 en Siirt , Erdoğan recitó una versión modificada del poema "La oración del soldado" escrito por Ziya Gökalp , un activista pan-turco de principios del siglo XX. [34] Esta versión incluía una estrofa adicional al principio, sus dos primeros versos decían "Las mezquitas son nuestros cuarteles, las cúpulas nuestros cascos / Los minaretes nuestras bayonetas y los fieles nuestros soldados..." [12] Según el artículo 312/2 del código penal turco, su recitación fue considerada por el juez como una incitación a la violencia y al odio religioso o racial. [35] [36] [34] En su defensa, Erdoğan dijo que el poema fue publicado en libros aprobados por el estado. [32] Cómo esta versión del poema terminó en un libro publicado por la Institución de Normas Turcas siguió siendo un tema de discusión. [37]

Erdoğan fue condenado a diez meses de prisión. [36] Se vio obligado a renunciar a su puesto de alcalde debido a su condena. La condena también estipuló una prohibición política, que le impedía participar en las elecciones. [38] Había apelado para que la sentencia se convirtiera en una multa monetaria, pero en su lugar se redujo a cuatro meses (del 24 de marzo de 1999 al 27 de julio de 1999). [39]

Erdoğan fue trasladado a la prisión de Pınarhisar en Kırklareli . El día que Erdoğan fue a prisión, lanzó un álbum llamado This Song Doesn't End Here . [40] El álbum presenta una lista de canciones de siete poemas y se convirtió en el álbum más vendido de Turquía en 1999, vendiendo más de un millón de copias. [41] En 2013, Erdoğan visitó la prisión de Pınarhisar nuevamente por primera vez en catorce años. Después de la visita, dijo: "Para mí, Pınarhisar es un símbolo de renacimiento, donde preparamos el establecimiento del Partido de la Justicia y el Desarrollo". [42]

Partido Justicia y Desarrollo

Reunión del líder del partido Erdoğan con Romano Prodi ( presidente de la Comisión Europea ) y Günter Verheugen ( comisario europeo de Vecindad y Ampliación ) en Bruselas , Bélgica , 2002

Erdoğan fue miembro de partidos políticos que fueron prohibidos por el ejército o los jueces. Dentro de su Partido de la Virtud , hubo una disputa sobre el discurso apropiado del partido entre los políticos tradicionales y los políticos pro-reforma. Estos últimos imaginaron un partido que pudiera operar dentro de los límites del sistema, y ​​por lo tanto no ser prohibido como sus predecesores como el Partido del Orden Nacional , el Partido de Salvación Nacional y el Partido del Bienestar . Querían darle al grupo el carácter de un partido conservador ordinario con sus miembros siendo demócratas musulmanes siguiendo el ejemplo de los demócratas cristianos de Europa . [32]

Cuando en 2001 también se prohibió el Partido de la Virtud, se produjo una división definitiva: los seguidores de Necmettin Erbakan fundaron el Partido de la Felicidad (SP) y los reformistas fundaron el Partido de la Justicia y el Desarrollo (AKP) bajo el liderazgo de Abdullah Gül y Erdoğan. Los políticos pro-reforma se dieron cuenta de que un partido estrictamente islámico nunca sería aceptado como partido gobernante por el aparato estatal y creían que un partido islámico no atraía a más de un 20 por ciento del electorado turco. El partido AK se presentó enfáticamente como un partido conservador democrático amplio con nuevos políticos del centro político (como Ali Babacan y Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu ), al tiempo que respetaba las normas y valores islámicos, pero sin un programa religioso explícito. Esto resultó ser un éxito ya que el nuevo partido ganó el 34% de los votos en las elecciones generales de 2002. Erdoğan se convirtió en primer ministro en marzo de 2003 después de que el gobierno de Gül pusiera fin a su prohibición política. [43]

Cargo de primer ministro

El primer ministro Erdoğan durante una conferencia de prensa con el presidente del gobierno español, Mariano Rajoy , en la Oficina del Primer Ministro (Başbakanlık), en 2014

Elecciones generales

Las elecciones de 2002 fueron las primeras en las que Erdoğan participó como líder de un partido. Todos los partidos elegidos previamente para el parlamento no lograron obtener suficientes votos para volver a ingresar al parlamento. El AKP ganó el 34,3% del voto nacional y formó el nuevo gobierno. Las acciones turcas subieron más del 7% el lunes por la mañana. Los políticos de la generación anterior, como Ecevit , Bahceli , Yılmaz y Çiller , dimitieron. El segundo partido más grande, el CHP, recibió el 19,4% de los votos. El AKP obtuvo una victoria aplastante en el parlamento, obteniendo casi dos tercios de los escaños. Erdoğan no pudo convertirse en primer ministro porque el poder judicial aún lo prohibía participar en la política por su discurso en Siirt. Gül se convirtió en primer ministro en su lugar. En diciembre de 2002, la Junta Electoral Suprema anuló los resultados de las elecciones generales de Siirt debido a irregularidades en la votación y programó una nueva elección para el 9 de febrero de 2003 . En ese momento, el líder del partido Erdoğan pudo presentarse como candidato al parlamento gracias a un cambio legal hecho posible por el opositor Partido Republicano del Pueblo. El AKP incluyó a Erdoğan como candidato para las elecciones reprogramadas, que ganó y se convirtió en primer ministro después de que Gül entregara el cargo. [44]

El 14 de abril de 2007, aproximadamente 300.000 personas marcharon en Ankara para protestar contra la posible candidatura de Erdoğan en las elecciones presidenciales de 2007, temerosos de que, si era elegido presidente, alteraría la naturaleza secular del Estado turco. [45] Erdoğan anunció el 24 de abril de 2007 que el partido había nominado a Abdullah Gül como candidato del AKP en las elecciones presidenciales. [46] [47] Las protestas continuaron durante las siguientes semanas; se informó de que más de un millón de personas participaron en una manifestación el 29 de abril en Estambul, [48] decenas de miles en protestas separadas el 4 de mayo en Manisa y Çanakkale , [49] y un millón en Esmirna el 13 de mayo. [50]

El escenario de las elecciones de 2007 estaba preparado para una lucha por la legitimidad a los ojos de los votantes entre su gobierno y el CHP. Erdoğan utilizó el evento que tuvo lugar durante las desafortunadas elecciones presidenciales unos meses antes como parte de la campaña electoral general de su partido. El 22 de julio de 2007, el AKP obtuvo una importante victoria sobre la oposición, obteniendo el 46,7% del voto popular. Las elecciones del 22 de julio marcaron la segunda vez en la historia de la República de Turquía en la que un partido gobernante en el poder ganó una elección al aumentar su porcentaje de apoyo popular. [51] El 14 de marzo de 2008, el Fiscal General de Turquía solicitó al Tribunal Constitucional del país que prohibiera el partido gobernante de Erdoğan. [52] El partido se libró de la prohibición el 30 de julio de 2008, un año después de ganar el 46,7% de los votos en las elecciones nacionales, aunque los jueces redujeron la financiación pública del partido en un 50%. [53]

En las elecciones de junio de 2011, el partido gobernante de Erdoğan obtuvo 327 escaños (49,83% del voto popular), lo que lo convirtió en el único primer ministro en la historia de Turquía en ganar tres elecciones generales consecutivas, recibiendo cada vez más votos que en la elección anterior. El segundo partido, el Partido Republicano del Pueblo (CHP), obtuvo 135 escaños (25,94%), el nacionalista MHP obtuvo 53 escaños (13,01%) y los Independientes obtuvieron 35 escaños (6,58%). [54]

En 2013, un escándalo de corrupción por 100 mil millones de dólares llevó al arresto de aliados cercanos de Erdoğan y lo incriminó. [55] [56] [57]

Referendos

Erdoğan en una reunión con el líder de la oposición principal, Deniz Baykal, del Partido Republicano del Pueblo (CHP)

Después de que los partidos de oposición bloquearan las elecciones presidenciales de 2007 boicoteando el parlamento, el gobernante AKP propuso un paquete de reformas constitucionales. El paquete de reformas fue vetado primero por el presidente Ahmet Necdet Sezer . Luego presentó una solicitud al tribunal constitucional turco sobre el paquete de reformas, porque el presidente no puede vetar enmiendas por segunda vez. El tribunal constitucional turco no encontró ningún problema en el paquete y el 68,95% de los votantes apoyaron los cambios constitucionales. [58] Las reformas consistieron en elegir al presidente por voto popular en lugar de por el parlamento; reducir el mandato presidencial de siete años a cinco; permitir que el presidente se presente a la reelección para un segundo mandato; celebrar elecciones generales cada cuatro años en lugar de cinco; y reducir de 367 a 184 el quórum de legisladores necesario para las decisiones parlamentarias.

La reforma de la Constitución fue una de las principales promesas del AKP durante la campaña electoral de 2007. El principal partido de oposición, el CHP, no estaba interesado en alterar la Constitución a gran escala, lo que hizo imposible formar una Comisión Constitucional ( Anayasa Uzlaşma Komisyonu ). [59] Las enmiendas carecían de la mayoría de dos tercios necesaria para convertirse en ley instantáneamente, pero consiguieron 336 votos en el parlamento de 550 escaños, suficientes para someter las propuestas a referéndum. El paquete de reformas incluía una serie de cuestiones como el derecho de los individuos a apelar ante el tribunal más alto, la creación de la oficina del defensor del pueblo ; la posibilidad de negociar un contrato laboral a nivel nacional; la igualdad de género; la capacidad de los tribunales civiles para condenar a miembros del ejército; el derecho de los funcionarios públicos a hacer huelga; una ley de privacidad; y la estructura del Tribunal Constitucional . El referéndum fue aprobado por una mayoría del 58%. [60]

Política interna

Cuestión kurda

En 2009, el gobierno del primer ministro Erdoğan anunció un plan para ayudar a poner fin al conflicto de un cuarto de siglo entre Turquía y el Partido de los Trabajadores del Kurdistán que había costado más de 40.000 vidas. El plan del gobierno, apoyado por la Unión Europea , pretendía permitir que se utilizara el idioma kurdo en todos los medios de difusión y campañas políticas, y restableció los nombres kurdos a las ciudades y pueblos que habían recibido nombres turcos . [61] Erdoğan dijo: "Hemos dado un paso valiente para resolver los problemas crónicos que constituyen un obstáculo para el desarrollo, el progreso y el empoderamiento de Turquía". [61] Erdoğan aprobó una amnistía parcial para reducir las penas que enfrentaban muchos miembros del movimiento guerrillero kurdo PKK que se habían rendido al gobierno. [62] El 23 de noviembre de 2011, durante una reunión televisada de su partido en Ankara, se disculpó en nombre del estado por la masacre de Dersim , donde murieron muchos alevíes y zazas . [63] En 2013, el gobierno de Erdoğan inició un proceso de paz entre el Partido de los Trabajadores del Kurdistán (PKK) y el gobierno turco, [64] mediado por parlamentarios del Partido Democrático de los Pueblos (HDP). [65]

En 2015, tras la derrota electoral del AKP, el ascenso de un partido de oposición socialdemócrata y pro-kurdo , y el pequeño incidente de Ceylanpınar , decidió que el proceso de paz había terminado y apoyó la revocación de la inmunidad parlamentaria de los parlamentarios del HDP. [66] La confrontación violenta se reanudó en 2015-2017, principalmente en el sureste de Turquía, lo que resultó en un mayor número de muertos y varias operaciones externas por parte del ejército turco. Los representantes y los electos del HDP han sido sistemáticamente arrestados, removidos y reemplazados en sus cargos, tendencia que se confirmó después del intento de golpe de Estado turco de 2016 y las purgas posteriores . Se produjeron seis mil muertes adicionales solo en Turquía durante 2015-2022. Sin embargo, a partir de 2022, la intensidad del conflicto PKK-Turquía disminuyó en los últimos años. [67] En la década anterior, Erdogan y el gobierno del AKP utilizaron la retórica marcial contra el PKK y operaciones externas para aumentar los votos nacionalistas turcos antes de las elecciones. [68] [69] [70]

Genocidio armenio

Erdoğan ha dicho varias veces que Turquía reconocería las matanzas masivas de armenios durante la Primera Guerra Mundial como genocidio solo después de una investigación exhaustiva por parte de una comisión conjunta turco-armenia compuesta por historiadores, arqueólogos , politólogos y otros expertos. [71] [72] [73] En 2005, Erdoğan y el líder del principal partido de oposición, Deniz Baykal, escribieron una carta al presidente de Armenia, Robert Kocharyan , proponiendo la creación de una comisión conjunta turco-armenia. [74] El ministro de Asuntos Exteriores de Armenia, Vartan Oskanian, rechazó la oferta porque afirmó que la propuesta en sí era "insincera y no seria". Añadió: "Esta cuestión no puede considerarse a nivel histórico con los turcos, que ellos mismos politizaron el problema". [75] [76]

En diciembre de 2008, Erdoğan criticó la campaña “Me disculpo” de los intelectuales turcos para reconocer el genocidio armenio, diciendo: “No acepto ni apoyo esta campaña. No cometimos ningún crimen, por lo tanto no necesitamos disculparnos… No tendrá ningún beneficio más que provocar problemas, perturbar nuestra paz y deshacer los pasos que se han tomado”. [77]

En 2011, Erdoğan calificó de "extrañamente fea" ( en turco : ucube ) la estatua de 33 metros de altura del Monumento a la Humanidad, dedicada a fomentar las relaciones entre Armenia y Turquía, y ordenó su demolición. Posteriormente, un juez turco multó a Erdoğan por insultar la obra y el creador recibió una indemnización por la "violación de la libertad de expresión".

