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Parque Chung Hee

Park Chung Hee ( en coreano박정희 ; 14 de noviembre de 1917 - 26 de octubre de 1979) fue un político y oficial del ejército surcoreano que sirvió como el tercer presidente de Corea del Sur de 1962 a 1979 después de tomar el poder en el golpe de Estado del 16 de mayo de 1961. Es considerado uno de los líderes más importantes de la historia de Corea, aunque su legado como dictador militar sigue causando controversia.

Antes de su presidencia, Park era el segundo oficial de mayor rango en el ejército de Corea del Sur . Su golpe puso fin a la Segunda República interina de Corea . Después de servir durante dos años como presidente de la junta militar , fue elegido presidente en 1963 , marcando el comienzo de la Tercera República . Park comenzó una serie de reformas económicas que finalmente llevaron a un rápido crecimiento económico e industrialización, un fenómeno que ahora se conoce como el Milagro del río Han . Esto convirtió a Corea del Sur en una de las economías de más rápido crecimiento de las décadas de 1960 y 1970, aunque con costos para los derechos laborales . Esta era también vio la formación de chaebols : empresas familiares apoyadas por el estado similares a los zaibatsu japoneses . Ejemplos de chaebols importantes incluyen Hyundai , LG y Samsung .

Aunque fue popular durante la década de 1960, su popularidad comenzó a estancarse en la década de 1970, con victorias más ajustadas de lo esperado durante las elecciones presidenciales de 1971 y las elecciones legislativas posteriores . En 1972, Park declaró la ley marcial después de llevar a cabo un autogolpe de estado . Luego introdujo la altamente autoritaria Constitución Yushin , marcando el comienzo de la Cuarta República . Ahora gobernando como dictador , reprimió constantemente la oposición política y la disidencia y controló completamente al ejército. También tenía mucho control sobre los medios de comunicación y las expresiones artísticas . En 1979, Park fue asesinado por su amigo cercano Kim Jae-gyu , director de la KCIA , después del Levantamiento de Busan-Masan . [3] Si el asesinato fue espontáneo o premeditado sigue sin estar claro hasta el día de hoy. El crecimiento económico continuó a pesar del golpe de estado de 1979 y la considerable agitación política a raíz de su asesinato . El país finalmente se democratizó con la Lucha Democrática de Junio ​​de 1987.

Park sigue siendo una figura controvertida en el discurso político moderno de Corea del Sur y entre la población surcoreana en general, lo que dificulta una evaluación imparcial de su mandato. Si bien algunos le atribuyen el mérito de sostener el crecimiento económico, que reformó y modernizó Corea del Sur, otros critican su forma autoritaria de gobernar el país (especialmente después de 1971) y por priorizar el crecimiento económico y el orden social a expensas de las libertades civiles y los derechos humanos . Una encuesta de Gallup Korea en octubre de 2021 mostró que Park, Kim Dae-jung (un antiguo oponente de Park a quien intentó ejecutar) y Roh Moo-hyun eran los presidentes mejor valorados de la historia de Corea del Sur en términos de dejar un legado positivo, especialmente entre los conservadores surcoreanos y los ancianos. [4] La hija de Park, Park Geun-hye, se desempeñó más tarde como la undécima presidenta de Corea del Sur desde 2013 hasta que fue destituida y condenada por varios cargos de corrupción en 2017.

Vida temprana y educación

Park nació alrededor de las 11 am del 14 de noviembre de 1917, [5] en Sangmo-dong  [ko] , Gumi , Keishōhoku-dō ( Provincia de Gyeongsang del Norte ), [6] Corea, Imperio del Japón, hijo de Park Sŏng-bin  [ko] y Paek Nam-ŭi  [ko] . [7] Era el más joven de cinco hermanos y dos hermanas. [8] Era del clan Goryeong Park  [ko] . [7]

La familia de Park era extremadamente pobre y carecía constantemente de alimentos. [9] [5] Según Park, su padre era de clase alta ( yangban ) y estaba destinado a heredar las propiedades moderadas de la familia, pero el clan lo desterró después de que participó en la Revolución Campesina Donghak de 1894-95 . [10] [11] [b] En 1916, [11] el anciano Park se mudó a la aldea de su esposa, Sangmo-dong, donde le dieron una pequeña parcela de tierra. Según entrevistas posteriores, no trabajó la tierra con su esposa y en su lugar bebió alcohol y deambuló. El erudito Chong-Sik Lee especula que el anciano Park no quería que lo vieran trabajando para evitar mostrar aceptación de su estatus de yangban perdido . [10]

La madre de Park era considerada por sus contemporáneos como una mujer diligente y centrada. Se encargaba tanto de la casa como de la agricultura. [12] Tenía alrededor de 43 años cuando nació Park. [13] [5] Debido a su avanzada edad y a su desastrosa situación económica, intentó abortar en varias ocasiones. [13] [5] Sin embargo, cuando finalmente nació su hijo, se dice que sentía un profundo cariño por él. [14] [12] [c]

Park tuvo varios problemas de salud durante su juventud. Durante gran parte de su juventud, no comió bien y a menudo se lo describía como enfermizo. Cuando tenía dos años, se arrastró desde un piso elevado y aterrizó en un pozo de fuego que ardía sin llama. Lo rescataron rápidamente del pozo, pero sus antebrazos sufrieron quemaduras importantes. Según se informa, durante el resto de su vida usó intencionalmente camisetas de manga larga para ocultar sus cicatrices. [5]

Un importante biógrafo de Park, [16] Cho Gab-je , entrevistó a muchas personas que lo conocieron y tuvo la impresión de que la infancia de Park fue bastante feliz. Según Cho, Park tenía muchos amigos cercanos, sus padres se llevaban bien y su familia era cariñosa con él. [12] [17]

Escuela primaria

Parte de la casa donde Park pasó su infancia . Park nació en el sarangchae que se muestra aquí. [15] Durmió y estudió aquí (excepto cuando estaba fuera en la escuela secundaria) hasta 1937. [18] (2015)

