Lista de monarcas chinos

Retrato imaginado de Qin Shi Huang , el primer emperador de una China unificada . Representación de la dinastía Qing

Los monarcas chinos fueron los gobernantes de China durante sus períodos Antiguo e Imperial . ^[a] Los primeros gobernantes de la historiografía tradicional china son de origen mitológico , seguidos por la dinastía Xia, de historicidad muy incierta y controvertida. Durante las dinastías Shang ( c.  1600-1046 a. C. ) y Zhou (1046-256 a. C.), a los gobernantes se les conocía como Wang 王, que significa rey . ^[4] China estuvo completamente unida por primera vez por Qin Shi Huang ( r.  259-210 a. C.), quien estableció la primera dinastía imperial , adoptando el título Huangdi (皇帝), que significa Emperador, que permaneció en uso hasta la llegada del sistema imperial. caída en 1912 . ^[4]

En ningún momento durante la China antigua o imperial existió un medio formalizado para conferir una sucesión legítima entre gobernantes. ^[5] Desde la dinastía Zhou en adelante, los monarcas justificaron sus reinados reclamando el Mandato del Cielo (天命; Tianming ). ^{[6] [b]} El mandato sostenía que un gobernante y sus sucesores tenían permiso de los cielos para gobernar siempre que lo hicieran de manera efectiva. ^[6] También declaró gobernante al Hijo del Cielo (天子; Tianzi ), dándoles el derecho de gobernar " todo lo que está bajo el cielo " (天下; Tianxia ). ^[10] Dada la naturaleza subjetiva del Mandato, los gobernantes también utilizaron una variedad de métodos para retener el apoyo y justificar su adhesión. ^[6] Esto iba desde la imposición militar, el clientelismo político , el establecimiento de la paz y la solidez, la reforma institucional y el revisionismo histórico para legitimar la disolución de dinastías anteriores y su propia sucesión. ^[11] Para la mayor parte de la China imperial, el esquema filosófico wuxing (五行; "Cinco elementos") también fue central para justificar la sucesión dinástica. ^[12]

La mayoría de los monarcas chinos tenían muchos nombres. Se les dio un nombre personal (名字; Mingzi ) al nacer, pero luego se les dio un nombre póstumo (謚號; Shihao ), que conmemoraba sus logros o su carácter, debido a un tabú cultural sobre los nombres . ^[13] La mayoría de los emperadores del período imperial también recibieron un nombre de templo (廟號; Miaohao ), utilizado para venerarlos en el culto a los antepasados . ^[14] Desde el gobierno del emperador Wu de Han ( r.  141–87 a. C.) en adelante, ^[c] los emperadores también adoptaron uno o varios nombres de época (年號; Nianhao ), o "lemas de reinado", ^[17] para dividir su gobierno por eventos o logros importantes. ^{[18] Se hace referencia a los gobernantes} Ming (1368-1644) y Qing (1644-1912) únicamente por los nombres de sus épocas, de las cuales solo tenían uno. ^[19]

Además de los gobernantes étnicos Han , China también fue gobernada por varios monarcas no Han, incluidos Jurchen , Khitan , Manchu , Mongol y Tangut y muchos otros. ^[20] Para justificar su reinado, los gobernantes no Han a veces se alineaban con los sabios confucianos o los Chakravarti del budismo chino . ^[5] Hay numerosos períodos prolongados en los que muchos reinos en competencia reclamaron el trono, mucha de cuya legitimidad todavía es debatida por los estudiosos. ^[20]

China antigua

gobernantes mitológicos

En la historiografía tradicional china existen varios modelos de gobernantes fundadores mitológicos. ^[21] Se desconoce la relevancia de estas cifras para los primeros chinos, ya que la mayoría de los relatos sobre ellas se escribieron desde el período de los Reinos Combatientes ( c.  475-221 a. C.) en adelante. ^[22] El sinólogo Kwang-chih Chang ha generalizado las etapas típicas: "el primer período estuvo poblado por dioses , el segundo por semidioses / héroe cultural , y el tercero por los reyes legendarios ". ^[23] Muchos textos mencionan al dios primordial Pangu como la figura más antigua y se le atribuye la formación del mundo separando el cielo y la tierra. ^[24] Otros dioses incluyen a Nüwa , que reparó el cielo; Hou Yi , un arquero mítico; y Gonggong , una deidad del agua con forma de serpiente . ^[25]

A los gobernantes semidioses y héroes de los mitos heroicos (el grupo más grande de mitos chinos ) se les atribuye la invención de elementos, prácticas o tradiciones específicas. ^[26] Entre los más importantes se encuentran Fuxi , el inventor de la caza; Suiren , que inventó el fuego; y Shennong , que inventó tanto la agricultura como la medicina. ^[27] Los reyes legendarios posteriores comenzaron con el Emperador Amarillo (黃帝), conocido como Huangdi , un importante héroe cultural de la civilización china cuyo reinado se consideró ejemplar. ^[27] Los gobernantes sucesivos incluyen alguna combinación de Shaohao , Zhuanxu , el emperador Ku , el emperador Yao y el emperador Shun . ^[28] Desde finales de los Estados Combatientes en adelante, los primeros monarcas chinos han sido tradicionalmente arraigados en el concepto de los Tres Soberanos y los Cinco Emperadores ; ^[28] sin embargo, las cifras elegidas de este grupo varían considerablemente entre fuentes. ^[27] Generalmente, la mayoría de las cuentas incluyen al menos a Fuxi y Shennong entre los Tres Soberanos, así como al Emperador Amarillo, Yao y Shun entre los Cinco Emperadores. ^[28]

dinastía xia

Al período de los Tres Soberanos y los Cinco Emperadores le siguió la dinastía Xia en la historiografía tradicional. ^[29] Fundada por Yu el Grande , tanto la dinastía como sus gobernantes tienen una historicidad muy incierta y controvertida. ^{[29] [30]}

  (#) – Legitimación incierta

Dinastía Shang (c. 1600-1046 a. C.)

A diferencia de los Xia, la historicidad de la dinastía Shang está firmemente establecida debido a los registros escritos en objetos de adivinación conocidos como huesos de Oráculo . Los huesos de oráculo más antiguos datan del Shang tardío ( c.  1250-1046 a. C. ), durante el reinado de Wu Ding (1250-1192), lo que pone en duda los detalles exactos de los gobernantes anteriores. ^{[43] [44]}

  (#) – Legitimación incierta

Dinastía Zhou (1046-256 a. C.)

China imperial temprana

Dinastía Qin (221-207 a. C.)

Dinastías Han y Xin (202 a. C. - 220 d. C.)