En 2011, Erdoğan ordenó el derribo del Monumento a la Humanidad de 33 metros de altura (108 pies) , un monumento de amistad turco-armenia en Kars , que se encargó en 2006 y representaba una metáfora del acercamiento de los dos países después de muchos años de disputa por los acontecimientos de 1915. Erdoğan justificó la eliminación afirmando que el monumento estaba ofensivamente cerca de la tumba de un erudito islámico del siglo XI, y que su sombra arruinaba la vista de ese sitio, mientras que los funcionarios del municipio de Kars dijeron que fue erigido ilegalmente en un área protegida. Sin embargo, el ex alcalde de Kars que aprobó la construcción original del monumento dijo que el municipio estaba destruyendo no solo un "monumento a la humanidad", sino "la humanidad misma". La demolición no estuvo exenta de oposición; entre sus detractores hubo varios artistas turcos. Dos de ellos, el pintor Bedri Baykam y su socio, el coordinador general de la Galería de Arte Pirámide, Tugba Kurtulmus, fueron apuñalados después de una reunión con otros artistas en el centro cultural Akatlar de Estambul. [78]

El 23 de abril de 2014, la oficina de Erdoğan emitió una declaración en nueve idiomas (incluidos dos dialectos del armenio) en la que expresaba sus condolencias por las matanzas de armenios y afirmaba que los acontecimientos de 1915 habían tenido consecuencias inhumanas. La declaración describía las matanzas como un dolor compartido por las dos naciones y decía: “Haber vivido acontecimientos que tuvieron consecuencias inhumanas –como la reubicación– durante la Primera Guerra Mundial no debería impedir que turcos y armenios establezcan entre sí actitudes compasivas y mutuamente humanas”. [79]

En abril de 2015, en una misa especial en la Basílica de San Pedro para conmemorar el centenario de los acontecimientos, el Papa Francisco describió las atrocidades cometidas contra los civiles armenios entre 1915 y 1922 como "el primer genocidio del siglo XX". En protesta, Erdoğan retiró al embajador turco del Vaticano y convocó al embajador del Vaticano para expresar su "decepción" por lo que llamó un mensaje discriminatorio. Más tarde declaró que "no llevamos una mancha o una sombra como el genocidio". El presidente estadounidense, Barack Obama, pidió un "reconocimiento pleno, franco y justo de los hechos", pero nuevamente se abstuvo de etiquetarlo como "genocidio", a pesar de su promesa de campaña de hacerlo. [80] [81] [82]

Derechos humanos

Durante el mandato de Erdoğan como Primer Ministro, se redujeron los amplios poderes de la Ley Antiterrorista de 1991. En 2004, se abolió la pena de muerte en todas las circunstancias. [83] Se inició el proceso de iniciativa democrática , con el objetivo de mejorar los estándares democráticos en general y los derechos de las minorías étnicas y religiosas en particular. En 2012, se establecieron la Institución de Derechos Humanos e Igualdad de Turquía y la Institución del Defensor del Pueblo . Se ratificó el Protocolo Facultativo de la Convención contra la Tortura de las Naciones Unidas . Los niños ya no son procesados ​​en virtud de la legislación antiterrorista. [84] A la comunidad judía se le permitió celebrar Hanukkah públicamente por primera vez en la historia moderna de Turquía en 2015. [85] El gobierno turco aprobó una ley en 2008 para devolver las propiedades confiscadas en el pasado por el estado a fundaciones no musulmanas. [86] También allanó el camino para la asignación gratuita de lugares de culto, como sinagogas e iglesias, a fundaciones no musulmanas. [87] Sin embargo, los funcionarios europeos notaron un retorno a formas más autoritarias después del estancamiento de la propuesta de Turquía de unirse a la Unión Europea [88] en particular en materia de libertad de expresión , [89] [90] [91] libertad de prensa [92] [93] [94] y derechos de la minoría kurda . [95] [96] [97] [98] Las demandas de los activistas para el reconocimiento de los derechos LGBT fueron rechazadas públicamente por los miembros del gobierno. [99] [100]

Reporteros sin Fronteras informó de una disminución continua de la libertad de prensa durante los últimos mandatos de Erdoğan, con una clasificación de alrededor de 100 en su Índice de Libertad de Prensa durante su primer mandato y una clasificación de 153 de un total de 179 países en 2021. [101] Freedom House informó de una ligera recuperación en los últimos años y otorgó a Turquía una puntuación de libertad de prensa de 55/100 en 2012 después de un punto bajo de 48/100 en 2006. [102] [103] [104] [105]

En 2011, el gobierno de Erdoğan realizó reformas legales para devolver las propiedades de las minorías cristianas y judías que fueron confiscadas por el gobierno turco en la década de 1930. [106] El valor total de las propiedades devueltas alcanzó los 2 mil millones de dólares (USD). [107]

Bajo el gobierno de Erdoğan, el gobierno turco endureció las leyes sobre la venta y el consumo de alcohol , prohibiendo toda publicidad y aumentando el impuesto a las bebidas alcohólicas. [108]

Economía

Deuda pública de los seis principales países europeos entre 2002 y 2009 como porcentaje del PIB
PIB per cápita PPA de Turquía comparado con otras economías emergentes

En 2002, Erdoğan heredó una economía turca que estaba empezando a recuperarse de una recesión como resultado de las reformas implementadas por Kemal Derviş . [109] Erdoğan apoyó al Ministro de Finanzas Ali Babacan en la aplicación de políticas macroeconómicas. Erdoğan intentó atraer más inversores extranjeros a Turquía y levantó muchas regulaciones gubernamentales. El flujo de efectivo en la economía turca entre 2002 y 2012 causó un crecimiento del 64% en el PIB real y un aumento del 43% en el PIB per cápita; comúnmente se anunciaron números considerablemente más altos, pero estos no tomaron en cuenta la inflación del dólar estadounidense entre 2002 y 2012. [110] El crecimiento anual promedio del PIB per cápita fue del 3,6%. El crecimiento del PIB real entre 2002 y 2012 fue mayor que los valores de los países desarrollados, pero estuvo cerca del promedio cuando también se tienen en cuenta los países en desarrollo. La posición de la economía turca en términos de PIB pasó ligeramente del puesto 17 al 16 durante esta década. Una consecuencia importante de las políticas aplicadas entre 2002 y 2012 fue la ampliación del déficit de cuenta corriente de 600 millones de dólares a 58.000 millones de dólares (estimación de 2013) [111].

Desde 1961, Turquía ha firmado 19 acuerdos de préstamo con el FMI. El gobierno de Erdoğan satisfizo los requisitos presupuestarios y de mercado de los dos durante su administración y recibió cada cuota del préstamo, la única vez que un gobierno turco ha hecho esto. [112] Erdoğan heredó una deuda de $ 23,5 mil millones con el FMI, que se redujo a $ 0,9 mil millones en 2012. Decidió no firmar un nuevo acuerdo. La deuda de Turquía con el FMI se declaró así completamente pagada y anunció que el FMI podría pedir préstamos a Turquía. [113] En 2010, los swaps de incumplimiento crediticio a cinco años para la deuda soberana de Turquía se negociaban a un mínimo histórico de 1,17%, por debajo de los de nueve países miembros de la UE y Rusia. En 2002, el Banco Central Turco tenía $ 26,5 mil millones en reservas. Esta cantidad alcanzó los 92.200 millones de dólares en 2011. Durante el liderazgo de Erdoğan, la inflación cayó del 32% al 9,0% en 2004. Desde entonces, la inflación turca ha seguido fluctuando alrededor del 9% y sigue siendo una de las tasas de inflación más altas del mundo. [114] La deuda pública turca como porcentaje del PIB anual disminuyó del 74% en 2002 al 39% en 2009. En 2012, Turquía tenía una proporción de deuda pública a PIB menor que 21 de los 27 miembros de la Unión Europea y una proporción de déficit presupuestario a PIB menor que 23 de ellos. [115]

En 2003, el gobierno de Erdoğan impulsó la Ley del Trabajo, una reforma integral de las leyes laborales de Turquía. La ley amplió considerablemente los derechos de los empleados, estableciendo una semana laboral de 45 horas y limitando las horas extras a 270 horas al año, brindó protección legal contra la discriminación por motivos de sexo, religión o afiliación política, prohibió la discriminación entre trabajadores permanentes y temporales, dio derecho a una indemnización a los empleados despedidos sin "causa válida" y ordenó la firma de contratos escritos para los contratos de trabajo de un año o más de duración. [116] [117]

Educación

Erdoğan aumentó el presupuesto del Ministerio de Educación de 7.500 millones de liras en 2002 a 34.000 millones de liras en 2011, la mayor proporción del presupuesto nacional otorgada a un ministerio. [118] Antes de su mandato como primer ministro, el ejército recibía la mayor parte del presupuesto nacional. La educación obligatoria se aumentó de ocho años a doce. [119] En 2003, el gobierno turco, junto con UNICEF , inició una campaña llamada "¡Vamos niñas, [vamos] a la escuela!" ( en turco : Haydi Kızlar Okula! ). El objetivo de esta campaña era cerrar la brecha de género en la matriculación en la escuela primaria mediante la provisión de una educación básica de calidad para todas las niñas, especialmente en el sureste de Turquía. [120]

En 2005, el parlamento concedió una amnistía a los estudiantes expulsados ​​de las universidades antes de 2003. La amnistía se aplicó a los estudiantes expulsados ​​por motivos académicos o disciplinarios. [121] En 2004, los libros de texto se volvieron gratuitos y desde 2008 cada provincia de Turquía tiene su propia universidad. [122] Durante el mandato de Erdoğan, el número de universidades en Turquía casi se duplicó, de 98 en 2002 a 186 en octubre de 2012. [123]

El Primer Ministro cumplió sus promesas de campaña al iniciar el proyecto Fatih , en el que todas las escuelas estatales, desde el nivel preescolar hasta el secundario, recibieron un total de 620.000 pizarrones inteligentes, mientras que se distribuyeron tabletas a 17 millones de estudiantes y aproximadamente a un millón de profesores y administradores. [124]

En junio de 2017, Erdoğan aprobó un proyecto de propuesta del Ministerio de Educación según el cual el plan de estudios de las escuelas excluiría la enseñanza de la teoría de la evolución de Charles Darwin a partir de 2019. A partir de entonces, la enseñanza se pospondría y comenzaría en el nivel de pregrado. [125]

Infraestructura

El puente Çanakkale de 1915 , el puente colgante más largo del mundo , fue inaugurado oficialmente por Erdoğan en 2022. [126] [127]

Bajo el gobierno de Erdoğan, el número de aeropuertos en Turquía aumentó de 26 a 50 en un período de 10 años. [128] Entre la fundación de la República de Turquía en 1923 y 2002, se habían creado 6.000 km de carreteras de doble calzada . Entre 2002 y 2011, se construyeron otros 13.500 km de autopistas. Debido a estas medidas, el número de accidentes de tráfico se redujo en un 50 por ciento. [129] Por primera vez en la historia turca, se construyeron líneas ferroviarias de alta velocidad , y el servicio de trenes de alta velocidad del país comenzó en 2009. [130] En 8 años, se construyeron 1.076 km de vías férreas y se renovaron 5.449 km de vías férreas. La construcción de Marmaray , un túnel ferroviario submarino bajo el estrecho del Bósforo , comenzó en 2004. Se inauguró en el 90 aniversario de la República Turca el 29 de octubre de 2013. [131] La inauguración del Puente Yavuz Sultan Selim , el tercer puente sobre el Bósforo , fue el 26 de agosto de 2016. [132]

Justicia

El nuevo edificio del Tribunal de Casación ( Yargıtay ) en Ankara se inauguró en 2021.