Park fue la segunda persona de su familia, después de su hermano mayor Park Sang Hee  [ko] , en asistir a la escuela primaria. [19] Se inscribió el 1 de abril de 1927, a la edad de 9 años y finalmente se graduó el 25 de marzo de 1932. [20] Su escuela, la Escuela Primaria Gumi  [ko] , estaba a 6 kilómetros (3,7 mi) [d] de su casa. [20] [23] La larga caminata diaria y su hambre le pasaron factura a su cuerpo. [23] [20] Park escribió sobre esto en sus memorias: [24] [e]

[La clase empezaba a las 8 am..] Si sospechaba que iba a llegar tarde, [f] corría los [6 km] hasta la escuela... Durante el invierno, la comida de mi lonchera escolar se congelaba. Si la comía de todos modos, me dolía el estómago y a veces vomitaba. En esas épocas, a veces pasaba días sin comer... [21]

—  Park Chung Hee, Mi infancia (1970)

Park estuvo constantemente entre los estudiantes más bajos en cada escuela a la que asistió, [g] y a menudo se lo describía como enfermizo en sus registros escolares. [20] En sexto grado, medía 135,8 cm (4 pies 5 pulgadas) .+Medía 12  pulgada de alto y pesaba 30 kg (66 lb). A pesar de sus desafíos físicos, era un estudiante diligente que obtenía buenas calificaciones. [25] [20] Park fue nombrado líder de la clase durante varios años; sus compañeros de clase recordaron más tarde que podía ser autoritario al hacer cumplir la disciplina, incluso abofeteando a varios de ellos. [26]

Los domingos, Park asistía a una seodang (escuela tradicional), donde recibía una educación en los clásicos confucianos . [20] También en esta época, asistía a la Iglesia Presbiteriana Sangmo en Gumi. Su familia se burlaba de él por esto, ya que no asistían a la iglesia, aunque dejó de ir al final de la escuela primaria. Décadas más tarde, donó dinero para reparar la iglesia después de que fuera dañada durante la Guerra de Corea . [27]

Las personas que conocieron a Park cuando era niño lo describieron como competitivo y persistente. Sus compañeros de clase recordaron más tarde que incluso después de perder en competencias de fuerza, como la pulseada o el ssireum (lucha coreana), se burlaba de sus oponentes y exigía revanchas hasta que ganaba. [17]

Los amigos de Park lo recordaban como un lector voraz de historia, que frecuentemente hablaba con entusiasmo sobre sus héroes históricos. [17] Cuando tenía alrededor de 13 años, [28] Park se convirtió en un admirador del líder francés Napoleón . [29] [30] En esa época, también llegó a idolatrar al famoso almirante coreano Yi Sun-sin (que luchó contra los japoneses durante la Guerra de Imjin ). Park leyó una biografía sobre el almirante escrita por Yi Gwangsu que lo conmovió profundamente. Según Lee, una parte importante de la biografía es despectiva hacia los políticos e incluso hacia los coreanos en general, ya que el competente almirante fue tratado mal por estos grupos durante su vida. Lee especuló que esto influyó más tarde en el estilo de liderazgo autoritario de Park. [31] [h]

Escuela Normal de Taegu

La Escuela Normal de Taegu en la década de 1930

En 1932, Park fue admitido en la Escuela Normal de Taegu  [ko] , una escuela secundaria que capacitaba a maestros de escuela primaria. Las admisiones eran muy competitivas, ya que era la tercera escuela de este tipo en Corea, la matrícula era gratuita y los puestos de profesor se consideraban históricamente prestigiosos. Park fue aceptado entre 1.070 solicitantes en una clase de 10 estudiantes japoneses y 90 coreanos; ocupó el puesto 50 en el momento de la admisión. [33]

A pesar del prestigio y de la matrícula gratuita, su madre esperaba que no lo aceptaran. Los gastos de manutención que implicaba su educación (en una época en la que la moneda escaseaba y el trueque era la norma), así como la pérdida de su ayuda en la granja, crearon una carga importante para la familia. Según Lee, la familia de Park estaba a punto de atravesar sus peores dificultades económicas hasta el momento. En esa época, Asia sufría los efectos de la Gran Depresión y las políticas coloniales japonesas obligaban a los coreanos a enviar a Japón una parte importante de su producción agrícola a cambio de una compensación que se consideraba insuficiente. [34]

La educación de Park en Taegu era militarista, especialmente porque los oficiales militares japoneses estaban involucrados en su administración. En otoño, toda la escuela participaba en enshū (演習) , programas de entrenamiento militar. Según Lee, Park disfrutaba y sobresalía en estos aspectos de la escuela. Empezó a practicar kendo y se convirtió en trompetista. Su entusiasmo llamó la atención del teniente coronel Arikawa Keiichi (有川圭一, 1891-1945) del Ejército de Kwantung , que dirigía los programas de entrenamiento militar y se encariñó con Park. [35]

Fotografía de graduación de Park en la Escuela Normal de Taegu en 1937

Park se interesó en dejar la docencia y unirse al ejército, pero para sus contemporáneos sus posibilidades parecían escasas; [i] el ingreso a la Academia Militar Japonesa era muy competitivo para los coreanos y las calificaciones de Park estaban cayendo en picada. [37] [6] En 1935, ocupó el último lugar entre los 73 estudiantes de su clase y perdió más días de escuela cada año. [37] Los maestros de Park atribuyeron esto a su terrible situación económica. Lee teoriza que las ausencias fueron causadas por la incapacidad de sus padres para reunir suficiente dinero para sus gastos en la escuela a tiempo, lo que le hizo perder las primeras semanas de cada trimestre. Además, el hermano mayor de Park, Sang Hee, perdió su trabajo (y dos hijos por enfermedad) en 1935, lo que le dejó sin poder ayudar al resto de la familia. [38]

En cambio, muchos de los compañeros de clase de Park provenían de familias con una situación económica acomodada. Varios de ellos recordaron que Park se sentía humillado por su situación. Cuando juntaban su dinero para comprar bocadillos, Park se excusaba y se enfadaba solo. Un compañero de clase recordó haber encontrado a Park llorando una noche. Lo estaban enviando a casa para que recaudara dinero para sus gastos de manutención, a pesar de saber que su familia no lo aceptaría. Lee especula que Park se volvió más pragmático y calculador durante esta época, ya que eran rasgos que eran necesarios no solo para seguir matriculado, sino también para evitar morir de hambre. [39]

Primera novia, primera esposa y primer hijo.