  (#) – legitimidad cuestionada

Seis Dinastías

Tres Reinos (220–280)

Cao Wei (220–266)

Shu Han (221–263)

Wu oriental (222–280)

Dinastía Jin (266-420)

Dieciséis reinos (304–439)

Dinastías del Norte y del Sur (420–589)

Dinastías del Norte (420–581)

Dinastías del Sur (420–589)

China imperial media

Dinastía Sui (581–619)

Dinastías Tang y Zhou (618–907)

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

Five Dynasties (907–912)

Ten Kingdoms (907–979)

Late imperial China

Song dynasty (960–1279)

Northern regimes (916–1234)

Liao dynasty (916–1125)

Western Xia (1038–1227)

Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)

Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

Qing dynasty (1644–1912)

References

Notes

1. Contemporary scholars often split Chinese history into three periods: Ancient, Imperial and Modern, based on the Ancient, Medieval and Modern scheme developed by Liang Qichao.^[1] In Chinese history, "Medieval"—originally defined as from the Qin to Qing dynasties—has since been replaced by "Imperial".^[2] "Medieval" now refers to the more specific period from the End of the Han dynasty through the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.^[3]
2. The Mandate of Heaven is essentially equivalent to the European divine right of kings.^[7] It was first formally introduced by the Duke of Zhou to justify his house's overthrow of the Shang.^[7] Prior to this, the Shang kings justified their rule by being claiming descent from a "divine ancestor",^[8] and being able to interpret, manipulate and maintain cosmic relations between humans and heaven (天; Tian).^[9]
3. Although era names originated in the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE),^[15] his two immediate predecessors Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157) and Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157–141) were also given era names later.^[16]
4. All reign dates for the Xia rulers are excluded. They are highly speculative, due to their dependence on the already uncertain beginning and ending dates of the dynasty
5. The traditional dating method (beginning the Shang in 1766) is not included in this table. See Liu et al. 2021, pp. 165, 169 for another, more recent, method of dating
6. Zu Ji, another son of Wu Ding is given a kingly title in some oracle bone texts, but did probably not reign.^[61]
7. In his lifetime, Ying Zheng would have been known as simply "Shi Huangdi", but after the Qin's fall it became standard practice to include the dynasty's name when referring to him. His dynastic name is commonly abbreviated to 'Qin Shi Huang'. In its fullest form, it would be: Qin Shi Huangdi (秦始皇帝)^[4]
8. Qin Shi Huang began his reign as king of Qin in 246 BCE, but did not unite China and proclaim himself Emperor (皇帝 Huangdi) until 221 BCE.^[81]
9. Moule 1957, p. 3 gives 18 July 210 BCE as the exact date for the end of Qin Shi Huang's reign, but also notes the issues surrounding this chronology. The date is accepted by Vervoorn 1990, p. 311, but it's not used by modern scholars.^[82][83] Hymes 2000, p. 8 gives July–August 210 BCE, the seventh lunar month.
10. In its fullest form, Ying Huhai's dynastic name would be Qin Er Shi Huangdi (秦二世皇帝)^[4]
11. Sources vary on the exact month of Qin Er Shi's accession, though they agree it was in late 210. Vervoorn 1990, p. 311 gives August 210 while Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, p. xix and Moule 1957, p. 3 give September–October 210
12. After Qin Er Shi's death the Qin dynasty became increasingly weaker in power, so Zhao Gao proclaimed the state was once again a kingdom, not an empire. Thus when Ziying (子嬰) ascended to the throne, he only ruled as a King of Qin.^[89] After ruling for 46 days in late 207 BCE, Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang and was later killed by Xiang Yu during the Chu–Han Contention.^[90][91]
13. Liu Bang began his peasant revolt in 209 BCE, during the collapse of the Qin dynasty. He assumed the title "King of Han" (漢王) in 206 BCE, referencing his dominions near the Han river. He only assumed the title of Emperor (皇帝; Huangdi) in 202 BCE after his victory in the Chu–Han Contention.^[93]
14. Also known as:
    Shaodi Gong
    少帝恭^[96]
15. In order to justify Emperor Wen of Han's overthrow of the House of Lü's puppets, Houshao and Qianshao, both of the dynasty's official histories—the Shiji and Hanshu—assert that neither was actually a son of Hui.^[97]
16. Also known as:
    Shaodi Hong
    少帝弘^[99]
17. Though most modern sources agree that Emperor Wu died on 29 March 87 BCE, Vervoorn 1990, p. 312 gives 2 March; Moule 1957, p. 5 gives 27 March.
18. Liu Yi reigned for less than a year, so thus did not live long enough to receive an era name^[120]
19. de Crespigny 2010, p. 450 notes that "On 11 December [...] Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi received the abdication of the last emperor of Han. [...] Some authorities give the date of abdication as 25 November [...] This is the date upon which Emperor Xian issued an edict calling upon Cao Pi to take the throne, but the ceremonial transfer of sovereignty was carried out two weeks later"
20. Not counting Ruzi Ying, who never officially ascended to the throne.
21. Also known as:
    Duke of Haixi
    海西公^[151]
22. Moule 1957, p. 34 gives 30 May 618 as the date for the end of Yang You's reign, but modern sources usually give 12 June.^[240]
23. Also known as "Wu Hou" (武后). The title Huanghou (皇后) given to consorts it's often translated as "Empress consort" in English. Though often translated as "Emperor" in this context, the title Huangdi, as well as many other Chinese words, has no assigned gender.^[247]
24. Li Chongmao is often referred by his posthumous name; he's also known as "Emperor Shao" (少皇帝), referencing his brief reign.
25. Emperor Zhaozong was briefly deposed in December 900 by eunuch Liu Jishu, but he regained the throne just a month later.^[266]
26. Moule 1957, p. 62 gives 1 June 907 as the date for the end of Emperor Ai's reign, but Kroll 2019, p. 1 gives 5 June. Other sources give 12 May.
27. Emperor Gaozong was briefly deposed between March and April 1129. He was forced to abdicate in favor of his infant son Zhao Fu.^[315]
28. Born as Zhao Bocong (趙伯琮), later changed to Zhao Wei (趙瑋) in 1160.^[317]
29. For Taizu's aternate posthumous names, see Moule 1957, p. 94
30. In 1008, Taizong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaowu (孝武). This was changed in 1052 to Emperor Xiaowu Huiwen (孝武惠文皇帝).^[327]
31. Some sources differ over the dates for Taizong's Datong era, see Moule 1957, p. 95
32. In 952, Shizong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaohe (孝和) this was changed in 1008 to Emperor Xiaohe Zhuangxian (孝和莊憲皇帝).^[327]
33. In 983, Jingzong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaocheng (孝成) this was changed in 1052 to Emperor Xiaocheng Kangjing (孝成康靖皇帝).^[327]
34. See Cui & Wen 2007 for further information on the complexities surrounding the names of the Western Xia rulers
35. The death of Jingzong is uncertain and contradictory in many records. He may have died in late 1047 or early 1048.^[336]
36. Moule 1957, p. 101 notes that there is uncertainty concerning Wanyan Yongji's death date
37. Some uncertainty surrounds his birth and death dates, see Ch'i-Ch'ing 1994, p. 353
38. Ukhaghatu Khan's posthumous name was given by the Ming court^[356]
39. In the Ming dynasty, a few days usually separate each emperor's reign. When a Ming emperor died there was a period of mourning, after which their successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year. Thus, the Hongwu (洪武) era did not technically end with the Hongwu Emperor's death on 24 June 1398, but ended on 5 February 1399 when the subsequent Jianwen Emperor began a new era on 6 February 1399.^[358]
40. The temple name Huizong was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by Zhu Yousong, the Prince of Fu, in 1644.^[360]
41. The posthumous name Emperor Gongmin Hui was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by the Qianlong Emperor in 1736.^[360]
42. Following his death, the Yongle Emperor was given the temple name Taizong (太宗) by his successor the Hongxi Emperor, but this was changed on 3 October 1538 to Chengzu (成祖) by the Jiajing Emperor. The latter has been used since its bestowment^[360]
43. From 1 September 1449 to 20 September 1450, Emperor Yingzong was a captive of the Northern Yuan dynasty during the Tumu Crisis. He was restored to power on 11 February 1457.^[365]
44. In the Qing dynasty, a few days usually separate each emperor's reign. When a Qing emperor died there was a period of mourning, after which the successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year. Thus, the Shunzhi (順治) era did not technically end with the Shunzhi Emperor's death on 5 February 1661, but ended on 17 February 1662 when the subsequent Kangxi Emperor began a new era on 18 February 1662.^[378]
45. There are popular, though unsubstantiated, rumors that the Yongzheng Emperor was killed by the daughter of Lü Liuliang, whom he had executed.^[382]
46. The Xuantong Emperor was only given posthumous and temple names in 2004 when the Qing family's descendants bestowed him with them.^[378]