En marzo de 2006, la Junta Suprema de Jueces y Fiscales (HSYK) celebró una conferencia de prensa para protestar públicamente por la obstrucción del nombramiento de jueces para los tribunales superiores durante más de 10 meses. La HSYK dijo que Erdoğan quería llenar los puestos vacantes con sus propios designados. Erdoğan fue acusado de crear una ruptura con el tribunal de apelación más alto de Turquía, el Yargıtay , y el tribunal administrativo superior, el Danıştay . Erdoğan declaró que la constitución otorgaba el poder de asignar estos puestos a su partido electo. [133]

En mayo de 2007, el presidente del Tribunal Supremo de Turquía pidió a los fiscales que consideraran si Erdoğan debía ser acusado por comentarios críticos con respecto a la elección de Abdullah Gül como presidente. [133] Erdoğan dijo que el fallo era "una vergüenza para el sistema de justicia" y criticó al Tribunal Constitucional que había invalidado una votación presidencial porque un boicot de otros partidos significaba que no había quórum . Los fiscales investigaron sus comentarios anteriores, incluyendo decir que había disparado una "bala a la democracia". Tülay Tuğcu , presidente del Tribunal Constitucional, condenó a Erdoğan por "amenazas, insultos y hostilidad" hacia el sistema de justicia. [134]

Relaciones civiles y militares

Erdoğan durante una visita oficial a Perú , con un miembro del ejército turco detrás de él

El ejército turco tiene un historial de intervención en la política, habiendo derrocado a gobiernos electos cuatro veces en el pasado . Durante el gobierno de Erdoğan, la relación civil-militar avanzó hacia la normalización, en la que la influencia de los militares en la política se redujo significativamente. [135] El gobernante Partido de la Justicia y el Desarrollo se ha enfrentado a menudo a los militares, ganando poder político al desafiar a un pilar del establishment laicista del país.

El problema más importante que causó profundas fisuras entre el ejército y el gobierno fue el memorando electrónico de medianoche publicado en el sitio web del ejército objetando la selección del Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores Abdullah Gül como candidato del partido gobernante para la Presidencia en 2007. El ejército argumentó que la elección de Gül, cuya esposa usa un pañuelo islámico , podría socavar el orden laicista del país. Contrariamente a las expectativas, el gobierno respondió con dureza al memorando electrónico del ex Jefe del Estado Mayor General, General Yaşar Büyükanıt , declarando que los militares no tenían nada que ver con la selección del candidato presidencial. [136]

Cuidado de la salud

Tras asumir el poder en 2003, el gobierno de Erdoğan se embarcó en un amplio programa de reforma del sistema sanitario turco, denominado Programa de Transformación de la Salud (PTS), para aumentar considerablemente la calidad de la atención sanitaria y proteger a todos los ciudadanos de los riesgos financieros. Su introducción coincidió con el período de crecimiento económico sostenido, lo que permitió al gobierno turco realizar mayores inversiones en el sistema sanitario. Como parte de las reformas, en 2004 se amplió el programa de la "Tarjeta Verde", que proporciona prestaciones sanitarias a los pobres. [137] El programa de reforma tenía por objeto aumentar la proporción de atención sanitaria privada frente a la estatal, lo que, junto con las largas colas en los hospitales estatales, dio lugar al aumento de la atención médica privada en Turquía, lo que obligó a los hospitales estatales a competir aumentando la calidad.

En abril de 2006, Erdoğan dio a conocer un paquete de reformas de la seguridad social exigido por el Fondo Monetario Internacional en el marco de un acuerdo de préstamo. La medida, que Erdoğan calificó como una de las reformas más radicales de la historia, fue aprobada con una feroz oposición. Los tres organismos de seguridad social de Turquía se unificaron bajo un mismo techo, lo que permitió ofrecer servicios de salud y beneficios de jubilación iguales a los miembros de los tres organismos. El sistema anterior había sido criticado por reservar la mejor atención médica para los funcionarios públicos y relegar a los demás a esperar en largas colas. En virtud del segundo proyecto de ley, todos los menores de 18 años tenían derecho a servicios de salud gratuitos, independientemente de si pagaban primas a alguna organización de seguridad social. El proyecto de ley también prevé un aumento gradual de la edad de jubilación: a partir de 2036, la edad de jubilación aumentará hasta los 65 años en 2048 tanto para las mujeres como para los hombres. [138]

En enero de 2008, el Parlamento turco aprobó una ley que prohíbe fumar en la mayoría de los lugares públicos. Erdoğan se muestra abiertamente contrario al tabaquismo. [139]

Política exterior

Países visitados por Recep Tayyip Erdoğan como primer ministro

La política exterior turca durante el mandato de Erdoğan como primer ministro ha estado asociada al nombre de Ahmet Davutoğlu . Davutoğlu fue el principal asesor de política exterior del primer ministro Recep Tayyip Erdoğan antes de que fuera nombrado ministro de Asuntos Exteriores en 2009. La base de la política exterior de Erdoğan se basa en el principio de "no hacer enemigos, hacer amigos" [140] y la búsqueda de "cero problemas" con los países vecinos. [141]

Erdoğan es cofundador de la Alianza de Civilizaciones de las Naciones Unidas (AOC). La iniciativa busca impulsar la acción internacional contra el extremismo mediante el establecimiento de un diálogo y una cooperación internacionales, interculturales e interreligiosos.

unión Europea

Erdoğan con el Presidente en ejercicio del Consejo de la UE y el Primer Ministro holandés Balkenende y el Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores turco Gül en Bruselas , Bélgica (2004).

Cuando Erdoğan llegó al poder, continuó con la larga ambición de Turquía de unirse a la Unión Europea . Turquía, bajo Erdoğan, hizo muchos avances en sus leyes que calificarían para la membresía de la UE. [142] El 3 de octubre de 2005 comenzaron las negociaciones para la adhesión de Turquía a la Unión Europea . [143] [144] Erdoğan fue nombrado "El europeo del año 2004" por el periódico European Voice por las reformas en su país para lograr la adhesión de Turquía a la Unión Europea. Dijo en un comentario que "la adhesión de Turquía muestra que Europa es un continente donde las civilizaciones se reconcilian y no chocan". [145] El 3 de octubre de 2005, las negociaciones para la adhesión de Turquía a la UE comenzaron formalmente durante el mandato de Erdoğan como Primer Ministro. [143]

La Comisión Europea, en general, apoya las reformas de Erdoğan, pero sigue siendo crítica con sus políticas. Las negociaciones sobre una posible adhesión a la UE se estancaron en 2009 y 2010, cuando los puertos turcos fueron cerrados a los barcos chipriotas. El gobierno turco sigue negándose a reconocer a Chipre como Estado miembro de la UE .

Disputa entre Grecia y Chipre

Erdoğan con el primer ministro griego, George Papandreou

Las relaciones entre Grecia y Turquía se normalizaron durante el mandato de Erdoğan como primer ministro. En mayo de 2004, Erdoğan se convirtió en el primer primer ministro turco en visitar Grecia desde 1988, y el primero en visitar la minoría turca de Tracia desde 1952. En 2007, Erdoğan y el primer ministro griego Kostas Karamanlis inauguraron el gasoducto greco-turco de gas natural, que proporciona al gas del Caspio su primera salida directa a Occidente. [146] Turquía y Grecia firmaron un acuerdo para crear una Unidad Operativa Conjunta Combinada en el marco de la OTAN para participar en las Operaciones de Apoyo a la Paz. [147] Erdoğan y su partido apoyaron firmemente el referéndum respaldado por la UE para reunificar Chipre en 2004. [148] Las negociaciones sobre una posible membresía en la UE se paralizaron en 2009 y 2010, cuando los puertos turcos se cerraron a los barcos chipriotas como consecuencia del aislamiento económico de la República Turca del Norte de Chipre no reconocida internacionalmente y el fracaso de la UE para poner fin al aislamiento, como había prometido en 2004. [149] El gobierno turco continúa con su negativa a reconocer a la República de Chipre. [150]

Armenia

Armenia es el único vecino de Turquía que Erdoğan no ha visitado durante su mandato como primer ministro. La frontera turco-armenia está cerrada desde 1993 debido al conflicto de Nagorno-Karabaj con Azerbaiyán , un aliado cercano de Turquía .

Los esfuerzos diplomáticos dieron como resultado la firma de protocolos entre los ministros de Asuntos Exteriores de Turquía y Armenia en Suiza para mejorar las relaciones entre los dos países. Uno de los puntos del acuerdo fue la creación de una comisión conjunta sobre el tema. El Tribunal Constitucional de Armenia decidió que la comisión contradice la constitución armenia . Turquía respondió diciendo que la decisión del tribunal armenio sobre los protocolos no es aceptable, lo que dio como resultado la suspensión del proceso de rectificación por parte turca. [151]

Erdoğan ha dicho que el presidente armenio Serge Sarkisian debería disculparse por haber pedido a los niños de las escuelas que reocuparan el este de Turquía. Cuando un estudiante le preguntó en una ceremonia de concurso literario si los armenios podrán recuperar sus "territorios occidentales" junto con el monte Ararat, Sarkisian dijo: "Esta es la tarea de vuestra generación". [152]

Rusia

Consejo de cooperación ruso-turco de alto nivel con el Primer Ministro Erdogan y el Presidente Putin

En diciembre de 2004, el presidente Putin visitó Turquía, lo que la convirtió en la primera visita presidencial en la historia de las relaciones turco-rusas, además de la del presidente del Soviet Supremo de la URSS , Nikolai Podgorny , en 1972. En noviembre de 2005, Putin asistió a la inauguración de un gasoducto de gas natural Blue Stream construido conjuntamente en Turquía. Esta secuencia de visitas de alto nivel ha puesto en primer plano varias cuestiones bilaterales importantes. Los dos países consideran que su objetivo estratégico es lograr una "cooperación multidimensional", especialmente en los campos de la energía, el transporte y el ejército. En concreto, Rusia pretende invertir en las industrias de combustible y energía de Turquía, y también espera participar en licitaciones para la modernización del ejército de Turquía. [153] Las relaciones durante este tiempo son descritas por el presidente Medvedev como "Turquía es uno de nuestros socios más importantes con respecto a cuestiones regionales e internacionales. Podemos decir con confianza que las relaciones ruso-turcas han avanzado al nivel de una asociación estratégica multidimensional". [154]

En mayo de 2010, Turquía y Rusia firmaron 17 acuerdos para mejorar la cooperación en materia de energía y otros campos, incluidos pactos para construir la primera planta de energía nuclear de Turquía y otros planes para un oleoducto desde el Mar Negro hasta el Mar Mediterráneo . Los líderes de ambos países también firmaron un acuerdo sobre viajes sin visado, que permite a los turistas entrar en el otro país de forma gratuita y permanecer allí hasta 30 días. [ cita requerida ]

Estados Unidos

Erdoğan y Barack Obama en la Casa Blanca , 7 de diciembre de 2009

Cuando Barack Obama asumió la presidencia de Estados Unidos , realizó su primera reunión bilateral en el exterior en Turquía en abril de 2009.