En 1934, Park comenzó a salir en secreto con Yi Chŏng-ok ( 이정옥 ), que asistía a una escuela de niñas en la misma ciudad. El padre de Park deseaba ver a Park casado lo antes posible, y sin saber sobre la relación de su hijo, arregló un matrimonio con una mujer diferente: Kim Ho-nam  [ko] . Los dos se casaron en 1935 mientras Park todavía estaba enamorado de Yi. Si bien el matrimonio produjo una hija, Park Jae-ok , Kim estaba horrorizado por la pobreza de la familia y la pareja se evitaba tanto como podía. Después de su matrimonio, a Park le quedaba un año de escuela, por lo que la dejó en la casa de los Park y regresó. [40]

Enseñanza

Cheongungak , la casa donde Park se quedó mientras vivía en Mungyeong. [41] (2024)

El 20 de marzo de 1937, [42] Park se graduó en Taegu, ocupando el puesto 69 de 70 en su clase. [k] Como parte de las condiciones de su escolarización, se le exigió que enseñara durante al menos dos años, [43] y fue colocado en la Escuela Normal Pública de Mungyeong  [ko] . [44] La escuela estaba en Mungyeong , entonces un pueblo minero de carbón aislado. [45] Finalmente comenzó a recibir un salario cómodo, del que enviaba parte a su familia. Pero tal como lo había hecho antes, sus estudiantes caminaban a la escuela todos los días, a menudo desde muy lejos, y luchaban por pagar las comidas. Ofreció ayuda a varios de ellos para que siguieran viniendo a la escuela. Si bien sus estudiantes recordaban a Park como un maestro atento y entusiasta, Lee especula que, en un pueblo tan pequeño, Park se sentía solo y poco estimulado. Se dice que él y su compañero de habitación bebían grandes cantidades de makgeolli (vino de arroz coreano) para pasar el tiempo. [46]

Park (en un círculo) como profesor (1940)

Poco después de que Park comenzara a enseñar, Japón lanzó la Segunda Guerra Sino-Japonesa y comenzó a obtener victorias significativas en rápida sucesión. Park se inspiró en el éxito de los japoneses. Incluso escribió una obra de teatro que sus estudiantes representaron, titulada [Los soldados voluntarios coreanos van a la guerra] ( 『지원병출정』 ). [44] [47] La ​​obra reflejaba los acontecimientos contemporáneos, ya que alrededor de febrero de 1938, el gobierno colonial había instituido el Sistema Especial de Alistamiento Voluntario. Miles de jóvenes coreanos se postularon, aunque si la mayoría lo hizo voluntariamente, o incluso solo por el salario y los beneficios, es un tema de debate académico. [l] Sin embargo, el ejército japonés se mostraba cauteloso a la hora de aceptar coreanos debido a preocupaciones sobre su lealtad, y por lo tanto solo aceptaba una fracción de los solicitantes cada año. Si un coreano podía demostrar un patriotismo inquebrantable, se consideraba que tenía más posibilidades de ser aceptado. [50]

Solicitud de ingreso a la escuela militar y juramento de sangre

En 1938, Park solicitó ingresar a la Academia Militar del Ejército de Manchukuo, que abriría al año siguiente. Sin embargo, tenía tres años más que el límite máximo de edad de 19 años para los candidatos; [m] escribió una solicitud para que la oficina de admisiones pasara por alto su edad, pero fue rechazada. [52] Park buscó a Kang Chae-ho, un capitán étnico coreano en el Ejército de Manchukuo y nativo de Daegu, para pedirle consejo. Kang se ofreció a usar sus conexiones para intentar obtener una excepción para Park. También le aconsejó a Park que hiciera un juramento de sangre ( 혈서 ;血書; hyŏlsŏ ) para demostrar su lealtad a Japón y atraer publicidad para su causa. [53]

Artículo en el Manshū Shimbun sobre el juramento de sangre de Park. [54] [53] (31 de marzo de 1939)

Park así lo hizo. El 31 de marzo de 1939, el periódico de Manchukuo, Manshū Shimbun, publicó un artículo titulado "Juramento de sangre: deseo de ser oficial del ejército: joven maestro de la península". [55]

El día 29, los funcionarios encargados de la admisión del mando del Gobierno Militar se sintieron profundamente conmovidos por una carta certificada de Park Chung Hee, profesor de la Escuela Pública Western Mungyeong, en la provincia de Gyeongsang del Norte, Corea. En la carta se incluía una carta apasionada que expresaba el deseo de Park de ser oficial del ejército, así como un juramento escrito con sangre que decía "Servicio hasta la muerte" (一死以テ御奉公) ... Sin embargo, convertirse en oficial está limitado a aquellos que ya están en el ejército; al tener 23 años, excedía el límite de edad de 19. Por lo tanto, y lamentablemente, su solicitud fue rechazada cortésmente.

Aceptación y controversia

A pesar de este segundo rechazo, Park fue finalmente aceptado en la academia. Las circunstancias de su admisión no se conocen con certeza y son una fuente de controversia. [56] [57] La ​​teoría principal es que Arikawa, entonces coronel del ejército de Kwantung, pidió personalmente al comandante de la academia, el mayor general Nagumo, que dejara entrar a Park. [58]

Otra teoría, propuesta por el historiador chino coreano Ryu Yŏn-san ( 류연산 ) en 2003, postula que Park pudo haberse unido a la Fuerza Especial Gando como otra muestra de lealtad. La unidad estaba destinada a reprimir el activismo independentista coreano en la región de Jiandao ("Gando" en coreano, "Kantō" en japonés) del noreste de China. [n] Sin embargo, esta teoría es rechazada por los biógrafos Cho Gab-je y Chong-Sik Lee, quienes argumentan que el testimonio en el que se basa la teoría no se alinea con la cronología de los eventos ampliamente aceptados en la vida de Park. [59] [60]