Citations

1. Wilkinson 2018, p. 1.
2. Wilkinson 2018, pp. 1, 5.
3. Xiong 2009, pp. 1–32.
4. Wilkinson 2018, p. 287.
5. Wilkinson 2018, p. 8.
6. Wilkinson 2018, p. 7.
7. Wechsler 1985, p. 12.
8. Wilkinson 2018, p. 9.
9. Wang 2000, p. 193.
10. Paludan 1998, pp. 6–7.
11. Wilkinson 2018, pp. 7–8.
12. Chen 2014, pp. 325–326.
13. Wilkinson 2018, pp. 288, 290–291.
14. Wilkinson 2018, p. 288.
15. Wright & Fagan 1951, p. 113.
16. Moule 1957, pp. 4–5.
17. Theobald 2011a.
18. Wright & Fagan 1951, pp. 113–114.
19. Wilkinson 2018, pp. 294–295.
20. Biran 2017, p. 130.
21. Chang 1999, pp. 65–66.
22. Chang 1999, p. 67; Wilkinson 2018, p. 746.
23. Chang 1999, p. 66.
24. Wilkinson 2018, p. 746; Chang 1999, pp. 66–67.
25. Chang 1999, pp. 66–68.
26. Chang 1999, pp. 68–69.
27. Chang 1999, p. 70.
28. Wilkinson 2018, p. 747.
29. Morton & Lewis 2004, p. 14.
30. Chang 1999, pp. 71–73.
31. Theobald 2018a.
32. Imperial China 2020, pp. 314–316.
33. Wu 1982, pp. 110–117; Imperial China 2020, pp. 30, 314.
34. Wu 1982, pp. 117–119; Imperial China 2020, p. 314.
35. Wu 1982, pp. 119–121; Imperial China 2020, p. 314.
36. Wu 1982, pp. 121–122; Imperial China 2020, p. 314.
37. Wu 1982, pp. 122–123; Imperial China 2020, p. 315.
38. Wu 1982, pp. 123–125; Imperial China 2020, p. 315.
39. Wu 1982, pp. 125–126; Imperial China 2020, p. 315.
40. Imperial China 2020, p. 315.
41. Wu 1982, pp. 126–127; Imperial China 2020, p. 315.
42. Wu 1982, pp. 129–143; Imperial China 2020, p. 315.
43. Keightley 1999, p. 232.
44. Wilkinson 2018, p. 1277.
45. Keightley 1985, pp. 204–207.
46. Moule 1957, p. xiv.
47. Indiana University 2006, pp. 2–3.
48. Theobald 2018b.
49. Lee 2002, p. 18.
50. XSZCP Group 2000, pp. 86–88.
51. Loewe & Shaughnessy 1999, p. 25.
52. Loewe & Shaughnessy 1999, p. 2.
53. Imperial China 2020, p. 316.
54. Indiana University 2006.
55. Imperial China 2020, p. 317.
56. Imperial China 2020, p. 318.
57. Keightley 1985, pp. xiii–xiv.
58. Shaughnessy 1997, pp. 13–14.
59. Keightley 1985, p. xiii.
60. Li (2012), p. 13.
61. Indiana University 2006, p. 3; Theobald 2018b.
62. Keightley 1985, p. 187.
63. Imperial China 2020, pp. 318–319.
64. Imperial China 2020, p. 319.
65. Shaughnessy 1997, p. 14.
66. Marshall 2001, p. 157.
67. Marshall 2001, pp. 157–158.
68. Lee 2002, pp. 31–32.
69. Loewe & Shaughnessy 1999, pp. 25–28.
70. Moule 1957, pp. xvii–xviii.
71. Imperial China 2020, p. 320.
72. Imperial China 2020, pp. 320–321.
73. Imperial China 2020, p. 321.
74. Imperial China 2020, pp. 321–322.
75. Imperial China 2020, p. 322.
76. Imperial China 2020, p. 323.
77. Imperial China 2020, p. 324.
78. Imperial China 2020, pp. 324–325.
79. Imperial China 2020, p. 325.
80. Loewe 2000, p. 823; Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. XIX–XX.
81. Vervoorn 1990, p. 311.
82. Loewe 2000, p. 823.
83. Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, p. xix.
84. Paludan 1998, pp. 16–17.
85. Loewe 2000, pp. 654–655.
86. Wright 2001, p. 49.
87. Loewe 2004, p. 575.
88. Loewe 2000, pp. 652–653.
89. Xiong & Hammond 2019, p. 23.
90. Loewe 2000, p. 752.
91. Xiong & Hammond 2019, p. 24.
92. Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xix–xx; Vervoorn 1990, pp. 311–315; Twitchett & Loewe 1986, pp. xxxix–xli; Moule 1957, pp. 4–11.
93. Loewe 1986, pp. 111–116. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLoewe1986 (help)
94. Paludan 1998, pp. 28–31; Loewe 2000, pp. 253–259.
95. Paludan 1998, p. 31; Loewe 2000, pp. 397–399.
96. Loewe 2000, p. 468.
97. Theobald 2011b.
98. Loewe 2000, p. 468; Paludan 1998, p. 31.
99. Loewe 2000, p. 394.
100. Loewe 2000, p. 394; Paludan 1998, p. 31.
101. Paludan 1998, p. 33; Loewe 2004.
102. Paludan 1998, p. 33; Loewe 2004, pp. 338–344.
103. Paludan 1998, pp. 36–39; Loewe 2004, pp. 273–282; Hymes 2000, p. 11.
104. Paludan 1998, p. 40; Loewe 2004, pp. 298–301.
105. Paludan 1998, p. 40; Loewe 2004, pp. 305–306.
106. Paludan 1998, p. 40; Loewe 2004, pp. 260–267.
107. Paludan 1998, p. 42; Loewe 2004, pp. 355–360.
108. Paludan 1998, p. 42; Loewe 2004, pp. 245–252.
109. Paludan 1998, p. 42; Loewe 2004, pp. 378–383.
110. Paludan 1998, p. 42; Loewe 2004, pp. 322–326.
111. Paludan 1998, p. 42; Loewe 2004, pp. 396–397.
112. Paludan 1998, pp. 42–43; Loewe 2000, pp. 536–545.
113. de Crespigny 2007, pp. 567–569.
114. Paludan 1998, pp. 44–45; Loewe 2004, p. 389; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 557–569.
115. Paludan 1998, pp. 48–49; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 604–609.
116. Paludan 1998, pp. 48–49; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 495–500.
117. Paludan 1998, pp. 50–51; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 588–593.
118. Paludan 1998, pp. 50–51; de Crespigny 2007, p. 531.
119. Paludan 1998, pp. 50–51; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 580–583.
120. de Crespigny 2007, p. 576.
121. Paludan 1998, p. 51; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 473–478.
122. Paludan 1998, p. 51; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 486–487.
123. Paludan 1998, p. 51; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 610–611.
124. Paludan 1998, p. 51; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 595–603.
125. Paludan 1998, p. 52, 54–55; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 510–517.
126. de Crespigny 2007, pp. 484–485.
127. Paludan 1998, p. 55; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 554–556.
128. Beck 1986, p. 352 sfnm error: no target: CITEREFBeck1986 (help); de Crespigny 2007, p. 37.
129. de Crespigny 2007, p. 452; Moule 1957, p. 12.
130. de Crespigny 2007, p. 47; Moule 1957, p. 13.
131. de Crespigny 1991, p. 33; Moule 1957, p. 13.
132. de Crespigny 1991, pp. 34–35; Moule 1957, p. 13.
133. de Crespigny 1991, p. 35; Moule 1957, p. 13.
134. de Crespigny 2007, pp. 478–483; Moule 1957, p. 14.
135. de Crespigny 2007, pp. 541–542; Moule 1957, p. 14.
136. de Crespigny 2007, pp. 772–774; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 52; Moule 1957, p. 15.