En una conferencia de prensa conjunta en Turquía, Obama dijo: "Estoy tratando de hacer una declaración sobre la importancia de Turquía, no sólo para Estados Unidos sino para el mundo. Creo que donde hay más posibilidades de construir relaciones más sólidas entre Estados Unidos y Turquía es en el reconocimiento de que Turquía y Estados Unidos pueden construir una asociación modelo en la que una nación predominantemente cristiana , una nación predominantemente musulmana –una nación occidental y una nación que se extiende a lo largo de dos continentes– podamos crear una comunidad internacional moderna que sea respetuosa, segura, próspera, en la que no haya tensiones –las inevitables tensiones entre culturas–, lo cual creo que es extraordinariamente importante". [155]

Irak

La administración Bush nombró a Turquía bajo el gobierno de Erdoğan como parte de la " coalición de los dispuestos " que fue central en la invasión de Irak en 2003. [ 156] El 1 de marzo de 2003, el Parlamento turco rechazó una moción que permitía a los militares turcos participar en la invasión de Irak de la coalición liderada por Estados Unidos, junto con el permiso para que tropas extranjeras se estacionaran en Turquía para este propósito. [157]

Tras la caída de Saddam Hussein , Irak y Turquía firmaron 48 acuerdos comerciales sobre cuestiones como la seguridad, la energía y el agua. El gobierno turco intentó mejorar las relaciones con el Kurdistán iraquí abriendo una universidad turca en Erbil y un consulado turco en Mosul . [158] El gobierno de Erdoğan fomentó las relaciones económicas y políticas con Irbil , y Turquía comenzó a considerar al Gobierno Regional del Kurdistán en el norte de Irak como un aliado contra el gobierno de Maliki. [159]

Israel

Erdoğan abandona la sesión del Foro Económico Mundial en 2009 y promete no regresar nunca.

Erdoğan visitó Israel el 1 de mayo de 2005, un gesto inusual para un líder de un país de mayoría musulmana. [160] Durante su viaje, Erdoğan visitó Yad Vashem , el monumento oficial de Israel a las víctimas del Holocausto . [160] El presidente de Israel, Shimon Peres, se dirigió al parlamento turco durante una visita en 2007, la primera vez que un líder israelí se dirigía a la legislatura de una nación predominantemente musulmana. [161]

Su relación empeoró en la conferencia del Foro Económico Mundial de 2009 por las acciones de Israel durante la Guerra de Gaza . [162] Erdoğan fue interrumpido por el moderador mientras respondía a Peres. Erdoğan declaró: "Señor Peres, usted es mayor que yo. Tal vez se sienta culpable y por eso está levantando la voz. Cuando se trata de matar, usted lo sabe muy bien. Recuerdo cómo mataba a los niños en las playas...". Cuando el moderador le recordó que debían levantar la sesión para cenar, Erdoğan abandonó el panel, acusando al moderador de darle a Peres más tiempo que a todos los demás panelistas juntos. [163]

Las tensiones aumentaron aún más tras el ataque a la flotilla de Gaza en mayo de 2010. Erdoğan condenó enérgicamente el ataque, describiéndolo como "terrorismo de Estado", y exigió una disculpa israelí. [164] En febrero de 2013, Erdoğan calificó al sionismo como un "crimen contra la humanidad", comparándolo con la islamofobia, el antisemitismo y el fascismo. [165] Más tarde se retractó de la declaración, diciendo que había sido malinterpretado. Dijo que "todo el mundo debería saber" que sus comentarios estaban dirigidos a las "políticas israelíes", especialmente en lo que respecta a "Gaza y los asentamientos". [166] [167] Las declaraciones de Erdoğan fueron criticadas por el Secretario General de la ONU, Ban Ki-moon , entre otros. [168] [169] En agosto de 2013, el Hürriyet informó que Erdoğan había afirmado tener pruebas de la responsabilidad de Israel en la destitución de Morsi del cargo en Egipto . [170] Los gobiernos israelí y egipcio rechazaron la sugerencia. [171]

En respuesta al conflicto de 2014 entre Israel y Gaza , Erdoğan acusó a Israel de llevar a cabo « terrorismo de Estado » y un «intento de genocidio» contra los palestinos . [172] También afirmó que «si Israel continúa con esta actitud, definitivamente será juzgado en tribunales internacionales». [173]

Siria

Angela Merkel , Vladimir Putin , Recep Tayyip Erdoğan y Emmanuel Macron dan una conferencia de prensa como parte de la cumbre de Siria en Estambul, Turquía

Durante el mandato de Erdoğan, las relaciones diplomáticas entre Turquía y Siria se deterioraron significativamente. En 2004, el presidente Bashar al-Assad llegó a Turquía para la primera visita oficial de un presidente sirio en 57 años. A finales de 2004, Erdoğan firmó un acuerdo de libre comercio con Siria. Las restricciones de visado entre los dos países se levantaron en 2009, lo que provocó un auge económico en las regiones cercanas a la frontera siria. [174] Sin embargo, en 2011 la relación entre los dos países se tensó tras el estallido del conflicto en Siria . Recep Tayyip Erdoğan dijo que estaba tratando de "cultivar una relación favorable con cualquier gobierno que tomara el lugar de Assad". [175] Sin embargo, comenzó a apoyar a la oposición en Siria, después de que las manifestaciones se volvieran violentas, creando un grave problema de refugiados sirios en Turquía. [176] La política de Erdoğan de proporcionar entrenamiento militar a los combatientes anti-Damasco también ha creado un conflicto con el aliado de Siria y vecino de Turquía, Irán. [177]

Arabia Saudita

En agosto de 2006, el rey Abdullah bin Abdulaziz as-Saud visitó Turquía. Se trataba de la primera visita de un monarca saudí a Turquía en las últimas cuatro décadas. El monarca realizó una segunda visita el 9 de noviembre de 2007. El volumen del comercio turco-saudí superó los 3.200 millones de dólares en 2006, casi el doble de la cifra alcanzada en 2003. En 2009, esta cantidad alcanzó los 5.500 millones de dólares y el objetivo para el año 2010 era de 10.000 millones de dólares . [178]

Erdoğan condenó la intervención liderada por Arabia Saudita en Bahréin y calificó al movimiento saudí como "un nuevo Karbala ". Exigió la retirada de las fuerzas saudíes de Bahréin . [179]

Egipto

Erdoğan había realizado su primera visita oficial a Egipto el 12 de septiembre de 2011, acompañado por seis ministros y 200 empresarios. [180] Esta visita se realizó muy poco después de que Turquía expulsara a los embajadores israelíes, cortando todas las relaciones diplomáticas con Israel porque este se negó a disculparse por el ataque a la flotilla de Gaza en el que murieron ocho turcos y un turco-estadounidense. [180]

La visita de Erdoğan a Egipto fue recibida con mucho entusiasmo por los egipcios . La CNN informó que algunos egipcios dijeron: "Lo consideramos el líder islámico en Oriente Medio", mientras que otros apreciaron su papel en el apoyo a Gaza. [180] Erdoğan fue homenajeado más tarde en la plaza Tahrir por miembros de la Unión de Jóvenes de la Revolución Egipcia, y los miembros de la embajada turca recibieron un escudo de armas en reconocimiento al apoyo del Primer Ministro a la Revolución Egipcia. [181]

Erdoğan declaró en una entrevista de 2011 que apoyaba el secularismo en Egipto, lo que generó una reacción furiosa entre los movimientos islámicos, especialmente el Partido Libertad y Justicia , que era el ala política de la Hermandad Musulmana . [181] Sin embargo, los comentaristas sugieren que al formar una alianza con la junta militar durante la transición de Egipto a la democracia, Erdoğan puede haber inclinado la balanza a favor de un gobierno autoritario. [181]

Erdoğan condenó las concentraciones llevadas a cabo por la policía egipcia el 14 de agosto de 2013 en las plazas de Rabaa al-Adawiya y al-Nahda, donde violentos enfrentamientos entre agentes de policía y manifestantes islamistas partidarios de Morsi provocaron cientos de muertes, en su mayoría manifestantes. [182] En julio de 2014, un año después de la destitución de Mohamed Morsi , Erdoğan calificó al presidente egipcio Abdel Fattah el-Sisi de "tirano ilegítimo". [183]

Somalia

Erdoğan y el presidente somalí, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, inauguran la nueva terminal del Aeropuerto Internacional Aden Abdulle en Mogadiscio , Somalia

El gobierno de Erdoğan mantiene fuertes vínculos con el gobierno somalí. Durante la sequía de 2011 , el gobierno de Erdoğan contribuyó con más de 201 millones de dólares a las labores de socorro humanitario en las zonas afectadas de Somalia. [184] Tras una mejora considerable de la situación de seguridad en Mogadiscio a mediados de 2011, el gobierno turco también reabrió su embajada en el extranjero con la intención de ayudar de forma más eficaz en el proceso de desarrollo posterior al conflicto. [185] Fue uno de los primeros gobiernos extranjeros en reanudar las relaciones diplomáticas formales con Somalia después de la guerra civil. [186]

En mayo de 2010, los gobiernos turco y somalí firmaron un acuerdo de entrenamiento militar, de conformidad con las disposiciones delineadas en el Proceso de Paz de Yibuti. [187] Turkish Airlines se convirtió en la primera aerolínea comercial internacional de larga distancia en dos décadas en reanudar los vuelos hacia y desde el Aeropuerto Internacional Adén Adde de Mogadiscio . [186] Turquía también lanzó varios proyectos de desarrollo e infraestructura en Somalia, incluyendo la construcción de varios hospitales y la ayuda para renovar el edificio de la Asamblea Nacional. [186]

Protestas

Las protestas del parque Gezi de 2013 se llevaron a cabo contra el autoritarismo percibido de Erdoğan y sus políticas, comenzando con una pequeña sentada en Estambul en defensa de un parque de la ciudad . [188] Después de la intensa reacción de la policía con gases lacrimógenos , las protestas crecieron cada día. Ante la protesta masiva más grande en una década, Erdoğan hizo esta controvertida observación en un discurso televisado: "La policía estuvo allí ayer, está allí hoy y estará allí mañana". Después de semanas de enfrentamientos en las calles de Estambul , su gobierno en un primer momento se disculpó con los manifestantes [189] y convocó a un plebiscito , pero luego ordenó una ofensiva contra los manifestantes. [188] [190]

Presidencia

Erdoğan prestó juramento el 28 de agosto de 2014 y se convirtió en el duodécimo presidente de Turquía . [191] El 29 de agosto prestó juramento al nuevo primer ministro Ahmet Davutoğlu . Cuando se le preguntó sobre su porcentaje de votos menor al esperado del 51,79 %, supuestamente respondió: "Incluso hubo quienes no simpatizaron con el Profeta . Yo, sin embargo, gané el 52 %". [192] Al asumir el papel de presidente, Erdoğan fue criticado por afirmar abiertamente que no mantendría la tradición de neutralidad presidencial. [193] Erdoğan también ha declarado su intención de desempeñar un papel más activo como presidente, como utilizar los poderes de convocatoria del gabinete que rara vez utiliza el presidente. [194] La oposición política ha argumentado que Erdoğan seguirá persiguiendo su propia agenda política, controlando el gobierno, mientras que su nuevo primer ministro Ahmet Davutoğlu sería dócil y sumiso. [195] Además, el predominio de los partidarios leales de Erdoğan en el gabinete de Davutoğlu alimentó la especulación de que Erdoğan tenía la intención de ejercer un control sustancial sobre el gobierno. [196]

Elecciones presidenciales

Papeleta electoral para las elecciones presidenciales de 2018

El 1 de julio de 2014, Erdoğan fue nombrado candidato presidencial del AKP en las elecciones presidenciales turcas . Su candidatura fue anunciada por el vicepresidente del AKP, Mehmet Ali Şahin .

Erdoğan pronunció un discurso después del anuncio y utilizó por primera vez el «logotipo de Erdoğan». El logotipo fue criticado porque era muy similar al que utilizó el presidente estadounidense Barack Obama en las elecciones presidenciales de 2008. [ 197]

Erdoğan fue elegido presidente de Turquía en la primera vuelta de las elecciones con el 51,79% de los votos, lo que hizo innecesaria la segunda vuelta al obtener más del 50%. El candidato conjunto del CHP , el MHP y otros 13 partidos de la oposición, el ex secretario general de la Organización para la Cooperación Islámica Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu, ganó el 38,44% de los votos. El candidato pro-kurdo del HDP Selahattin Demirtaş ganó el 9,76%. [198]

Las elecciones presidenciales turcas de 2018 se celebraron como parte de las elecciones generales de 2018 , junto con las elecciones parlamentarias el mismo día. Tras la aprobación de los cambios constitucionales en un referéndum celebrado en 2017, el presidente electo será tanto jefe de Estado como jefe de Gobierno de Turquía, asumiendo este último papel de la oficina del primer ministro, que se abolirá . [199]

El presidente en ejercicio, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, declaró su candidatura por la Alianza Popular (en turco: Cumhur İttifakı ) el 27 de abril de 2018, [ cita requerida ] con el apoyo del MHP. [200] La principal oposición de Erdoğan, el Partido Republicano del Pueblo , nominó a Muharrem İnce , un miembro del parlamento conocido por su oposición combativa y sus discursos enérgicos contra Erdoğan. [201] Además de estos candidatos, Meral Akşener , fundador y líder del Partido del Bien , [202] Temel Karamollaoğlu , líder del Partido de la Felicidad y Doğu Perinçek , líder del Partido Patriótico , han anunciado sus candidaturas y han recogido las 100.000 firmas necesarias para la nominación. La alianza por la que Erdoğan era candidato obtuvo el 52,59% del voto popular.