Carrera militar

Parque con otros estudiantes en la Academia Militar de Changchun

Academia Militar del Ejército de Manchukuo

El ambiente escolar en la Academia Manchukuo era tenso, en parte debido a su significativa diversidad étnica, lingüística y política. [61] Su cuerpo estudiantil estaba compuesto por alrededor de 10 coreanos, 223 chinos y 107 japoneses. Según Chong-sik Lee, Park sobresalía en la academia, [o] especialmente en comparación con los estudiantes no japoneses. [63] Hablaba japonés con fluidez, tenía una educación relativamente buena y ya estaba acostumbrado a los ejercicios militares y a la vida reglamentada en los dormitorios desde su época en la Escuela Normal de Taegu. [63] Adoptó y se hizo llamar Takagi Masao (高木正雄) . [64] [65] [p]

Park fue obligado a ayudar a otros estudiantes. [67] Varios de sus compañeros de clase chinos y coreanos lo describieron más tarde como arrogante y recordaron que otros estudiantes se peleaban con él. [68] A pesar de esto, según Lee, Park recordaba con cariño su tiempo en la academia. En una cena de estado en Tokio en noviembre de 1961, Park se aseguró de encontrar y agradecer al general Nagumo Shinichirō (南雲慎一郎), el ex comandante de la academia, por su tiempo allí. Nagumo reveló que Park le había estado enviando regalos de ginseng . [69]

En esa época, Manchukuo era considerado un refugio para los extremistas políticos japoneses tanto de izquierda como de derecha, y la academia también contaba con instructores que, en ese momento y más tarde, estuvieron asociados con una gran controversia. [70] Según un relato, un tal capitán Kanno Hiroshi había participado previamente en el fallido golpe de Estado del 26 de febrero en Japón, y había enseñado un análisis del golpe al que Park posiblemente le prestó atención. Lee evaluó este relato como convincente y teorizó que, años después, Park aplicó las lecciones a su propio golpe de Estado. [71] [q]

En marzo de 1942, Park se graduó entre los cinco mejores estudiantes de la academia. [72] [r] Después de graduarse, realizó un aprendizaje de tres meses en el 30.º Regimiento de Infantería del Ejército de Kwantung en Harbin como enlace. [69] [s]

Academia Militar Japonesa

Su talento como oficial fue rápidamente reconocido y fue uno de los pocos coreanos a los que se les permitió asistir a la Academia del Ejército Imperial Japonés, cerca de Tokio. Posteriormente fue destinado a un regimiento del Ejército japonés en Manchuria y sirvió allí hasta la rendición de Japón al final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. [6]

En Manchukuo

Después de graduarse quinto en la clase de 1944, Park fue comisionado como teniente en el ejército de Manchukuo , un estado títere japonés , y sirvió durante las etapas finales de la Segunda Guerra Mundial como ayudante de campo de un comandante de regimiento. [74] [75]

Regreso a Corea

Park como general de brigada de Corea del Sur en 1957

Park regresó a Corea después de la guerra y se inscribió en la Academia Militar de Corea . Se graduó en la segunda clase de 1946 (uno de sus compañeros de clase fue Kim Jae-gyu , su amigo cercano y más tarde asesino) y se convirtió en oficial del ejército de policía bajo el Gobierno Militar del Ejército de los Estados Unidos en Corea del Sur . El recién establecido gobierno surcoreano , bajo el liderazgo de Syngman Rhee , arrestó a Park en noviembre de 1948 bajo la acusación de liderar una célula comunista en la policía coreana. [6] Park fue posteriormente condenado a muerte por un tribunal militar, pero su sentencia fue conmutada por Rhee a instancias de varios oficiales militares coreanos de alto rango. [6]

Aunque Park había sido miembro del Partido de los Trabajadores de Corea del Sur , las acusaciones sobre su participación en una célula militar nunca fueron corroboradas. [1] Sin embargo, fue obligado a abandonar el ejército. Mientras trabajaba en el ejército como asistente civil no remunerado, se encontró con la octava clase de la Academia Militar de Corea (graduada en 1950), entre los que se encontraba Kim Jong-pil , y esta clase en particular serviría más tarde como la columna vertebral del golpe de Estado del 16 de mayo . Inmediatamente después de que comenzara la Guerra de Corea y con la ayuda de Paik Sun-Yup , Park regresó al servicio activo como mayor en el Ejército de Corea del Sur . [6]

Fue ascendido a teniente coronel en septiembre de 1950 y a coronel en abril de 1951. Como coronel, Park fue subdirector de la Oficina de Inteligencia del Cuartel General del Ejército en 1952 antes de pasarse a la artillería y comandar el II y III Cuerpo de Artillería durante la guerra. [6] [76] Cuando la guerra terminó en 1953, Park había ascendido hasta convertirse en general de brigada. [6] Después de la firma del Acuerdo de Armisticio de Corea , Park fue seleccionado para un entrenamiento de seis meses en Fort Sill en los Estados Unidos . [76]

Tras regresar a Corea, Park ascendió rápidamente en la jerarquía militar. Fue jefe de la Escuela de Artillería del Ejército y comandó las divisiones 5.ª y 7.ª del ejército surcoreano antes de su ascenso a mayor general en 1958. [6] Park fue entonces nombrado jefe del Estado Mayor del Primer Ejército y jefe del Comando del Distrito 1.º y 6.º de Corea, lo que le dio la responsabilidad de la defensa de Seúl . [6] En 1960, Park se convirtió en comandante del Comando de Logística de Pusan ​​antes de convertirse en jefe del Estado Mayor de Operaciones del Ejército surcoreano y comandante adjunto del Segundo Ejército. Como tal, fue una de las figuras más poderosas e influyentes del ejército. [6]

Ascenso al poder

Los líderes del Comité Militar Revolucionario en la imagen, el 20 de mayo, cuatro días después del golpe: el presidente Chang Do-yong (izquierda) y el vicepresidente Park Chung Hee (derecha)
Park Chung-hee estrechó la mano del general Guy S. Meloy Jr. durante su visita al Comando de las Naciones Unidas en 1961.