137. de Crespigny 1991, p. 17; Moule 1957, p. 15.
138. de Crespigny 1991, pp. 17–18.
139. Hong Lee 2015, p. xix.
140. Xiong 2009, p. 554; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 79–92.
141. Xiong 2009, p. 232; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 92–93.
142. Xiong 2009, p. 466.
143. Xiong 2009, p. 222; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 92–93.
144. Xiong 2009, p. 362; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 92–93.
145. Xiong 2009, p. 645; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 93–104; Moule 1957, p. 18.
146. Xiong 2009, p. 362; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 104–105; Moule 1957, p. 18.
147. Xiong 2009, p. 87; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 105–106; Moule 1957, p. 18.
148. Xiong 2009, p. 276; Moule 1957, p. 18.
149. Xiong 2009, p. 367; Moule 1957, p. 18.
150. Xiong 2009, p. 38; Moule 1957, p. 18.
151. Xiong 2009, p. 199.
152. Xiong 2009, p. 199; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 111; Moule 1957, p. 18.
153. Xiong 2009, p. 248; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 111; Moule 1957, p. 19.
154. Xiong 2009, p. 575; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 111–114; Moule 1957, p. 19.
155. Xiong 2009, p. 42; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 114–117; Moule 1957, p. 19.
156. Xiong 2009, p. 181.
157. Adamek 2017, p. 341.
158. Xiong 2009, p. 309; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 150–153.
159. Xiong 2009, p. 292; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 153.
160. Xiong 2009, pp. 301–302; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 153–154.
161. Adamek 2017, p. 341; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. xix.
162. Xiong 2009, pp. 328–330.
163. Xiong 2009, pp. 322–324.
164. Xiong 2009, pp. 449–452; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 127–130.
165. Adamek 2017, pp. 342–343.
166. Xiong 2009, pp. 663–668; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 133.
167. Xiong 2009, pp. 663–668.
168. Xiong 2009, p. 661.
169. Adamek 2017, p. 342.
170. Xiong 2009, pp. 368–369; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 130–133.
171. Adamek 2017, p. 344.
172. Xiong 2009, pp. 163–164; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 134–137.
173. Xiong 2009, pp. 367–369.
174. Xiong 2009, pp. 617–618; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 137–138.
175. Xiong 2009, p. 406.
176. Adamek 2017, p. 343; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. xix.
177. Xiong 2009, pp. 350–351.
178. Adamek 2017, p. 343.
179. Xiong 2009, pp. 511.
180. Xiong 2009, pp. 136.
181. Xiong 2009, pp. 273.
182. Xiong 2009, pp. 367–368.
183. Xiong 2009, p. 296.
184. Xiong 2009, pp. 304–305.
185. Xiong 2009, p. 210.
186. Xiong 2009, pp. 153–154.
187. Adamek 2017, pp. 346–347.
188. Xiong 2009, pp. 514–515; Imperial China 2020, p. 340; Liu 2020, pp. 26–28.
189. Xiong 2009, p. 516; Imperial China 2020, p. 340.
190. Xiong 2009, p. 542; Imperial China 2020, pp. 340–341.
191. Xiong 2009, p. 569; Imperial China 2020, p. 341.
192. Xiong 2009, p. 575; Imperial China 2020, p. 341.
193. Xiong 2009, p. 595; Imperial China 2020, p. 341.
194. Xiong 2009, p. 574; Imperial China 2020, p. 341.
195. Xiong 2009, pp. 644–645.
196. Xiong 2009, p. 576; Imperial China 2020, pp. 341–342.
197. Xiong 2009, pp. 644–645; Imperial China 2020, p. 342.
198. Xiong 2009, pp. 642–643; Imperial China 2020, p. 342.
199. Xiong 2009, pp. 642–643; Imperial China 2020, pp. 342–343.
200. Adamek 2017, p. 347.
201. Xiong 2009, p. 574; Imperial China 2020, p. 343.
202. Xiong 2009, pp. 173–174; Imperial China 2020, p. 344.
203. Xiong 2009, pp. 173–174; Imperial China 2020, pp. 344–345.
204. Xiong 2009, pp. 173–174; Imperial China 2020, p. 345.
205. Xiong 2009, p. 171; Imperial China 2020, pp. 345–346.
206. Xiong 2009, pp. 642–643; Imperial China 2020, p. 344.
207. Adamek 2017, p. 348.
208. Xiong 2009, pp. 654–656; Imperial China 2020, pp. 346–347.
209. Xiong 2009, pp. 654–656; Imperial China 2020, p. 347.
210. Adamek 2017, p. 345.
211. Xiong 2009, p. 329; Imperial China 2020, p. 336.
212. Xiong 2009, p. 442; Imperial China 2020, p. 336.
213. Xiong 2009, p. 542; Imperial China 2020, p. 336.
214. Xiong 2009, p. 326; Imperial China 2020, p. 336.
215. Xiong 2009, p. 575; Imperial China 2020, p. 336.
216. Xiong 2009, p. 401; Imperial China 2020, p. 336.
217. Xiong 2009, p. 362; Imperial China 2020, pp. 336–337.
218. Xiong 2009, p. 220; Imperial China 2020, p. 337.
219. Xiong 2009, p. 461; Imperial China 2020, p. 337.
220. Xiong 2009, p. 570; Imperial China 2020, p. 337.
221. Xiong 2009, p. 554; Imperial China 2020, p. 337.
222. Xiong 2009, p. 573; Imperial China 2020, p. 337.
223. Xiong 2009, p. 572; Imperial China 2020, p. 338.
224. Xiong 2009, p. 126; Imperial China 2020, p. 338.
225. Xiong 2009, p. 208; Imperial China 2020, p. 338.
226. Xiong 2009, p. 554; Imperial China 2020, p. 338.
227. Xiong 2009, p. 248; Imperial China 2020, p. 338.
228. Xiong 2009, p. 573; Imperial China 2020, p. 339.
229. Xiong 2009, p. 571; Imperial China 2020, p. 339.
230. Adamek 2017, p. 346.
231. Xiong 2009, p. 570.
232. Xiong 2009, p. 571.
233. Xiong 2009, p. 84; Imperial China 2020, p. 339.
234. Xiong 2009, p. 542; Imperial China 2020, p. 339.
235. Xiong 2009, p. 152; Imperial China 2020, p. 339.
236. Xiong 2009, p. 594; Imperial China 2020, p. 339.
237. Xiong 2009, p. 221; Imperial China 2020, p. 339.
238. Moule 1957, p. 34; Wright 1979, pp. 57–114; Xiong 2009, pp. 652–653.
239. Moule 1957, p. 34; Wright 1979, pp. 115–149; Xiong 2009, pp. 612–613.
240. San 2014, p. 172.
241. Moule 1957, p. 34; Xiong 2009, p. 611.
242. Wechsler 1979a, pp. 150–187; Paludan 1998, pp. 88–89; Xiong 2009, p. 177; Moule 1957, p. 54.
243. Wechsler 1979b, pp. 188–241; Paludan 1998, pp. 89–93; Xiong 2009, p. 492; Moule 1957, p. 54.