Para las elecciones presidenciales de 2023 su candidatura está en disputa ya que lanzó su campaña en junio de 2022, [203] pero la oposición sostiene que un tercer mandato presidencial violaría la constitución . [204] Durante la primera ronda de votaciones en las elecciones presidenciales de 2023, Erdoğan no logró cruzar el umbral del 50%, lo que resultó en una segunda vuelta electoral contra Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu . [205] El 28 de mayo de 2023 Erdoğan ganó la segunda vuelta con el 52,14% de los votos, con más del 99% del total de votos escrutados. [206]

El 8 de marzo de 2024 declaró que se retiraría una vez que terminara su mandato presidencial en 2028. [207]

Referéndum

En abril de 2017, se celebró un referéndum constitucional , en el que los votantes de Turquía (y los ciudadanos turcos en el extranjero) aprobaron un conjunto de 18 enmiendas propuestas a la Constitución de Turquía. [208] Las enmiendas incluían la sustitución del sistema parlamentario existente por un sistema presidencial . El cargo de Primer Ministro sería abolido y la presidencia se convertiría en un cargo ejecutivo dotado de amplios poderes ejecutivos. Los escaños del parlamento se incrementarían de 550 a 600 y la edad de candidatura al parlamento se reduciría de 25 a 18 años. El referéndum también pidió cambios en la Junta Suprema de Jueces y Fiscales . [209]

Elecciones locales

En las elecciones locales de 2019 , el partido gobernante AKP perdió el control de Estambul y Ankara por primera vez en 25 años, así como de 5 de las 6 ciudades más grandes de Turquía. La pérdida se ha atribuido ampliamente a la mala gestión de Erdoğan de la crisis económica turca, el creciente autoritarismo y la supuesta inacción del gobierno en la crisis de refugiados sirios . [210] Poco después de las elecciones, el Consejo Electoral Supremo de Turquía ordenó una reelección en Estambul , cancelando el certificado de alcalde de Ekrem İmamoğlu . La decisión provocó una disminución significativa de la popularidad de Erdoğan y del AKP y su partido volvió a perder las elecciones en junio con un margen mayor. [211] [212] [213] [214] El resultado fue visto como un gran golpe para Erdoğan, quien una vez había dicho que si su partido "perdía Estambul, perderíamos Turquía". La victoria de la oposición fue caracterizada como "el principio del fin" para Erdoğan, [215] [216] [217] y los comentaristas internacionales calificaron la repetición como un enorme error de cálculo del gobierno que llevó a una posible candidatura de İmamoğlu en las próximas elecciones presidenciales programadas . [215] [217] Se sospecha que la magnitud de la derrota del gobierno podría provocar una reorganización del gabinete y elecciones generales anticipadas, actualmente programadas para junio de 2023. [218] [219]

Los gobiernos de Nueva Zelanda y Australia y el partido de oposición CHP han criticado a Erdoğan después de que éste mostrara repetidamente a sus partidarios en los mítines de campaña para las elecciones locales del 31 de marzo un vídeo tomado por el tirador de la mezquita de Christchurch y dijo que los australianos y neozelandeses que llegaron a Turquía con sentimientos antimusulmanes "serían enviados de vuelta en ataúdes como sus abuelos" en Galípoli . [220] [221]

Política interna

Palacio presidencial

Erdoğan también ha recibido críticas por la construcción de una nueva residencia oficial llamada Complejo Presidencial , que ocupa aproximadamente 50 acres de la Granja Forestal Atatürk (AOÇ) en Ankara . [222] [223] Dado que la AOÇ es un terreno protegido, se emitieron varias órdenes judiciales para detener la construcción del nuevo palacio, aunque las obras continuaron de todos modos. [224] La oposición describió la medida como un claro desprecio por el estado de derecho. [225] El proyecto fue objeto de fuertes críticas y se hicieron acusaciones de corrupción durante el proceso de construcción, destrucción de la vida silvestre y la completa destrucción del zoológico en la AOÇ para dar paso al nuevo complejo. [226] El hecho de que el palacio sea técnicamente ilegal ha llevado a que se lo etiquete como 'Kaç-Ak Saray', la palabra kaçak en turco significa 'ilegal'. [227]

Ak Saray fue diseñado originalmente como una nueva oficina para el Primer Ministro. Sin embargo, al asumir la presidencia, Erdoğan anunció que el palacio se convertiría en el nuevo Palacio Presidencial, mientras que la Mansión Çankaya sería utilizada por el Primer Ministro. La medida fue vista como un cambio histórico ya que la Mansión Çankaya había sido utilizada como la oficina icónica de la presidencia desde su inicio. El Complejo Presidencial tiene casi 1.000 habitaciones y costó $350 millones (€270 millones), lo que provocó enormes críticas en un momento en que los accidentes mineros y los derechos de los trabajadores habían dominado la agenda. [228] [229]

El 29 de octubre de 2014, Erdoğan tenía previsto celebrar una recepción por el Día de la República en el nuevo palacio para conmemorar el 91º aniversario de la República de Turquía e inaugurar oficialmente el Palacio Presidencial . Sin embargo, después de que la mayoría de los participantes invitados anunciaran que boicotearían el evento y se produjera un accidente minero en el distrito de Ermenek en Karaman , la recepción se canceló. [230]

Los medios de comunicación

Periodistas turcos protestan contra el encarcelamiento de sus colegas en el Día de los Derechos Humanos , 10 de diciembre de 2016

El presidente Erdoğan y su gobierno siguen presionando para que se emprendan acciones judiciales contra la prensa libre que aún existe en Turquía. El último periódico que ha sido incautado es Zaman , en marzo de 2016. [231] Después de la incautación, Morton Abramowitz y Eric Edelman , ex embajadores estadounidenses en Turquía, condenaron las acciones del presidente Erdoğan en un artículo de opinión publicado por The Washington Post : "Claramente, la democracia no puede florecer ahora bajo Erdoğan". [232] "El ritmo general de las reformas en Turquía no solo se ha ralentizado, sino que en algunas áreas clave, como la libertad de expresión y la independencia del poder judicial, ha habido una regresión, lo que es particularmente preocupante", dijo la relatora Kati Piri en abril de 2016 después de que el Parlamento Europeo aprobara su informe anual de progreso sobre Turquía. [233]

El 22 de junio de 2016, el presidente Recep Tayyip Erdoğan dijo que se consideraba exitoso en "destruir" a los grupos civiles turcos "que trabajan contra el Estado", [234] una conclusión que había sido confirmada unos días antes por Sedat Laçiner , profesor de Relaciones Internacionales y rector de la Universidad Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart : "Proscribir la oposición desarmada y pacífica, condenar a las personas a castigos injustos bajo acusaciones erróneas de terrorismo, alimentará el terrorismo genuino en la Turquía de Erdoğan. Las armas y la violencia se convertirán en la única alternativa para expresar legalmente el pensamiento libre". [235]

Tras el intento de golpe de Estado, más de 200 periodistas fueron detenidos y más de 120 medios de comunicación fueron clausurados. Los periodistas de Cumhuriyet fueron detenidos en noviembre de 2016 tras una prolongada campaña de represión contra el periódico. Posteriormente, Reporteros sin Fronteras calificó a Erdoğan de "enemigo de la libertad de prensa" y afirmó que "oculta su dictadura agresiva bajo una apariencia de democracia". [236]

En 2014, Turquía bloqueó temporalmente el acceso a Twitter . [237] En abril de 2017, Turquía bloqueó todo acceso a Wikipedia debido a una disputa de contenido. [238] El gobierno turco levantó una prohibición de dos años y medio sobre Wikipedia el 15 de enero de 2020, restaurando el acceso a la enciclopedia en línea un mes después de que el tribunal superior de Turquía dictaminara que bloquear Wikipedia era inconstitucional.

El 1 de julio de 2020, en una declaración dirigida a los miembros de su partido, Erdoğan anunció que el gobierno introduciría nuevas medidas y regulaciones para controlar o cerrar plataformas de redes sociales como YouTube , Twitter y Netflix . A través de estas nuevas medidas, cada empresa estaría obligada a designar un representante oficial en el país para responder a las inquietudes legales. La decisión se tomó después de que varios usuarios de Twitter insultaran a su hija Esra después de que diera a luz a su cuarto hijo. [239]

Estado de excepción y purgas

El 20 de julio de 2016, el presidente Erdoğan declaró el estado de emergencia , citando el intento de golpe de estado como justificación. [240] En un principio, se había previsto que durara tres meses. El parlamento turco aprobó esta medida. [241] El estado de emergencia se extendió posteriormente de forma continua hasta 2018 [242] [243] en medio de las purgas turcas en curso en 2016, incluidas purgas exhaustivas de medios independientes y la detención de decenas de miles de ciudadanos turcos políticamente opuestos a Erdoğan. [244] Más de 50.000 personas han sido detenidas y más de 160.000 despedidas de sus trabajos hasta marzo de 2018. [245] [242]

Los periodistas turcos Can Dündar y Erdem Gül fueron detenidos por filtrar información clasificada sobre el apoyo turco a los combatientes islamistas en Siria

En agosto de 2016, Erdoğan comenzó a arrestar a periodistas que habían publicado o estaban a punto de publicar artículos que cuestionaban la corrupción dentro de la administración de Erdoğan, y a encarcelarlos. [246] El número de periodistas turcos encarcelados por Turquía es mayor que el de cualquier otro país, incluidos todos los periodistas actualmente encarcelados en Corea del Norte, Cuba, Rusia y China juntos. [247] A raíz del intento de golpe de Estado de julio de 2016, la administración de Erdoğan comenzó a arrestar a decenas de miles de personas, tanto dentro del gobierno como del sector público, y a encarcelarlas bajo cargos de presunto "terrorismo". [248] [249] [250] Como resultado de estos arrestos, muchos en la comunidad internacional se quejaron de la falta de un proceso judicial adecuado en el encarcelamiento de la oposición de Erdoğan. [251] 

In April 2017 Erdoğan successfully sponsored legislation effectively making it illegal for the Turkish legislative branch to investigate his executive branch of government.[252] Without the checks and balances of freedom of speech, and the freedom of the Turkish legislature to hold him accountable for his actions, many have likened Turkey's current form of government to a dictatorship with only nominal forms of democracy in practice.[253][254] At the time of Erdoğan's successful passing of the most recent legislation silencing his opposition, United States President Donald Trump called Erdoğan to congratulate him for his "recent referendum victory".[255]

On 29 April 2017 Erdoğan's administration began an internal Internet block of all of the Wikipedia online encyclopedia site via Turkey's domestic Internet filtering system. This blocking action took place after the government had first made a request for Wikipedia to remove what it referred to as "offensive content". In response, Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales replied via a post on Twitter stating, "Access to information is a fundamental human right. Turkish people, I will always stand with you and fight for this right."[256][257]

In January 2016, more than a thousand academics signed a petition criticizing Turkey's military crackdown on ethnic Kurdish towns and neighborhoods in the east of the country, such as Sur (a district of Diyarbakır), Silvan, Nusaybin, Cizre and Silopi, and asking an end to violence.[258] Erdoğan accused those who signed the petition of "terrorist propaganda", calling them "the darkest of people". He called for action by institutions and universities, stating, "Everyone who benefits from this state but is now an enemy of the state must be punished without further delay".[259] Within days, over 30 of the signatories were arrested, many in dawn-time raids on their homes. Although all were quickly released, nearly half were fired from their jobs, eliciting a denunciation from Turkey's Science Academy for such "wrong and disturbing" treatment.[260] Erdoğan vowed that the academics would pay the price for "falling into a pit of treachery".[261]