El 26 de abril de 1960, Syngman Rhee , el autoritario presidente inaugural de Corea del Sur , fue obligado a dejar el cargo y exiliarse tras la Revolución de Abril , un levantamiento liderado por estudiantes. Yun Po-sun fue elegido presidente más tarde ese año, el 29 de julio, aunque el poder real lo tenía el primer ministro Chang Myon . [77] Los problemas surgieron de inmediato porque ninguno de los dos podía exigir la lealtad de ninguna mayoría del Partido Demócrata ni llegar a un acuerdo sobre la composición del gabinete. El primer ministro Chang intentó mantener unida a la tenue coalición reorganizando los puestos del gabinete tres veces en cinco meses. [78]

Mientras tanto, el nuevo gobierno se vio atrapado entre una economía que sufría las consecuencias de una década de mala gestión y corrupción bajo la presidencia de Rhee y los estudiantes que habían instigado la destitución de Rhee. Los manifestantes llenaban las calles con regularidad y planteaban numerosas y variadas demandas de reformas políticas y económicas. La seguridad pública se había deteriorado, mientras que el público desconfiaba de la policía, que durante mucho tiempo estuvo bajo el control del gobierno de Rhee, y el Partido Demócrata gobernante perdió el apoyo público después de una larga lucha entre facciones. [78]

En este contexto de inestabilidad social y división, el mayor general Park formó el Comité Militar Revolucionario. Cuando se enteró de que iba a ser retirado en los próximos meses, aceleró los planes del comité. El 16 de mayo de 1961, éste encabezó un golpe militar , que nominalmente fue encabezado por el Jefe del Estado Mayor del Ejército Chang Do-yong, tras su deserción el mismo día del inicio. El 18 de mayo, Chang Myon anunció su dimisión junto con su gabinete. [79] Yun aceptó el golpe y convenció al Octavo Ejército de los Estados Unidos y a los comandantes de varias unidades del ejército de la República de Corea de que no interfirieran con el nuevo gobierno. [78]

Inicialmente, se formó una nueva administración entre los oficiales militares que apoyaban a Park. El Consejo Supremo para la Reconstrucción Nacional , un grupo militar reformista , estaba dirigido nominalmente por el general Chang. Tras el arresto de Chang en julio de 1961, Park tomó el control general del consejo. El golpe fue ampliamente acogido por una población en general agotada por el caos político. [ cita requerida ]

Poco después del golpe, Park fue ascendido a teniente general . El historiador surcoreano Hwang Moon Kyung describió el gobierno de Park como muy "militarista", señalando que desde el principio Park se propuso movilizar a la sociedad surcoreana siguiendo "líneas militaristas y disciplinadas". [29] Uno de los primeros actos de Park al llegar al poder fue una campaña para "limpiar" las calles arrestando y poniendo a trabajar a las personas sin hogar en "centros de asistencia social". [29]

El historiador estadounidense Carter Eckert escribió que la historiografía, incluida su obra, en torno a Park ha tendido a ignorar el "enorme elefante en la habitación", es decir, que la forma en que Park buscó la kündaehwa ( modernización ) de Corea del Sur estuvo influenciada por su forma distintivamente militarista de entender el mundo, y el grado en que el japonófilo Park estuvo influenciado por el militarismo japonés al crear lo que los historiadores surcoreanos llaman una "dictadura desarrollista". [80] Eckert llamó a Corea del Sur bajo el liderazgo de Park uno de los estados más militarizados del mundo entero, escribiendo que Park buscó militarizar la sociedad surcoreana de una manera que ningún otro líder surcoreano ha intentado jamás. [80]

En el Ejército Imperial Japonés , existía la creencia de que el bushido daría a los soldados japoneses suficiente "espíritu" como para hacerlos invencibles en la batalla, ya que los japoneses consideraban la guerra simplemente como una cuestión de fuerza de voluntad en la que el bando con la voluntad más fuerte siempre prevalecía. Reflejando su experiencia como un hombre entrenado por oficiales japoneses, uno de los dichos favoritos de Park era "podemos hacer cualquier cosa si lo intentamos", ya que Park argumentaba que todos los problemas se podían superar con pura fuerza de voluntad. [81] Eckert escribió que cuando entrevistó a los amigos más cercanos de Park, siempre recibió la misma respuesta cuando les preguntó cuál fue la influencia importante en Park, a saber, su entrenamiento de oficial por parte de los japoneses en Manchukuo. [82] Todos los amigos de Park le dijeron a Eckert que para entenderlo, uno necesitaba entender su Ilbonsik sagwan kyoyuk (entrenamiento de oficial japonés) ya que todos sostenían que los valores de Park eran los de un oficial del Ejército Imperial Japonés. [82]

Parque con el presidente estadounidense John F. Kennedy en Washington, DC, el 14 de noviembre de 1961

El 19 de junio de 1961, el consejo militar creó la Agencia Central de Inteligencia de Corea para prevenir contragolpes y reprimir a los enemigos potenciales, tanto extranjeros como nacionales. Además de los poderes de investigación, a la KCIA también se le dio la autoridad para arrestar y detener a cualquier persona sospechosa de haber cometido algún delito o de tener sentimientos antigubernamentales. Bajo su primer director, el general de brigada retirado Kim Jong-pil , pariente de Park y uno de los planificadores originales del golpe, la KCIA extendería su poder a los asuntos económicos y exteriores. [83]

El presidente Yun permaneció en el cargo, lo que le dio legitimidad al régimen militar. Después de que Yun renunciara el 24 de marzo de 1962, el teniente general Park, que seguía siendo presidente del Consejo Supremo para la Reconstrucción Nacional, consolidó su poder al convertirse en presidente interino; también fue ascendido a general. Park aceptó restaurar el gobierno civil tras la presión de la administración Kennedy . [84]

En 1963 fue elegido presidente por derecho propio como candidato del recién creado Partido Republicano Democrático . Designó a Park Myung-keun , el vicepresidente del partido, como jefe de la Oficina del Presidente. Derrotó por poco al expresidente Yun, el candidato del Partido del Gobierno Civil, por poco más de 156.000 votos, un margen del 1,5 por ciento. Park sería reelegido presidente en 1967 , derrotando a Yun con algo menos de dificultad. [ cita requerida ]

Presidencia (1963-1979)