244. Twitchett & Wechsler 1979, pp. 242–290; Paludan 1998, pp. 96–97; Xiong 2009, pp. 177–178; Moule 1957, pp. 54–55.
245. Guisso 1979, pp. 290; Paludan 1998, p. 98; Xiong 2009, p. 686; Moule 1957, p. 55.
246. Guisso 1979, p. 291ff; Paludan 1998, p. 98; Xiong 2009, p. 243; Moule 1957, p. 56.
247. Moule 1957, p. 656.
248. Guisso 1979, pp. 306–321ff; Paludan 1998, pp. 98–101; Xiong 2009, pp. 551–552; Moule 1957, p. 56.
249. Guisso 1979, pp. 321–326; Paludan 1998, p. 101; Xiong 2009, p. 686; Moule 1957, pp. 55, 57.
250. Xiong 2009, p. 436; Moule 1957, p. 57.
251. Guisso 1979, pp. 326–328; Paludan 1998, p. 101; Xiong 2009, pp. 56–57; Moule 1957, pp. 56–57.
252. Twitchett 1979, pp. 333–463; Paludan 1998, pp. 104–109; Xiong 2009, pp. 56–57; Moule 1957, p. 58.
253. Paludan 1998, p. 112; Xiong 2009, p. 485; Moule 1957, p. 58.
254. Paludan 1998, pp. 112–113; Xiong 2009, p. 106; Moule 1957, p. 59.
255. Peterson 1979, pp. 497–512; Paludan 1998, p. 113; Xiong 2009, p. 59; Moule 1957, p. 59.
256. Paludan 1998, p. 113; Xiong 2009, p. 462; Moule 1957, p. 59.
257. Dalby 1979, pp. 611–635; Xiong 2009, p. 570; Moule 1957, p. 59.
258. Dalby 1979, pp. 635–639; Xiong 2009, p. 370; Moule 1957, p. 59.
259. Dalby 1979, pp. 645–646; Xiong 2009, p. 262; Moule 1957, p. 60.
260. Dalby 1979, pp. 646–659; Xiong 2009, p. 546; Moule 1957, p. 60.
261. Dalby 1979, pp. 659–669; Xiong 2009, p. 562; Moule 1957, p. 60.
262. Dalby 1979, pp. 670–681; Somers 1979, pp. 682–702; Xiong 2009, p. 597; Moule 1957, p. 61.
263. Twitchett 1979, pp. 702–714; Paludan 1998, p. 116; Xiong 2009, p. 633; Moule 1957, p. 61.
264. Somers 1979, pp. 714–720, 773; Paludan 1998, pp. 116–117; Xiong 2009, p. 591; Moule 1957, p. 61.
265. Somers 1979, pp. 771–772; Moule 1957, p. 62.
266. Somers 1979, p. 780.
267. Somers 1979, pp. 773–781; Xiong 2009, p. 674; Moule 1957, p. 62.
268. Somers 1979, p. 781; Xiong 2009, p. 38; Moule 1957, p. 62.
269. Xiong 2009, pp. 690–691; Imperial China 2020, p. 354.
270. Xiong 2009, p. 294; Imperial China 2020, pp. 354–355.
271. Xiong 2009, pp. 302–303; Imperial China 2020, p. 355.
272. Xiong 2009, p. 294; Imperial China 2020, p. 355.
273. Xiong 2009, pp. 449–450; Imperial China 2020, p. 356.
274. Xiong 2009, p. 311; Imperial China 2020, p. 356.
275. Xiong 2009, p. 322; Imperial China 2020, p. 356.
276. Xiong 2009, p. 195; Imperial China 2020, p. 357.
277. Xiong 2009, p. 458; Imperial China 2020, p. 357.
278. Xiong 2009, p. 76; Imperial China 2020, p. 357.
279. Xiong 2009, p. 524; Imperial China 2020, p. 358.
280. Xiong 2009, p. 531; Imperial China 2020, p. 358.
281. Xiong 2009, pp. 608–610; Imperial China 2020, p. 357.
282. Xiong 2009, p. 531; Imperial China 2020, p. 357.
283. Xiong 2009, p. 531; Imperial China 2020, pp. 357–358.
284. Xiong 2009, pp. 352–353; Imperial China 2020, p. 361.
285. Xiong 2009, pp. 352–353; Imperial China 2020, pp. 361–362.
286. Xiong 2009, pp. 352–353; Imperial China 2020, p. 362.
287. Xiong 2009, pp. 400–401; Imperial China 2020, p. 358.
288. Xiong 2009, pp. 400–401; Imperial China 2020, pp. 358–359.
289. Xiong 2009, pp. 400–401; Imperial China 2020, p. 359.
290. Davis 2004, pp. 570–573; Imperial China 2020, p. 358.
291. Xiong 2009, p. 527; Imperial China 2020, p. 359.
292. Xiong 2009, p. 531; Imperial China 2020, p. 359.
293. Xiong 2009, p. 522; Imperial China 2020, p. 359.
294. Xiong 2009, p. 532; Imperial China 2020, p. 359.
295. Xiong 2009, p. 328; Imperial China 2020, p. 360.
296. Xiong 2009, p. 322; Imperial China 2020, p. 360.
297. Xiong 2009, p. 326; Imperial China 2020, p. 360.
298. Xiong 2009, pp. 170–172; Imperial China 2020, p. 361.
299. Xiong 2009, pp. 358–359; Imperial China 2020, p. 362.
300. Xiong 2009, p. 292; Imperial China 2020, p. 362.
301. Xiong 2009, p. 299; Imperial China 2020, pp. 362–263.
302. Xiong 2009, p. 306; Imperial China 2020, p. 363.
303. Xiong 2009, p. 322; Imperial China 2020, p. 363.
304. Xiong 2009, p. 325.
305. Xiong 2009, p. 324; Imperial China 2020, p. 363.
306. Lau & Huang 2009, pp. 213–243; Paludan 1998, pp. 122–125; Moule 1957, p. 84.
307. Lau & Huang 2009, pp. 242–258; Paludan 1998, pp. 125–126; Moule 1957, p. 85.
308. Lau & Huang 2009, pp. 258–278; Paludan 1998, p. 128; Moule 1957, p. 85.
309. Paludan 1998, pp. 129–130; Moule 1957, p. 85.
310. McGrath 2009, pp. 338–346; Paludan 1998, p. 130; Moule 1957, p. 86.
311. Smith 2009, pp. 347ff; Paludan 1998, p. 130; Moule 1957, p. 86.
312. Levine 2009a, p. 484, 553ff; Paludan 1998, pp. 130–132; Moule 1957, p. 86.
313. Levine 2009b, p. 555ff, 633–643; Paludan 1998, pp. 132–136; Moule 1957, p. 87.
314. Levine 2009b, p. 639–643; Paludan 1998, p. 136; Moule 1957, p. 87.
315. Moule 1957, pp. 84–90; Tao 2009, pp. 650–652.
316. Tao 2009, p. 644ff; Paludan 1998, pp. 136–138; Moule 1957, p. 88.
317. Moule 1957, pp. 84–90.
318. Gong 2009, p. 710ff; Paludan 1998, pp. 138–143; Moule 1957, p. 88.
319. Davis 2009a, pp. 758–773; Paludan 1998, pp. 138–143; Moule 1957, p. 89.
320. Levine 2009a, p. 773ff; Paludan 1998, p. 144; Moule 1957, p. 89.
321. Davis 2009b, pp. 840, 872–875ff; Paludan 1998, pp. 144–145; Moule 1957, p. 89.
322. Davis 2009c, pp. 913–929; Paludan 1998, pp. 144–145; Moule 1957, p. 89.
323. Davis 2009c, pp. 929–946; Paludan 1998, pp. 146–147; Heirman, Meinert & Anderl 2018, p. 208; Moule 1957, p. 89.
324. Davis 2009c, pp. 946–952; Paludan 1998, p. 147; Moule 1957, p. 90.
325. Davis 2009c, pp. 952–958; Paludan 1998, p. 147; Moule 1957, p. 90.
326. Twitchett & Tietze 1994, pp. 53–67; Imperial China 2020, p. 368; Moule 1957, p. 94.
327. Moule 1957, p. 95.
328. Twitchett & Tietze 1994, pp. 68–74; Imperial China 2020, p. 368; Moule 1957, p. 95.
329. Twitchett & Tietze 1994, pp. 75–80; Imperial China 2020, pp. 368–369; Moule 1957, p. 95.
330. Twitchett & Tietze 1994, pp. 81–83; Imperial China 2020, p. 369; Moule 1957, p. 95.
331. Twitchett & Tietze 1994, pp. 84–86; Imperial China 2020, p. 369; Moule 1957, p. 95.
332. Twitchett & Tietze 1994, pp. 87–113; Imperial China 2020, p. 370; Moule 1957, p. 95.