On 8 July 2018, Erdoğan sacked 18,000 officials for alleged ties to US based cleric Fethullah Gülen, shortly before renewing his term as an executive president. Of those removed, 9000 were police officers with 5000 from the armed forces with the addition of hundreds of academics.[262]

Economic policy

Under his presidency, Erdoğan has decreased the independence of the Central Bank and pushed it to pursue a highly unorthodox monetary policy, decreasing interest rates even with high inflation.[263] He has pushed the theory that inflation is caused by high interest rates, an idea universally rejected by economists.[263][264] This, along with other factors such as excessive current account deficit and foreign-currency debt,[265] in combination with Erdoğan's increasing authoritarianism, caused an economic crisis starting from 2018, leading to large depreciation of the Turkish lira and very high inflation.[266][267][268][269] Economist Paul Krugman described the unfolding crisis as "a classic currency-and-debt crisis, of a kind we've seen many times", adding: "At such a time, the quality of leadership suddenly matters a great deal. You need officials who understand what's happening, can devise a response and have enough credibility that markets give them the benefit of the doubt. Some emerging markets have those things, and they are riding out the turmoil fairly well. The Erdoğan regime has none of that".[270]

Foreign policy

Europe

Foreign trips made by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan as President (since 2014)

In February 2016, Erdoğan threatened to send the millions of refugees in Turkey to EU member states,[271] saying: "We can open the doors to Greece and Bulgaria anytime and we can put the refugees on buses ... So how will you deal with refugees if you don't get a deal?"[272]

In an interview to the news magazine Der Spiegel, German minister of defence Ursula von der Leyen said on 11 March 2016 that the refugee crisis had made good cooperation between EU and Turkey an "existentially important" issue. "Therefore it is right to advance now negotiations on Turkey's EU accession".[273]

Working dinner between the leaders of Turkey, Germany, France and Russia in Istanbul

In its resolution "The functioning of democratic institutions in Turkey" from 22 June 2016, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe warned that "recent developments in Turkey pertaining to freedom of the media and of expression, erosion of the rule of law and the human rights violations in relation to anti-terrorism security operations in south-east Turkey have ... raised serious questions about the functioning of its democratic institutions".[274][275]

In January 2017, Erdoğan said that the withdrawal of Turkish troops from Northern Cyprus is "out of the question" and Turkey will be in Cyprus "forever".[276]

In September 2020, Erdoğan declared his government's support for Azerbaijan following a major conflict between Armenian and Azeri forces over a disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh.[277] He dismissed demands for a ceasefire.[278] In 2022, Erdoğan and Russian President Vladimir Putin planned for Turkey to become an energy hub for all of Europe through the TurkStream and Blue Stream gas pipelines.[279][280] In October 2023 Erdoğan canceled attendance at the third European Political Community (EPC) meeting.[281][282]

Erdoğan and Russian President Vladimir Putin on 3 July 2024
Finnish and Swedish NATO accession

In May 2022, Erdoğan voiced his opposition to Finland and Sweden joining NATO, accusing the two countries of tolerating groups which Turkey classifies as terrorist organizations,[283] including the Kurdish militant groups PKK, PYD and YPG and the supporters of Fethullah Gülen.[284] Following a protest in Sweden where a Quran was burned, Erdogan re-iterated that he would not support Sweden's bid to join NATO.[285] President of Finland Sauli Niinistö visited Erdogan in Istanbul and Ankara in March 2023. During the visit, Erdogan confirmed that he supported Finnish NATO membership and declared that the Turkish parliament would confirm Finnish membership before the Turkish Presidential elections in May 2023.[286] On 23 March 2023, the Turkish parliament's foreign relations committee confirmed the Finnish NATO membership application and sent the process to the Turkish Parliament's plenary session.[287] On 1 April 2023, Erdoğan confirmed and signed the Turkish Grand National Assembly's ratification of Finnish NATO membership.[288] This decision sealed Finland's entry to NATO. In June 2023, Erdoğan again voiced his opposition to Sweden joining NATO.[289] Just prior to the NATO summit in Vilnius in July 2023, Erdoğan linked Sweden's accession to NATO membership to Turkey's application for EU membership. Turkey had applied for EU membership in 1999, but talks made little progress since 2016.[290][291] In September 2023, Erdoğan announced that the European Union was well into a rupture in its relations with Turkey and that they would part ways during Turkey's European Union membership process.[292] However, on 23 October 2023, Erdoğan approved Sweden's pending NATO membership bid and sent the accession protocol to the Turkish Parliament for ratification.[293] Two days later, Turkey's parliamentary speaker, Numan Kurtulmuş, sent a bill approving Sweden's NATO membership bid to parliament's foreign affairs committee.[294] The committee discussed the ratification on 16 November 2023, but a decision was deferred,[295] with a request for Sweden to produce a written roadmap to implement its anti-terrorism commitments.[296][297] On 26 December 2023, the Turkish parliament's foreign relations committee confirmed the Swedish NATO membership application and sent the process to the Turkish Parliament's plenary session.[298] On 25 January 2024, Erdoğan formally signed and approved the Turkish parliament's decision to ratify Swedish NATO membership.[299]

Erdoğan and President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen on 12 July 2023

Greece

There is a long-standing dispute between Turkey and Greece in the Aegean Sea. Erdoğan warned that Greece will pay a "heavy price" if Turkey's gas exploration vessel – in what Turkey said are disputed waters – is attacked.[300] He deemed the readmission of Greece into the military alliance NATO a mistake, claiming they were collaborating with terrorists.[301]

Diaspora

In March 2017, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan stated to the Turks in Europe, "Make not three, but five children. Because you are the future of Europe. That will be the best response to the injustices against you." This has been interpreted as an imperialist call for demographic warfare.[302]

According to The Economist, Erdoğan is the first Turkish leader to take the Turkish diaspora seriously, which has created friction within these diaspora communities and between the Turkish government and several of its European counterparts.[303]

The Balkans

Meeting between leaders of Turkey, Albania, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria and Serbia in Istanbul, 10 July 2017

In February 2018, President Erdoğan expressed Turkish support of the Republic of Macedonia's position during negotiations over the Macedonia naming dispute saying that Greece's position is wrong.[304]

In March 2018, President Erdoğan criticized the Kosovan Prime Minister Ramush Haradinaj for dismissing his Interior Minister and Intelligence Chief for failing to inform him of an unauthorized and illegal secret operation conducted by the National Intelligence Organization of Turkey on Kosovo's territory that led to the arrest of six people allegedly associated with the Gülen movement.[305][306]

Erdoğan with Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev (middle) and Bosnian Presidency Chairman Bakir Izetbegović, 12 July 2018

On 26 November 2019, an earthquake struck the Durrës region of Albania. President Erdoğan expressed his condolences.[307] and citing close Albanian-Turkish relations, he committed Turkey to reconstructing 500 earthquake destroyed homes and other civic structures in Laç, Albania.[308][309][310] In Istanbul, Erdoğan organised and attended a donors conference (8 December) to assist Albania that included Turkish businessmen, investors and Albanian Prime Minister Edi Rama.[311]

Azerbaijan

In September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a large-scale military offensive to recapture the Armenian-populated Nagorno-Karabakh. Addressing the United Nations General Assembly, Erdoğan stated "As everyone now acknowledges, Karabakh is Azerbaijani territory. Imposition of another status [to the region] will never be accepted," and that "[Turkey] support[s] the steps taken by Azerbaijan—with whom we act together with the motto of one nation, two states—to defend its territorial integrity."[312] Erdoğan also met with Azerbaijan's President Ilham Aliyev in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic.[313]

United Kingdom

Erdoğan and British Prime Minister Keir Starmer at the 2024 NATO Summit in Washington, D.C.

In May 2018, British Prime Minister Theresa May welcomed Erdoğan to the United Kingdom for a three-day state visit. Erdoğan declared that the United Kingdom is "an ally and a strategic partner, but also a real friend. The cooperation we have is well beyond any mechanism that we have established with other partners."[314]

Israel

Erdoğan during a state visit of Israeli President Isaac Herzog to Turkey, 9 March 2022

Relations between Turkey and Israel began to normalize after Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu officially apologized for the death of the nine Turkish activists during the Gaza flotilla raid.[315] However, in response to the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, Erdoğan accused Israel of being "more barbaric than Hitler",[316] and conducting "state terrorism" and a "genocide attempt" against the Palestinians.[317]

In December 2017, President Erdoğan issued a warning to Donald Trump, after the U.S. President acknowledged Jerusalem as Israel's capital.[318] Erdoğan stated, "Jerusalem is a red line for Muslims", indicating that naming Jerusalem as Israel's capital would alienate Palestinians and other Muslims from the city, undermining hopes at a future capital of a Palestinian State.[319] Erdoğan called Israel a "terrorist state".[320] Naftali Bennett dismissed the threats, claiming "Erdoğan does not miss an opportunity to attack Israel".[319]

In April 2019, Erdoğan said the West Bank belongs to Palestinians, after Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said he would annex Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories if he is re-elected.[321]

Erdoğan condemned the Israel–UAE peace agreement, stating that Turkey was considering suspending or cutting off diplomatic relations with the United Arab Emirates in retaliation.[322]

The relations shifted back to normality since 2021, when the two countries started improving relations.[323] In March 2022, Israeli president Isaac Herzog visited Turkey, meeting Erdoğan.[324] The two countries agreed to restore diplomatic relations in August 2022.[325]

Erdoğan condemned the Israeli attacks in the Gaza strip during 2023 Israel–Hamas war, saying they are a violation of human rights, which led to accusations of hypocrisy as Turkey itself severely bombed Kurdish areas at the same time, including many civilian targets.[326] Erdoğan said that Israel's bombing and blockade of the Gaza Strip in retaliation for Hamas’ attack was a disproportionate response amounting to a "massacre."[327] On 25 October 2023, Erdoğan said that Hamas was not a terrorist organisation but a liberation group fighting to protect Palestinian lands and people.[328] On 15 November 2023, he condemned Israel as a "terrorist state" and accused it of committing genocide against the Palestinians.[329]

Syrian Civil War

Erdoğan meeting U.S. President Barack Obama during the 2014 Wales summit in Newport, Wales

Diplomatic relations between Turkey and Syria significantly deteriorated due to the Syrian civil war. Initially, while tens of thousand of Syrian refugees already crossed the border to Turkey, Turkish officials tried to convince Syrian President Bashar al-Assad to make significant reforms to alleviate the conflict and calm down the protests.[330] The last of such meetings happened on 9 August 2011, during a seven-hour meeting between Assad and Turkey's Ahmet Davutoğlu, giving the latter the title of 'the last European leader who visited Assad'.[331]

Turkey got involved in a violent conflict with Islamic State (IS) as part of the spillover of the Syrian Civil War. IS executed a series of attacks against Turkish soldiers and civilians. In an ISIS-video, where two Turkish soldiers were burned alive, Turkish President Erdoğan was verbally attacked by ISIS and threatened with the destruction of Turkey.[332] Turkey joined the international military intervention against the Islamic State in 2015. The Turkish Armed Forces' Operation Euphrates Shield was aimed at IS, and areas around Jarabulus and al-Bab were conquered from IS.[333]

In January 2018, the Turkish military and its allies Syrian National Army and Sham Legion began Operation Olive Branch in Afrin in Northern Syria, against the Kurdish armed group YPG.[334][335] In October 2019, the United States gave the go-ahead to the 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria, despite recently agreeing to a Northern Syria Buffer Zone. U.S. troops in northern Syria were withdrawn from the border to avoid interference with the Turkish operation.[336] After the U.S. pullout, Turkey proceeded to attack the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria.[337] Rejecting criticism of the invasion, Erdoğan claimed that NATO and European Union countries "sided with terrorists, and all of them attacked us".[338] Erdoğan then filed a criminal complaint against French magazine Le Point after it accused him of conducting ethnic cleansing in the area.[339][340] With Erdogan's control of the media fanning local nationalism,[341] a poll by Metropoll Research found that 79% of Turkish respondents expressed support for the operation.[342]

China

Erdoğan, Chinese President Xi Jinping and other leaders at the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit on 16 September 2022