Parque en 1963

Política exterior

En junio de 1965, Park firmó un tratado que normalizaba las relaciones con Japón , que incluía el pago de reparaciones y la concesión de préstamos blandos por parte de Japón, y condujo a un aumento del comercio y la inversión entre Corea del Sur y Japón. En julio de 1966, Corea del Sur y los Estados Unidos firmaron un Acuerdo sobre el Estatuto de las Fuerzas que establecía una relación más igualitaria entre los dos países. Con su creciente fortaleza económica y la garantía de seguridad de los Estados Unidos, la amenaza de una invasión convencional de Corea del Norte parecía cada vez más remota. Tras la escalada de la Guerra de Vietnam con el despliegue de tropas de combate terrestre en marzo de 1965, Corea del Sur envió la División Capital y la 2.ª Brigada de Marines a Vietnam del Sur en septiembre de 1965, seguida por la División Caballo Blanco en septiembre de 1966. A lo largo de la década de 1960, Park pronunció discursos en los que culpó a la Alianza Anglo-Japonesa y a los británicos por la toma de posesión de Corea por parte de Japón. [85]

Guerra de Vietnam

Park (tercero desde la izquierda) en la convención SEATO de 1966 en Filipinas

At the request of the United States, Park sent approximately 320,000 South Korean troops to fight alongside the United States and South Vietnam during the Vietnam War; a commitment second only to that of the United States.[86] The stated reasons for this were to help maintain good relations with the United States, prevent the further advance of communism in East Asia[87] and to enhance the Republic's international standing. In January 1965, on the day when a bill mandating a major deployment passed the National Assembly (with 106 votes for and 11 against),[88] Park announced that it was "time for South Korea to wean itself from a passive position of receiving help or suffering intervention, and to assume a proactive role of taking responsibility on major international issues." South Korean soldiers were not able to ultimately defeat the Viet Cong, even though South Korea was quite successful. They also gained a reputation for brutality towards civilians[89] and were accused of numerous "My Lai-style" massacres.[90]

Although primarily to strengthen the military alliance with the United States, there were also financial incentives for South Korea's participation in the war. South Korean military personnel were paid by the United States federal government and their salaries were remitted directly to the South Korean government. Park was eager to send South Korean troops to Vietnam and vigorously campaigned to extend the war. In return for troop commitments, South Korea received tens of billions of dollars in grants, loans, subsidies, technology transfers, and preferential markets, all provided by the Johnson and Nixon administrations.[91]

North Korea

Honoring President Park Chung Hee in Army Parade at Armed Forces Day on October 1, 1973

Park oversaw transitional changes between the two Koreas from conflict to consolidation. In 1961, the North Korean leader, Kim Il Sung secretly sent Hwang Tae-song, a former friend of Park Chung Hee and a vice-minister in ministry of trade, to South Korea, hoping to improve inter-Korean relations. However, in order to dissipate the suspicions about his Communist leanings and assure Americans his firm stance as an ally, Park decided to execute Hwang as a spy.[92][93]

Beginning in October 1964, North Korea increased the infiltration of its intelligence-gatherers and propagandists into the South. More than 30 South Korean soldiers and at least 10 civilians had been killed in clashes with North Korean infiltrators by October 1966.

In October 1966, Park ordered the Korean Army to stage a retaliatory attack without seeking the approval of General Charles Bonesteel. This action, which was in retaliation for ongoing South Korean losses, caused tension between Park's government and the U.S. command in Korea, which wished not to violate the armistice.

Between 1966 and 1969 the clashes escalated as Park's armed forces were involved in firefights along the Korean DMZ. The fighting, sometimes referred to as the Second Korean War, was related to a speech given by Kim Il Sung on October 5, 1966, in which the North Korean leader challenged the legitimacy of the 1953 Armistice Agreement. Kim stated that irregular warfare could now succeed in a way conventional warfare could not because the South Korean military was now involved with the ever-growing Vietnam War. He believed Park's administration could be undermined if armed provocation by North Korea was directed against U.S. troops. This would force United States to reconsider its worldwide commitments. Any splits would give the North an opportunity to incite an insurgency in the South against Park.

On January 21, 1968, the 31-man Unit 124 of North Korean People's Army special forces commandos attempted to assassinate Park and nearly succeeded. They were stopped just 800 metres from the Blue House by a police patrol. A fire fight broke out and all but two of the North Koreans were killed or captured. In response to the assassination attempt, Park organized Unit 684, a group intended to assassinate Kim Il Sung. It was disbanded in 1971.

Despite the hostility, negotiations were conducted between the North and South regarding reunification. On July 4, 1972, both countries released a joint statement specifying that reunification must be achieved internally with no reliance on external forces or outside interference, that the process must be achieved peacefully without the use of military force, and that all parties must promote national unity as a united people over any differences of ideological and political systems. The United States Department of State was not happy with these proposals and, following Park's assassination in 1979, they were quietly buried.[citation needed]

On August 15, 1974, Park was delivering a speech in the National Theater in Seoul at the ceremony to celebrate the 29th anniversary of the ending of colonial rule when a man named Mun Se-gwang fired a gun at Park from the front row. The would-be assassin, who was a Japanese-born North Korean sympathizer, missed Park but a stray bullet struck his wife Yuk Young-soo (who died later that day) and others on the stage.[94] Park continued his speech as his dying wife was carried off the stage.[95] Mun was hanged in a Seoul prison four months later. On the first anniversary of his wife's death, Park wrote in his diary "I felt as though I had lost everything in the world. All things became a burden and I lost my courage and will. A year has passed since then. And during that year I have cried alone in secret too many times to count."[96]

Japan

On June 22, 1965, the Park administration and the government of Japan under Eisaku Satō signed the Treaty on Basic Relations Between Japan and the Republic of Korea, which normalized relations between Japan and South Korea for the first time. Relations with Japan had previously not been officially established since Korea's decolonization and division at the end of World War II.

In January 2005, the government of the Republic of Korea uncovered 1,200 pages of diplomatic documents of the Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea of 1965 that had been kept secret for forty years. These documents revealed that the Japanese government proposed to the government of the Republic of Korea, headed by Park Chung Hee, to directly compensate individual victims of Japanese colonization of Korea, but it was the Park administration that insisted it would handle the individual compensation to the victims, and took over the entire amount of the grant, 300 million dollars, (for 35 years of Japanese colonial rule in Korea), on behalf of the victims. The Park administration negotiated for a total of 360 million dollars in compensation for the 1.03 million Koreans conscripted into the forced labor and military service during the colonial period but received only 300 million dollars.[97]

China

Park's government had no diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, but did attempt to establish trade in chili peppers unsuccessfully in 1974 and successfully in 1978, contributing to a softening of tensions between the two Cold War enemies.[98]

Economic policy

Park Chung Hee in 1976

One of Park's main goals was to end the poverty of South Korea, and lift the country up from being an underdeveloped economy to a developed economy via statist methods.[99] Using the Soviet Union and its Five Year Plans as a model, Park launched his first Five Year Plan in 1962 by declaring the city of Ulsan as a "special industrial development zone".[100] The chaebol of Hyundai took advantage of Ulsan's special status to make the city the home of its main factories.[29]

Park is credited with playing a pivotal role in the development of South Korea's tiger economy by shifting its focus to export-oriented industrialisation. When he came to power in 1961, South Korea's per capita income was only US$72.00. North Korea was the greater economic and military power on the peninsula due to the North's history of heavy industries such as the power and chemical plants, and the large amounts of economic, technical and financial aid it received from other communist bloc countries such as the Soviet Union, East Germany and China.