333. Twitchett & Tietze 1994, pp. 114–122; Imperial China 2020, p. 370; Moule 1957, p. 95.
334. Twitchett & Tietze 1994, pp. 123–138; Imperial China 2020, p. 370; Moule 1957, p. 96.
335. Twitchett & Tietze 1994, pp. 139–148; Imperial China 2020, p. 370; Moule 1957, p. 96.
336. Dunnell 1994, pp. 189–191.
337. Dunnell 1994, pp. 180–188; Imperial China 2020, p. 372; Moule 1957, p. 80.
338. Dunnell 1994, pp. 191–192; Imperial China 2020, p. 372; Moule 1957, p. 81.
339. Dunnell 1994, pp. 191–196; Imperial China 2020, pp. 372–373; Moule 1957, p. 81.
340. Dunnell 1994, pp. 197–204; Imperial China 2020, p. 373; Moule 1957, p. 82.
341. Dunnell 1994, pp. 205–214; Imperial China 2020, p. 373; Moule 1957, p. 83.
342. Schneider 2011, p. 403.
343. Moule 1957, p. 100; Imperial China 2020, p. 374.
344. Moule 1957, p. 100; Imperial China 2020, pp. 374–375.
345. Moule 1957, p. 100; Imperial China 2020, p. 375.
346. Moule 1957, p. 101; Imperial China 2020, p. 375.
347. Paludan 1998, p. 148–153; Rossabi 1994, pp. 454–489; Moule 1957, p. 103.
348. Paludan 1998, pp. 156–158; Ch'i-Ch'ing 1994, pp. 492–503; Moule 1957, p. 103.
349. Paludan 1998, p. 156; Ch'i-Ch'ing 1994, pp. 505–512; Moule 1957, p. 103.
350. Paludan 1998, p. 156; Ch'i-Ch'ing 1994, pp. 513–526; Moule 1957, p. 103.
351. Paludan 1998, p. 156; Ch'i-Ch'ing 1994, pp. 527–531; Moule 1957, p. 103.
352. Paludan 1998, p. 156; Ch'i-Ch'ing 1994, pp. 535–540; Moule 1957, p. 104.
353. Paludan 1998, p. 156; Ch'i-Ch'ing 1994, pp. 541–557; Moule 1957, p. 104.
354. Paludan 1998, pp. 156–157; Ch'i-Ch'ing 1994, pp. 541–557; Moule 1957, p. 104.
355. Paludan 1998, p. 157; Moule 1957, p. 104.
356. Dardess 1994, p. 561.
357. Goodrich & Fang 1976b, pp. 1290–1293; Paludan 1998, p. 157; Dardess 1994, pp. 566–583; Moule 1957, p. 104.
358. Wilkinson 2018, pp. 885–886.
359. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 381–392; Paludan 1998; Langlois 1988, pp. 107–181; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
360. Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
361. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 397–404; Paludan 1998, p. 163; Chan 1988, pp. 184–204; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
362. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 355–364; Paludan 1998, pp. 163–167; Chan 1988, pp. 205–275; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
363. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 338–340; Paludan 1998, pp. 167–169; Chan 1988, pp. 276–283; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
364. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 279–289; Paludan 1998, p. 169; Chan 1988, pp. 284–304; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
365. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, p. xxi.
366. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 289–294; Paludan 1998, pp. 170–171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 305–324; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
367. Goodrich & Fang 1976a; Paludan 1998, p. 171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 325–338; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
368. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 289–294; Paludan 1998, pp. 171–172; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 339–342; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
369. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 298–304; Paludan 1998, pp. 173–174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
370. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 375–380; Paludan 1998, p. 174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
371. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 307–315; Paludan 1998, pp. 176–178; Geiss 1988a, pp. 403–439; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
372. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 315–322; Paludan 1998, pp. 178–180; Geiss 1988b, pp. 440–510; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
373. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 365–367; Paludan 1998, p. 180; Huang 1988, pp. 511–513; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
374. Goodrich & Fang 1976a, pp. 324–338; Paludan 1998, pp. 180–183; Huang 1988, pp. 511–517; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
375. Kennedy 1943a, pp. 176–177; Paludan 1998, p. 183; Atwell 1988, pp. 590–594; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
376. Kennedy 1943b, p. 190; Paludan 1998, pp. 183, 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 595–610; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
377. Kennedy 1943c, pp. 191–192; Paludan 1998, p. 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 611–636; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
378. Wilkinson 2018, p. 907.
379. Fang 1943a, pp. 255–259; Paludan 1998, pp. 190–191; Dennerline 2002, pp. 73–119; Moule 1957, p. 111; Wilkinson 2018, p. 907.
380. Fang 1943b, pp. 327–331; Paludan 1998, pp. 191–194; Spence 2002, pp. 120–182; Moule 1957, p. 111; Wilkinson 2018, p. 907.
381. Fang 1943c, pp. 915–920; Paludan 1998, p. 195; Zelin 2002, pp. 183–229; Moule 1957, p. 111; Wilkinson 2018, p. 907.
382. Fang 1943c, pp. 915–920.
383. Fang 1943d, pp. 369–373; Paludan 1998, pp. 196–203; Woodside 2002, pp. 230–309; Moule 1957, p. 111; Wilkinson 2018, p. 907.
384. Fang 1943e, pp. 965–969; Paludan 1998, pp. 204–205; Moule 1957, p. 111; Wilkinson 2018, p. 907.
385. Fang 1943f, pp. 574–576; Paludan 1998, pp. 205–207; Moule 1957, p. 112; Wilkinson 2018, p. 907.
386. Fang 1943g, pp. 378–380; Paludan 1998, pp. 208–209; Moule 1957, p. 112; Wilkinson 2018, p. 907.
387. Wilkinson 2018, p. 567.
388. Fang 1943h, pp. 729–731; Paludan 1998, pp. 210–213; Moule 1957, p. 112; Wilkinson 2018, p. 907.
389. Fang 1943i, pp. 731–734; Paludan 1998, pp. 213–216; Moule 1957, p. 112; Wilkinson 2018, p. 907.
390. Fang 1943i, pp. 733–734; Paludan 1998, pp. 213, 216–217; Moule 1957, p. 112; Wilkinson 2018, p. 907.