Bilateral trade between Turkey and China increased from $1 billion a year in 2002 to $27 billion annually in 2017.[343] Erdoğan has stated that Turkey might consider joining the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation instead of the European Union.[344]

In 2009, Erdoğan accused China of "genocide" against the Uyghurs in Xinjiang.[345] In 2019, the Turkish Foreign Ministry issued a statement condemning what it described as China's "reintroduction of concentration camps in the 21st century" and "a great cause of shame for humanity".[346][347] Later that year, while visiting China, Erdoğan said that there were those who "exploited" the Uyghur issue to strain relations between China and Turkey.[348] Since then the Turkish government has largely toned down its criticisms of China's treatment of Uyghurs, and cracked down on Uyghur activists at China's behest, and has expanded deportations of Uyghurs to China.[349][350][351]

Japan

Erdoğan meeting with Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe (2018)

Qatar blockade

In June 2017 during a speech, Erdoğan called the isolation of Qatar as "inhumane and against Islamic values" and that "victimising Qatar through smear campaigns serves no purpose".[352]

Myanmar

In September 2017, Erdoğan condemned the persecution of Muslims in Myanmar and accused Myanmar of "genocide" against the Muslim minority.[353]

United States

Erdoğan in a meeting with US President Joe Biden, Turkish Foreign Minister Çavusoğlu and US Secretary of State Blinken, October 2021

Over time, Turkey began to look for ways to buy its own missile defense system and also to use that procurement to build up its own capacity to manufacture and sell an air and missile defense system. Turkey got serious about acquiring a missile defense system early in the first Obama administration when it opened a competition between the Raytheon Patriot PAC 2 system and systems from Europe, Russia, and even China.[354]

Taking advantage of the new low in U.S.-Turkish relations, Putin saw his chance to use an S-400 sale to Turkey, so in July 2017, he offered the air defense system to Turkey. In the months that followed, the United States warned Turkey that a S-400 purchase jeopardized Turkey's F-35 purchase. Integration of the Russian system into the NATO air defense net was also out of the question. Administration officials, including Mark Esper, warned that Turkey had to choose between the S-400 and the F-35, that they could not have both.

The S-400 deliveries to Turkey began on 12 July. On 16 July, Trump mentioned to reporters that withholding the F-35 from Turkey was unfair. Said the president, "So what happens is we have a situation where Turkey is very good with us, very good, and we are now telling Turkey that because you have really been forced to buy another missile system, we're not going to sell you the F-35 fighter jets".[355]

The U.S. Congress made clear on a bipartisan basis that it expected the president to sanction Turkey for buying Russian equipment.[356] Out of the F-35, Turkey considered buying Russian fifth-generation jet fighter Su-57.

On 1 August 2018, the U.S. Department of Treasury sanctioned two senior Turkish government ministers who were involved in the detention of American pastor Andrew Brunson.[357] Erdoğan said that U.S. behavior would force Turkey to look for new friends and allies.[358] The U.S.–Turkey tensions appeared to be the most serious diplomatic crisis between the NATO allies in years.[359][360]

Erdoğan and Biden at the 50th G7 summit in Italy, 14 June 2024

Trump's former national security adviser John Bolton claimed that President Donald Trump told Erdoğan he would 'take care' of the investigation against Turkey's state-owned bank Halkbank, accused of bank fraud charges and laundering up to $20 billion on behalf of Iranian entities.[361] Turkey criticized Bolton's book, saying it included misleading accounts of conversations between Trump and Erdoğan.[362]

In August 2020, the former vice president and presidential candidate Joe Biden called for a new U.S. approach to the "autocrat" President Erdoğan and support for Turkish opposition parties.[363][364] In September 2020, Biden demanded that Erdoğan "stay out" of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War between Azerbaijan and Armenia, in which Turkey supported the Azeris.[365]

Meanwhile, Erdoğan wants to realize the Zangezur corridor land route in the southern Caucasus,[366] a geopolitical corridor from Europe through Central Asia, all the way to China.[367]

Venezuela

Relations with Venezuela were strengthened with recent developments and high level mutual visits. The first official visit between the two countries at presidential level was in October 2017 when Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro visited Turkey. In December 2018, Erdoğan visited Venezuela for the first time and expressed his will to build strong relations with Venezuela and expressed hope that high-level visits "will increasingly continue".[368]

Reuters reported that in 2018 23 tons of mined gold were taken from Venezuela to Istanbul.[369] In the first nine months of 2018, Venezuela's gold exports to Turkey rose from zero in the previous year to US$900 million.[370]

During the Venezuelan presidential crisis, Erdoğan voiced solidarity with Venezuela's President Nicolás Maduro and criticized U.S. sanctions against Venezuela, saying that "political problems cannot be resolved by punishing an entire nation."[371][372]

Following the 2019 Venezuelan uprising attempt, Erdoğan condemned the actions of lawmaker Juan Guaidó, tweeting "Those who are in an effort to appoint a postmodern colonial governor to Venezuela, where the President was appointed by elections and where the people rule, should know that only democratic elections can determine how a country is governed".[373][374]

Ukraine and Russian invasion of Ukraine

Signing of the grain export deal between Turkey, Ukraine, Russia and the UN in Istanbul, 2022
Erdoğan with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyi and UN Secretary-General António Guterres in Lviv, Ukraine, on 18 August 2022

In 2016, Erdoğan told his Ukrainian counterpart Petro Poroshenko that Turkey would not recognize the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea; calling it "Crimea's occupation".[375]

During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Erdoğan functioned as a mediator and peace broker.[376][377] On 10 March 2022, Turkey hosted a trilateral meeting with Ukraine and Russia on the margins of Antalya Diplomacy Forum, making it the first high-level talks since the invasion.[378] Following the peace talks in Istanbul on 29 March 2022, Russia decided to leave areas around Kyiv and Chernihiv.[379] On 22 July 2022, together with United Nations, Turkey brokered a deal between Russia and Ukraine about clearing the way for the export of grain from Ukrainian ports, following the 2022 food crises.[380] On 21 September 2022, a record-high of 215 Ukrainian soldiers, including fighters who led the defence of the Azovstal steelworks in Mariupol, had been released in a prisoner exchange with Russia after mediation by Turkish President Erdoğan.[381] As part of the agreement, the freed captives stay in Turkey until the war is over.[382]

While Turkey has closed the Bosphorus to Russian naval reinforcements, enforced United Nations sanctions[383] and supplied Ukraine with military equipment such as Bayraktar TB2 drones and BMC Kirpi vehicles, it didn't participate in certain sanctions like closing the Turkish airspace for Russian civilians and continued the dialogue with Russian President Vladimir Putin.[384] Erdoğan reiterated his stance on Crimea in 2022 saying that international law requires that Russia must return Crimea to Ukraine.[385]

Events

Coup d'état attempt

On 15 July 2016, a coup d'état was attempted by the military, with aims to remove Erdoğan from government. By the next day, Erdoğan's government managed to reassert effective control in the country.[386] Reportedly, no government official was arrested or harmed, which, among other factors, raised the suspicion of a false flag event staged by the government itself.[387][388]

The Turkish parliament was bombed by jets during the failed coup of 2016

Erdoğan, as well as other government officials, has blamed an exiled cleric, and a former ally of Erdoğan, Fethullah Gülen, for staging the coup attempt.[389] Süleyman Soylu, Minister of Labor in Erdoğan's government, accused the US of planning a coup to oust Erdoğan.[390]

Erdoğan, as well as other high-ranking Turkish government officials, has issued repeated demands to the US to extradite Gülen.[391][392]

Following the coup attempt, there has been a significant deterioration in Turkey-US relations. European and other world leaders have expressed their concerns over the situation in Turkey, with many of them warning Erdoğan not to use the coup attempt as an excuse to crack down on his opponents.[393]

The rise of ISIS and the collapse of the Kurdish peace process had led to a sharp rise in terror incidents in Turkey until 2016. Erdoğan was accused by his critics of having a 'soft corner' for ISIS.[394] However, after the attempted coup, Erdoğan ordered the Turkish military into Syria to combat ISIS and Kurdish militant groups.[395] Erdoğan's critics have decried purges in the education system and judiciary as undermining the rule of law[396] however Erdoğan supporters argue this is a necessary measure as Gulen-linked schools cheated on entrance exams, requiring a purge in the education system and of the Gulen followers who then entered the judiciary.[397][398]

Erdoğan's plan is "to reconstitute Turkey as a presidential system. The plan would create a centralized system that would enable him to better tackle Turkey's internal and external threats. One of the main hurdles allegedly standing in his way is Fethullah Gulen's movement ..."[399] In the aftermath of the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, a groundswell of national unity and consensus emerged for cracking down on the coup plotters with a National Unity rally held in Turkey that included Islamists, secularists, liberals and nationalists.[400][401] Erdoğan has used this consensus to remove Gulen's followers from the bureaucracy, curtail their role in NGOs, Turkey's Ministry of Religious Affairs and the Turkish military, with 149 Generals discharged.[402] In a foreign policy shift Erdoğan ordered the Turkish Armed Forces into battle in Syria and has liberated towns from IS control.[403] As relations with Europe soured over in the aftermath of the attempted coup, Erdoğan developed alternative relationships with Russia,[404][405] Saudi Arabia[406] and a "strategic partnership" with Pakistan,[407][408] with plans to cultivate relations through free trade agreements and deepening military relations for mutual co-operation with Turkey's regional allies.[409][410][411]

2023 earthquake

On 6 February 2023, a catastrophic earthquake occurred during his administration in southeastern Turkey and northwestern Syria,[412] killing more than 50,000 people.[413]

Ideology and public image

Early during his premiership, Erdoğan was praised as a role model for emerging Middle Eastern nations due to several reform packages initiated by his government which expanded religious freedoms and minority rights as part of accession negotiations with the European Union.[414] However, his government underwent several crises including the Sledgehammer coup and the Ergenekon trials, corruption scandals, accusations of media intimidation, as well as the pursuit of an increasingly polarizing political agenda; the opposition accused the government of inciting political hatred throughout the country.[415] He has also been described as having "long championed Islamist causes".[416]

Ziya Gökalp

In 2019, Erdoğan once again publicly recited Ziya Gökalp's Soldier's Prayer poem, as he had done in 1997. According to Hans-Lukas Kieser, these recitations betray Erdoğan's desire to create Gökalp's pre-1923 ideal, that is, "a modern, leader-led Islamic-Turkish state extending beyond the boundaries of the Treaty of Lausanne".[417]

Ottomanism

Erdoğan meeting Palestinian president Abbas in Erdoğan's Presidential Palace

As President, Erdoğan has overseen a revival of Ottoman tradition,[418][419][99] greeting Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas with an Ottoman-style ceremony in the new presidential palace, with guards dressed in costumes representing founders of 16 Great Turkish Empires in history.[420] While Prime Minister of Turkey, Erdoğan's AKP made references to the Ottoman era during election campaigns, such as calling their supporters 'grandsons of Ottomans' (Osmanlı torunu).[421] This proved controversial, since it was perceived to be an open attack against the republican nature of modern Turkey founded by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In 2015, Erdoğan made a statement in which he endorsed the old Ottoman term külliye to refer to university campuses rather than the standard Turkish word kampüs.[422] Many critics have thus accused Erdoğan of wanting to become an Ottoman sultan and abandon the secular and democratic credentials of the Republic.[423][424][425][426] One of the most cited scholars alive, Noam Chomsky, said that "Erdogan in Turkey is basically trying to create something like the Ottoman Caliphate, with him as caliph, supreme leader, throwing his weight around all over the place, and destroying the remnants of democracy in Turkey at the same time".[427]

When pressed on this issue in January 2015, Erdoğan denied these claims and said that he would aim to be more like Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom rather than like an Ottoman sultan.[428]

In July 2020, after the Council of State annulled the Cabinet's 1934 decision to establish the Hagia Sophia as museum and revoking the monument's status, Erdoğan ordered its reclassification as a mosque.[429][430] The 1934 decree was ruled to be unlawful under both Ottoman and Turkish law as Hagia Sophia's waqf, endowed by Sultan Mehmed II, had designated the site a mosque; proponents of the decision argued the Hagia Sophia was the personal property of the sultan.[431] This redesignation is controversial, invoking condemnation from the Turkish opposition, UNESCO, the World Council of Churches, the Holy See, and many other international leaders.[432][433][434] In August 2020, he also signed the order that transferred the administration of the Chora Church to the Directorate of Religious Affairs to open it for worship as a mosque.[435] Initially converted to a mosque by the Ottomans, the building had then been designated as a museum by the government since 1934.[436][418]