One of Park's reforms was to bring in 24 hour provision of electricity in 1964, which was a major change as previously homes and businesses were provided with electricity for a few hours every day.[29] With the second Five Year Plan in 1967, Park founded the Kuro Industrial Park in southwestern Seoul, and created the state owned Pohang Iron and Steel Company Limited to provide cheap steel for the chaebol, who were founding the first automobile factories and shipyards in South Korea.[29] Reflecting its statist tendencies, the Park government rewarded chaebol who met their targets under the Five Year Plans with loans on easy terms of repayment, tax cuts, easy licensing and subsidies.[101]

It was common from the late 1960s onward for South Koreans to speak of the "octopus" nature of the chaebol as they began to extend their "tentacles" into all areas of the economy.[101] Some of the successful chaebol like Lucky Goldstar (LG) and Samsung went back to the Japanese period while others like Hyundai were founded shortly after the end of Japanese rule; all would go to become world-famous companies.[101] Hyundai, which began as a transport firm moving supplies for the U.S. Army during the Korean War, came to dominate the South Korean construction industry in the 1960s, and in 1967 opened its first car factory, building automobiles under license for Ford.[101]

In 1970, Hyundai finished the construction of the Seoul-Pusan Expressway, which became one of the busiest highways of South Korea, and in 1975 produced the Pony, its first car that was designed entirely by its own engineers.[101] Besides manufacturing automobiles and construction, Hyundai moved into shipbuilding, cement, chemicals and electronics, ultimately becoming one of the world's largest corporations.[102] On August 3, 1972, Park enacted an "Emergency Financial Act of August 3rd" (8·3긴급금융조치), which banned all private loans to make the foundation of economic growth, and supported chaebols even further.[103]

A sign of the growth of the South Korean economy was that in 1969 there were 200,000 television sets in operation in South Korea, and by 1979 there were six million television sets operating in South Korea.[104] In 1969, only 6% of South Korean families owned a television; by 1979 four of every five South Korean families owned a TV.[104] However, all television in South Korea was in black and white, and the color television did not come to South Korea until 1979.[105] Reflecting the growth of TV ownership, the state-owned Korean Broadcasting System (KBS) began to produce more programming, while private sector corporation MBC began operating in 1969.[106] During the Yushin era, television productions were subjected to strict censorship with, for example, men with long hair being banned from appearing on TV, but soap operas became a cultural phenomenon in the 1970s, becoming extremely popular.[105]

South Korean industry saw remarkable development under Park's leadership. Park viewed Japan's development model, in particular the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) and the Keiretsu, as an example for Korea. Park emulated MITI by establishing the Ministry of Trade and Industry (MTI) and the Economic Planning Board (EPB).[107] Government-corporate cooperation on expanding South Korean exports helped lead to the growth of some South Korean companies into today's giant Korean conglomerates, the chaebols.

President Park Chung-hee paid great attention to education for the low-income class and the people as well as economic development. He led the reform in the education sector, raising the educational standard of the Republic of Korea and promoting social equality. To increase access to education, the government expanded investment in education policies, and as a result, children from economically vulnerable families could benefit from it. President Park's educational reforms have raised the standard of education in the Republic of Korea and are affecting the current Korean education system.

According to the Gapminder Foundation extreme poverty was reduced from 66.9 percent in 1961 to 11.2 percent in 1979, making this one of the fastest and largest reductions in poverty in human history.[108] This growth also encompassed declines in child mortality and increases in life expectancy. From 1961 to 1979 child mortality declined by 64%, the third-fastest decrease in child mortality of any country with over 10 million inhabitants during the same period.[109]

West Germany

Park with Willy Brandt in West Germany, 1964

Park's economic policy was highlighted by South Korea's relationship with West Germany. Park had an affinity for Germany due to its history of having strong leadership like that of Bismarck and Hitler, and wanted to create ties with West Germany to deal with the problems of increasing population growth and economic hardships and to receive an inflow of foreign capital for domestic development.[110] Upon an agreement in 1961, South Korea sent labor forces to Germany, including more than 8,000 mine workers and 10,000 nurses, which continued until 1977.[111] (See Gastarbeiter and Koreans in Germany)

Iran

Park was close friends with the last Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who had established diplomatic relations in 1962 and following a visit to Iran in 1969, developed a close relationship with the two countries. Park realized the importance of Iran in securing oil for South Korea's industrial development and by 1973, was their main and only source of oil during the Oil Crisis.[112] Most refineries in South Korea were built to process Iranian crude and thousands of engineers and workers were sent to Iran to help develop their refining capability.[113]

The relationship eventually expanded beyond oil as Park promoted other industries to operate in Iran. Many Chaebol's went to Iran, including Hyundai Engineering & Construction, whose first Middle East Project were a series of shipyards in Bandar Abbas and Chahbahar to help develop Iran's maritime industry. Park's favorite architect Kim Swoo-Geun and his office designed the Ekbatan Complex in Tehran and the South Korean Special Forces helped train the Imperial Iranian Navy Commandos.[114][115]

Park invited the Shah in 1978 for a special "South Korea-Iran" summit to further deepen relations but due to the Iranian Revolution, it never materialized. In preparation for that summit, Tehran and Seoul became sister cities and the two exchanged street names as well; Teheran-ro in Gangnam and Seoul Street in Tehran which both still remain.[112]