Sources

Ancient Era

• Lee, Yun Kuen (2002). "Building the Chronology of Early Chinese History". Asian Perspectives. 41 (1): 15–42. doi:10.1353/asi.2002.0006. hdl:10125/17161. S2CID 67818363.
• Li, Xueqin (2012). "谈新出现的妇妌爵" [On the newly discovered jue of Fu Jing]. Wenbo (3): 13–14.
• Liu, Kexin; Wu, Xiaohong; Guo, Zhiyu; Yuan, Sixun; Ding, Xingfang; Fu, Dongpo; Pan, Yan (2021). "Radiocarbon Dating of Oracle Bones of Late Shang Period in Ancient China". Radiocarbon. 63 (1): 155–175. Bibcode:2021Radcb..63..155L. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.90.
• Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L., eds. (1999). The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.
  • Chang, Kwang-chih (1999). "China on the Eve of the Historical Period". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.
  • Keightley, David N. (1999). "The Shang: China's First Historical Dynasty". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 232–291. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.
• Keightley, David N. (1985) [1978]. Sources of Shang History: The Oracle-Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05455-4.
• Marshall, S.J. (2001). The Mandate of Heaven: Hidden History in the I Ching. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12299-3.
• Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1997). Before Confucius: Studies in the Creation of the Chinese Classics. SUNY Series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3378-2.
• Theobald, Ulrich (2018a). "Xia Dynasty Rulers". Chinaknowledge.
• Theobald, Ulrich (2018b). "Shang Dynasty Rulers". Chinaknowledge.
• Wu Kuo-Chen (1982). The Chinese Heritage. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. pp. 125–126. ISBN 978-0-517-54475-4.
• XSZCP Group (2000). 夏商周断代工程1996—2000年阶段成果报告: 简本 [The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project Report for the years 1996–2000 (abridged)]. Beijing: 世界图书出版公司. ISBN 978-7-5062-4138-0.
• "Shang Kingship and Shang Kinship" (PDF). Indiana University. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2008.

Early Imperial Era

• Barbieri-Low, Anthony J.; Yates, Robin D.S. (2015). "Recognized Rulers of the Qin and Han Dynasties and the Xin Period". Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China. Sinica Leidensia. Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. xix–xx. ISBN 978-90-04-30053-8.
• de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-474-1184-0.
• Twitchett, Dennis; Loewe, Michael, eds. (1986). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
  • Loewe, Michael (1986). "The Former Han dynasty". In Twitchett, Dennis; Loewe, Michael (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
  • Beck, B.J. Mansvelt (1986). "The fall of the Han Dynasty". In Twitchett, Dennis; Loewe, Michael (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
• de Crespigny, Rafe (2010). A Biography of Cao Cao 155-220 AD. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-18830-3.
• Loewe, Michael (2000). A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods (221 BC - AD 24). Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-10364-1.
• Loewe, Michael (2004). The Men Who Governed Han China: Companion to a Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-13845-2.
• Theobald, Ulrich (8 March 2011b). "Empress Lü 呂后 or Empress Dowager Lü 呂太后". Chinaknowledge.
• Vervoorn, Aat Emile (1990). "Chronology of Dynasties and Reign Periods". Men of the Cliffs and Caves: The Development of the Chinese Eremitic Tradition to the End of the Han Dynasty. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. pp. 311–316. ISBN 978-962-201-415-2.

Six Dynasties & Mid Imperial Era

• de Crespigny, Rafe (1991). "The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin: A History of China in the Third Century AD ~ I" (PDF). East Asian History. 1 (1): 1–36.
• Dien, Alfred E.; Knapp, Keith N., eds. (2019). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 2: The Six Dynasties, 220–589. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02077-1.
• Staicu, Cristian-Radu (1979). Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
  • Wright, Arthur F. (1979). "The Sui dynasty (581–617)". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
  • Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "The founding of the T'ang dynasty: Kao-tsu (reign 618–26)". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
  • Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "T'ai-tsung (reign 626–49) the consolidator". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
  • Twitchett, Denis; Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "Kao-tsung (reign 649–83) and the empress Wu: the inheritor and the usurper". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
  • Guisso, Richard W. L. (1979). "The reigns of the empress Wu, Chung-tsung and Jui-tsung". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
  • Twitchett, Denis (1979). "Hsüan-tsung (reign 712–56)". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
  • Peterson, C. A. (1979). "Court and province in mid- and late T'ang". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
  • Dalby, Michael T. (1979). "Court politics in late T'ang times". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
  • Somers, Robert M. (1979). "The end of the T'ang". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
• Hong Lee, Lily Xiao, ed. (2015). "Chronology of Dynasties". Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women. Vol. 1. London: Routledge. pp. xvii–xxii. ISBN 978-1-317-47591-0.
• Kroll, Paul W. (2019). "Tang Emperors' Accession Dates and Reign Titles". Critical Readings on Tang China. Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. xi–xiii. ISBN 978-90-04-38015-8.
• Liu, Puning (2020). China's Northern Wei Dynasty, 386-535. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-28322-8.
• Ouyang Xiu (2004) [1073]. "Qian Chu". Historical Records of the Five Dynasties. Translated by Davis, Richard L. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-50228-3.
• Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2009). Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6053-7.