In August 2020, Erdoğan gave a speech saying that "in our civilization, conquest is not occupation or looting. It is establishing the dominance of the justice that Allah commanded in the region. First of all, our nation removed the oppression from the areas that it conquered. It established justice. This is why our civilization is one of conquest. Turkey will take what is its right in the Mediterranean Sea, in the Aegean Sea, and in the Black Sea."[437][418] In October 2020, he made a statement before the Grand National Assembly that "Jerusalem is ours", referring to the period of Ottoman rule over the city and the rebuilding of its Old City by Suleiman the Magnificent.[438]

In October 2023 the first church built with government backing in Turkey's 100-year history as a post-Ottoman state was inaugurated.[439][440][441]

Authoritarianism

Erdoğan has been the de facto leader of Turkey since 2002.[c][442][443][444] In the more recent years of Erdoğan's rule, Turkey has experienced increasing authoritarianism, democratic backsliding, and corruption,[445][446][447] as well as expansionism, censorship, and banning of parties or dissent.[448][449][450][451][452] In response to criticism, Erdoğan made a speech in May 2014 denouncing allegations of dictatorship, saying that the leader of the opposition, Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu, who was there at the speech, would not be able to "roam the streets" freely if he were a dictator.[453] Kılıçdaroğlu responded that political tensions would cease to exist if Erdoğan stopped making his polarizing speeches for three days.[454] One observer said it was a measure of the state of Turkish democracy that Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu could openly threaten, on 20 December 2015, that, if his party did not win the election, Turkish Kurds would endure a repeat of the era of the "white Toros", the Turkish name for the Renault 12, "a car associated with the gendarmarie's fearsome intelligence agents, who carried out thousands of extrajudicial executions of Kurdish nationalists during the 1990s".[455]

In April 2014, the President of the Constitutional Court, Haşim Kılıç, accused Erdoğan of damaging the credibility of the judiciary, labelling Erdoğan's attempts to increase political control over the courts as 'desperate'.[456] During the chaotic 2007 presidential election, the military issued an E-memorandum warning the government to keep within the boundaries of secularism when choosing a candidate. Regardless, Erdoğan's close relations with Fethullah Gülen and his Cemaat Movement allowed his government to maintain a degree of influence within the judiciary through Gülen's supporters in high judicial and bureaucratic offices.[457][458] Shortly after, an alleged coup plot codenamed Sledgehammer became public and resulted in the imprisonment of 300 military officers including İbrahim Fırtına, Çetin Doğan and Engin Alan. Several opposition politicians, journalists and military officers also went on trial for allegedly being part of an ultra-nationalist organization called Ergenekon.

Erdoğan's supporters outside the White House in Washington, D.C., 16 May 2017

Both cases were marred by irregularities and were condemned as a joint attempt by Erdoğan and Gülen to curb opposition to the AKP.[459] The original Sledgehammer document containing the coup plans, allegedly written in 2003, was found to have been written using Microsoft Word 2007.[460] Despite both domestic and international calls for these irregularities to be addressed in order to guarantee a fair trial, Erdoğan instead praised his government for bringing the coup plots to light.[461] When Gülen publicly withdrew support and openly attacked Erdoğan in late 2013, several imprisoned military officers and journalists were released, with the government admitting that the judicial proceedings were unfair.[462]

When Gülen withdrew support from the AKP government in late 2013, a government corruption scandal broke out, leading to the arrest of several family members of cabinet ministers. Erdoğan accused Gülen of co-ordinating a "parallel state" within the judiciary in an attempt to topple him from power. He then removed or reassigned several judicial officials in an attempt to remove Gülen's supporters from office. Erdoğan's 'purge' was widely questioned and criticized by the European Union.[463] In early 2014, a new law was passed by parliament giving the government greater control over the judiciary, which sparked public protest throughout the country. International organizations perceived the law to be a danger to the separation of powers.[464]

Several judicial officials removed from their posts said that they had been removed due to their secularist credentials. The political opposition accused Erdoğan of not only attempting to remove Gülen supporters, but supporters of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's principles as well, in order to pave the way for increased politicization of the judiciary. Several family members of Erdoğan's ministers who had been arrested as a result of the 2013 corruption scandal were released, and a judicial order to question Erdoğan's son Bilal Erdoğan was annulled.[465] Controversy erupted when it emerged that many of the newly appointed judicial officials were actually AKP supporters.[466] İslam Çiçek, a judge who ejected the cases of five ministers' relatives accused of corruption, was accused of being an AKP supporter and an official investigation was launched into his political affiliations.[467] On 1 September 2014, the courts dissolved the cases of 96 suspects, which included Bilal Erdoğan.[468]

Suppression of dissent

An NTV news van covered in anti-AKP protest graffiti in response to their initial lack of coverage of the Gezi Park protests in 2013

Erdoğan has been criticized for his politicization of the media, especially after the 2013 protests. The opposition Republican People's Party (CHP) alleged that over 1,863 journalists lost their jobs due to their anti-government views in 12 years of AKP rule.[469] Opposition politicians have also alleged that intimidation in the media is due to the government's attempt to restructure the ownership of private media corporations. Journalists from the Cihan News Agency and the Gülenist Zaman newspaper were repeatedly barred from attending government press conferences or asking questions.[470] Several opposition journalists such as Soner Yalçın were controversially arrested as part of the Ergenekon trials and Sledgehammer coup investigation.[471] Veli Ağbaba, a CHP politician, has called the AKP the 'biggest media boss in Turkey.'[469]

In 2015, 74 US senators sent a letter to US Secretary of State, John Kerry, to state their concern over what they saw as deviations from the basic principles of democracy in Turkey and oppressions of Erdoğan over media.[472]

Notable cases of media censorship occurred during the 2013 anti-government protests, when the mainstream media did not broadcast any news regarding the demonstrations for three days after they began. The lack of media coverage was symbolised by CNN International covering the protests while CNN Türk broadcast a documentary about penguins at the same time.[473] The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) controversially issued a fine to pro-opposition news channels including Halk TV and Ulusal Kanal for their coverage of the protests, accusing them of broadcasting footage that could be morally, physically and mentally destabilizing to children.[474] Erdoğan was criticized for not responding to the accusations of media intimidation, and caused international outrage after telling a female journalist (Amberin Zaman of The Economist) to know her place and calling her a 'shameless militant' during his 2014 presidential election campaign.[475] While the 2014 presidential election was not subject to substantial electoral fraud, Erdoğan was again criticized for receiving disproportionate media attention in comparison to his rivals. The British newspaper The Times commented that between 2 and 4 July, the state-owned media channel TRT gave 204 minutes of coverage to Erdoğan's campaign and less than a total of 3 minutes to both his rivals.[476]

Opposition politicians Selahattin Demirtaş and Figen Yüksekdağ had been arrested on terrorism charges.

Erdoğan also tightened controls over the Internet, signing into law a bill which allows the government to block websites without prior court order on 12 September 2014.[477] His government blocked Twitter and YouTube in late March 2014 following the release of a recording of a conversation between him and his son Bilal, where Erdoğan allegedly warned his family to 'nullify' all cash reserves at their home amid the 2013 corruption scandal.[478] Erdoğan has undertaken a media campaign that attempts to portray the presidential family as frugal and simple-living; their palace electricity-bill is estimated at $500,000 per month.[479]

In November 2016, the Turkish government[244] blocked access to social media in all of Turkey[480] as well as sought to completely block Internet access for the citizens in the southeast of the country.[481] Since the 2016 coup attempt, authorities arrested or imprisoned more than 90,000 Turkish citizens.[482]

Insulting the President lawsuits

In February 2015, a 13-year-old was charged by a prosecutor after allegedly insulting Erdoğan on Facebook.[483][484] In 2016, a waiter was arrested for insulting Erdoğan by allegedly saying "If Erdoğan comes here, I will not even serve tea to him.".[485] Between 2016[486] and 2023 there were trials for insulting the president for having compared Erdogan to Gollum, a fictional character of J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings.[487] In May 2016, former Miss Turkey model Merve Büyüksaraç was sentenced to more than a year in prison for allegedly insulting the president.[488][489][490] Between 2014 and 2019, 128,872 investigations were launched for insulting the president and prosecutors opened 27,717 criminal cases.[491]

Mehmet Aksoy lawsuit

In 2009, Turkish sculptor Mehmet Aksoy created the Statue of Humanity in Kars to promote reconciliation between Turkey and Armenia. When visiting the city in 2011, Erdoğan deemed the statue a "freak", and months later it was demolished.[492] Aksoy sued Erdoğan for "moral indemnities", although his lawyer said that his statement was a critique rather than an insult. In March 2015, a judge ordered Erdoğan to pay 10,000 liras.[493]

Erdoğanism

The term Erdoğanism first emerged shortly after Erdoğan's 2011 general election victory, where it was predominantly described as the AKP's liberal economic and conservative democratic ideals fused with Erdoğan's demagoguery and cult of personality.[494]

Views on minorities

LGBT

In 2002, Erdoğan said that "homosexuals must be legally protected within the framework of their rights and freedoms. From time to time, we do not find the treatment they get on some television screens humane", he said.[495][496][497] However, in 2017 Erdoğan has said that empowering LGBT people in Turkey was "against the values of our nation".[498]

In 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, Turkey's top Muslim scholar and President of Religious Affairs, Ali Erbaş, said in a Friday Ramadan announcement that the country condemns homosexuality because it "brings illness", insinuating that same sex relations are responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic.[499] Recep Tayyip Erdoğan backed Erbaş, saying that what Erbaş "said was totally right."[500] Starting from 2023, Erdoğan began openly speaking against LGBT people, openly saying that his Coalition "are against the LGBT", and accusing the Turkish opposition of being LGBT.[501]

In 2023, Erdogan blamed LGBTQ+ people for "undermining family values" in Turkey and called his political opponents "gays" in a derogatory manner. Third-party sources have criticized this; seeing it as a bid to distract the public from the ruling party's failings—particularly on the country's economy; according to these sources, by targeting Turkey's minority groups, he rallies his base amid the country's ongoing economic troubles to raise the prospects of winning the 2023 general elections in his country, which are seen as critical for his nearly 20-year rule.[502][503][504]

Jews

While Erdoğan has declared several times that he is against antisemitism,[505][506][507][508][509] he has been accused of invoking antisemitic stereotypes in public statements.[510][511][512][513]

Personal life

Erdoğan (center) with his spouse Emine (center-right), granddaughter Canan Aybüke (center-left), and son-in-law Selçuk Bayraktar (left) at Teknofest festival in Azerbaijan (2022)

Erdoğan married Emine Erdoğan (née Gülbaran; b. 1955, Siirt) on 4 July 1978.[514] They have two sons, Ahmet Burak (b. 1979) and Necmettin Bilal (b. 1981), and two daughters, Esra (b. 1983) and Sümeyye (b. 1985).[514] His father, Ahmet Erdoğan, died in 1988 and his mother, Tenzile Erdoğan, died in 2011 at the age of 87.[515]

Erdoğan has a brother, Mustafa (b. 1958), and a sister, Vesile (b. 1965).[516] From his father's first marriage to Havuli Erdoğan (d. 1980), he had two half-brothers: Mehmet (1926–1988) and Hasan (1929–2006).[517]

Electoral history

Honours and accolades

Foreign honours

U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, with U.S. Vice President Joseph Biden, delivers remarks in honour of Erdoğan, 16 May 2013
Erdoğan receiving the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise from Volodymyr Zelensky, 2020
Erdoğan joined by his Kosovo counterpart Hashim Thaçi, 3 November 2010

Supranational

Other awards

Bibliography

Books

Articles

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Various claims are made about his degree.[1] See Recep Tayyip Erdoğan university diploma controversy.
  2. ^ Pronunciation: UK: /ˈɛərdəwæn/ AIR-də-wan,[2] US: /-wɑːn/ -⁠wahn,[3] Turkish: [ɾeˈdʒep tajˈjip ˈæɾdoan] .
  3. ^ Erdoğan won the elections in 2002, but was prevented from becoming prime minister until the by-election in 2003. In the meanwhile, Abdullah Gül was chairholder.

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