Late Imperial Era

• Cui, Hongfen; Wen, Zhiyong (2007). "Xixia huangdi zunhao kao lue" 西夏皇帝尊号考略 [A Brief Study on the Titles of the Western Xia Emperors]. 宁夏大学学报 [Journal of Ningxia University] (1).
• Goodrich, Luther Carrington; Fang Chaoying, eds. (1976a). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644. Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-03801-0.
• Goodrich, Luther Carrington; Fang Chaoying, eds. (1976b). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644. Vol. 2. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-03833-1.
• Heirman, Ann; Meinert, Carmen; Anderl, Christoph (2018). Buddhist Encounters and Identities Across East Asia. Brill. p. 208. ISBN 978-90-04-36615-2.
• Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (1943). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 2 volumes. Washington: US Government Printing Office. OCLC 3443954.
  • Fang, Chao-ying (1943). "Fu-lin" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 255–259.
  • Fang, Chao-ying (1943). "Hsüan-yeh" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 327–331.
  • Fang, Chao-ying (1943). "Yin-chên" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 2. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 915–920.
  • Fang, Chao-ying (1943). "Hung-li" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 369–373.
  • Fang, Chao-ying (1943). "Yung-yen" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 2. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 965–969.
  • Fang, Chao-ying (1943). "Min-ning" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 574–576.
  • Fang, Chao-ying (1943). "I-chu" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 378–380.
  • Fang, Chao-ying (1943). "Tsai-ch'un" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 2. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 729–731.
  • Fang, Chao-ying (1943). "Tsai-t'ien" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 2. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 731–734.
  • Kennedy, George A. (1943). "Chu Ch'ang-lo" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 176–177.
  • Kennedy, George A. (1943). "Chu Yu-chiao" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. p. 190.
  • Kennedy, George A. (1943). "Chu Yu-chien" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. 1. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 191–192.
• Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis, eds. (1988). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
  • Langlois, John D. (1988). "The Hung-wu reign, 1368–1398". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
  • Chan, Hok-lam (1988). "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsüan-te reigns, 1399–1435". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
  • Twitchett, Denis; Grimm, Tilemann (1988). "The Cheng-t'ung, Ching-t'ai, and T'ien-shun reigns, 1436—1464". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
  • Mote, Frederick W. (1988). "The Ch'eng-hua and Hung-chih reigns, 1465—1505". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
  • Geiss, James (1988). "The Cheng-te reign, 1506–1521". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
  • Geiss, James (1988). "The Chia-ching reign, 1522–1566". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
  • Huang, Ray (1988). "The Lung-ch'ing and Wan-li reigns, 1567—1620". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
  • Atwell, William (1988). "The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
• Peterson, Willard J., ed. (2002). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24334-6.
  • Dennerline, Jerry (2002). "The Shun-chih Reign". In Peterson, Willard J. (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24334-6.
  • Spence, Jonathan (2002). "The K'ang-hsi Reign". In Peterson, Willard J. (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24334-6.
  • Zelin, Madeleine (2002). "The Yung-cheng Reign". In Peterson, Willard J. (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24334-6.
  • Woodside, Alexander (2002). "The Ch'ien-lung Reign". In Peterson, Willard J. (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24334-6.
• Schneider, Julia (2011). "The Jin Revisited: New Assessment of Jurchen Emperors". Journal of Song-Yuan Studies. 41 (41): 343–404. doi:10.1353/sys.2011.0030. hdl:1854/LU-2045182. JSTOR 23496214. S2CID 162237648.
• Staicu, Cristian-Radu (2009). Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
  • Lau, Nap-yin; Huang, K'uan-chung (2009). "Founding and Consolidation of the Sung Dynasty under T'ai-tsu (960–976), T'ai-tsung (976–997), and Chen-tsung (997–1022)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
  • McGrath, Michael (2009). "The Reigns of Jen-tsung (1022–1063) and Ying-tsung (1063–1067)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
  • Smith, Paul Jakov (2009). "Shen-tsung's Reign and the New Policies of Wang An-shih, 1067–1085". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
  • Levine, Ari Daniel (2009). "Che-tsung's Reign (1085–1100) and the Age of Faction". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
  • Levine, Ari Daniel (2009). "The Reigns of Hui-tsung (1100–1126) and Ch'in-tsung". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
  • Tao, Jing-Shen (2009). "The Move to the South and the Reign of Kao-tsung (1127–1162)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
  • Gong, Wei Ai (2009). "The Reign of Hsiao-tsung (1162–1189)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
  • Davis, Richard L. (2009). "The Reigns of Kuang-tsung (1189–1194) and Ning-tsung (1194–1224)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
  • Davis, Richard L. (2009). "The Reign of Li-tsung (1224–1264)". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
  • Davis, Richard L. (2009). "The Reign of Tu-tsung (1264–1274) and His Successors to 1279". In Twitchett, Dennis; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907–1279, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
• Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert, eds. (1994). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
  • Ch'i-Ch'ing, Hsiao (1994). "Mid-Yüan politics". In Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
  • Dardess, John (1994). "Shun-ti and the end of Yüan rule in China". In Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
  • Dunnell, Ruth (1994). "The Hsi Hsia". In Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
  • Twitchett, Denis; Tietze, Klaus-Peter (1994). "The Liao". In Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
  • Rossabi, Morris (1994). "The reign of Khubilai khan". In Twitchett, Dennis; Franke, Herbert (eds.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.

General

• Adamek, Piotr (2017). "Chronological Index". Good Son is Sad If He Hears the Name of His Father: The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values. Monumenta Serica Monograph Series. Vol. LXVI. London: Routledge. pp. 337–359. ISBN 978-1-351-56521-9.
• Biran, Michal (2017). "Periods of Non-Han Rule". In Szonyi, Michael (ed.). A Companion to Chinese History. Hoboken: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-62460-9.
• Chen, Yuan (2014). "Legitimation Discourse and the Theory of the Five Elements in Imperial China". Journal of Song-Yuan Studies. 44: 325–364. doi:10.1353/sys.2014.0000. JSTOR 44511246.
• Hymes, Robert (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11004-4.
• Morton, W. Scott; Lewis, Charlton M. (2004). China: Its History and Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-146526-7.
• Moule, Arthur C. (1957). The Rulers of China, 221 BC-AD 1949. London: Routledge. OCLC 223359908.
• Paludan, Ann (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05090-3.
• San, Tan Koon (2014). Dynastic China: An Elementary History. New York: Other Press. ISBN 978-983-9541-88-5.
• Theobald, Ulrich (23 September 2011a). "Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers". Chinaknowledge.
• Wilkinson, Endymion (2018). Chinese History: A New Manual (5th ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 978-0-9988883-0-9.
• Wright, David Curtis (2001). The History of China. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-30940-3.
• Xiong, Victor Cunrui; Hammond, Kenneth J. (2019). Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-58051-3.
• Wang, Aihe (2000). Cosmology and Political Culture in Early China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62420-6.
• Wechsler, Howard J. (1985). Offerings of Jade and Silk: Ritual and Symbol in the Legitimation of the T'ang Dynasty. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03191-1.
• Wright, Arthur F.; Fagan, Edward (1951). "Era names and Zeitgeist". Asiatische Studien. 5: 131–121. doi:10.5169/seals-145321.
• Imperial China: The Definitive Visual History. New York: DK and Encyclopedia of China Publishing House. 2020. ISBN 978-0-7440-2047-2.

Further reading

• Du Jianmin (1995). Zhongguo lidai diwang shixi nianbiao 中国历代帝王世系年表 [Genealogical Tables of Chinese Emperors and Kings in Successive Dynasties] (in Chinese). Jinan: Qi-Lu. ISBN 978-7-5333-0422-5. OCLC 646288082.
• Khmaladze, Estate V.; Brownrigg, Ray; Haywood, John (December 2010). "Memoryless Reigns of the "Sons of Heaven"". International Statistical Review. 78 (3): 348–362. doi:10.1111/j.1751-5823.2010.00119.x. JSTOR 27919858. S2CID 118023202.
• Yu Baolin (于宝林) (2010). Zhonghua lishi jinian zongbiao 中华历史纪年总表 [General Chronological Table of Chinese History] (in Chinese). Beijing: She hui ke xue wen xian chu ban she. ISBN 978-7-5097-1088-3. OCLC 500980080.

External links

• Rulers of China List at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
• Table of Chinese Imperial Reigns at David K. Jordan's website
• Guide to Names and Titles of Rulers at Chinaknowledge