Domestic policy

Among Park's first actions upon assuming control of South Korea in 1961 was to pass strict legislation metrifying the country[116] and banning the use of traditional Korean measurements like the li and pyeong.[117] Despite its strict wording, the law's enforcement was so spotty as to be considered a failure,[118] with the government abandoning prosecution under its terms by 1970.[117] In the end, South Korea's traditional units continued until June 2001.[citation needed]

After taking office for his second term in 1967, Park promised that, in accordance with the 1963 Constitution which limited the president to two consecutive terms, he would step down in 1971. However, soon after his 1967 victory, the Democratic Republican-dominated National Assembly successfully pushed through an amendment allowing the incumbent president —himself— to run for three consecutive terms.[citation needed]

In the meantime, Park grew anxious of the shift in US policy towards communism under Richard Nixon's Guam Doctrine. His government's legitimacy depended on staunch anti-communism, and any moderation of that policy from South Korea's allies (including the US) threatened the very basis of his rule. Park began to seek options to further cement his hold on the country. In May 1970, the Catholic poet Kim Chi-ha was arrested for supposedly violating the Anti-Communist Law for his poem Five Bandits, which in fact had no references to Communism either explicitly or implicitly, but instead attacked corruption under Park.[119] The issue of the journal Sasanggye that published the Five Bandits was shut down by the government.[120]

One of the eponymous bandits of the Five Bandits is described as a general who began his career fighting for Japan in World War Two, and all of the bandits of the poem are described as Chinilpa collaborators who served Japan because of their greed and amorality.[120] Park recognized the reference to himself in Five Bandits with the character of the general while the fact that all of the bandits have a Chinilpa background was a reference to the social basis of Park's regime. In 1974, Kim was sentenced to death for his poem, and though he was not executed, he spent almost all of the 1970s in prison.[121]

Later in 1970, Park launched his Saemaul Undong (New Village Movement) that set out to modernize the countryside by providing electricity and running water to farmers, building paved roads, and replacing thatched roofs with tin roofs. The roofing project was said to reflect a personal obsession on the part of Park, who could not stand the sight of thatched roofs on farmers' homes, which for him was a sign of South Korea's backwardness.[122] Park used asbestos for fixing rustic houses, which is harmful to humans.[123]

In 1971, Park won another close election against his rival, Kim Dae-jung. That December, shortly after being sworn in, he declared a state of emergency "based on the dangerous realities of the international situation". In October 1972, Park dissolved the legislature and suspended the 1963 constitution in a self-coup. Work then began on drafting a new constitution. Park had drawn inspiration for his self-coup from Ferdinand Marcos, President of the Philippines, who had orchestrated a similar coup a few weeks earlier.

A new constitution, the so-called Yushin Constitution was approved in a heavily rigged plebiscite in November 1972. Meaning "rejuvenation" or "renewal" (as well as "restoration" in some contexts), scholars see the term's usage as Park alluding to himself as an "imperial president".[124]

The new Yushin constitution was a highly authoritarian document. It transferred the presidential election process to an electoral college, the National Conference for Unification. It also dramatically expanded the president's powers. Notably, he was given sweeping powers to rule by decree and suspend constitutional freedoms. The presidential term was increased from four to six years, with no limits on re-election. For all intents and purposes, it codified the emergency powers Park had exercised for the past year, transforming his presidency into a legal dictatorship. As per his new constitution, Park ran for a fresh term as president in December 1972, and won unopposed. He was reelected in 1978 also unopposed. Many of South Korea's leading writers were opposed to the Park regime, and many of the best remembered poems and novels of the 1970s satirized the Yushin system.[125]

Park argued that Western-style liberal democracy was not suitable for South Korea due to its still-shaky economy. He believed that in the interest of stability, the country needed a "Korean-style democracy" with a strong, unchallenged presidency.[126] Although he repeatedly promised to open up the regime and restore full democracy, fewer and fewer people believed him.

In 1975, in preparation for South Korea's bid to host the 1988 Olympic Games, he ordered the police to 'cleanse' the streets and expel beggars, vagrants and street vendors who gave the country a bad image abroad. Police officers, assisted by shop owners, rounded up panhandlers, small-time street merchants selling gum and trinkets, the disabled, lost or unattended children, and dissidents, including a college student who'd been holding anti-government leaflets. Thousands of people were victims this social cleansing campaign, were sent thirty-six camps and subjected to forced labour, without pay, and to torture and repeated rape. By 1986, the number of inmates had jumped over five years from 8,600 to more than 16,000, according to government documents. Officially, 513 people died of exhaustion in these camps, but the number could be much higher.[127][128]

Park abolished the usage of hanja or Chinese characters and established hangul exclusivity for the Korean language in the 1960s and 1970s. After a Five-Year Hangul Exclusivity Plan (한글종양오년계획) was promulgated through legislative and executive means, from 1970, using hanja became illegal in all grades of public school and in the military. This led to less illiteracy in South Korea.[129]

Final years of presidency

Park with future President Kim Young-sam in 1975

During the final years of his presidency, Park realized that people were not satisfied with the government.[130]Despite this, his autocracy became increasingly open in this period.

Military

As president, Park tried to strengthen the military. He often said that if an independent country cannot protect itself with its military, it is not an independent country.[130] Park ordered the development of missiles to attack Pyongyang. Due to a lack of technical knowledge, Korean engineers had to travel to the United States to learn how to produce missiles. After a painstaking development, on September 26, 1978, Nike Hercules Korea-1 had its successful first launch. But the development of missiles were stopped when Chun Doo-hwan reigned.[131] Park also tried to develop his homegrown nuclear weapons programs, announcing that they would be made by 1983. This was never progressed after Park's death in 1979.[132]

Death

Final years

Although the growth of the South Korean economy had secured a high level of support for Park's presidency in the 1960s, that support began to fade after economic growth started slowing in the early 1970s.[citation needed] Many South Koreans were becoming unhappy with his autocratic rule, his security services and the restrictions placed on personal freedoms.[citation needed] While Park had legitimised his administration, using the provisions laid down in the state of emergency laws dating back to the Korean War, he also failed to address the constitutional guarantees of freedom of speech and the press.[citation needed] Furthermore, the security service, the KCIA, retained broad powers of arrest and detention; many of Park's opponents were held without trial and frequently tortured.[133] Eventually demonstrations against the Yushin system erupted throughout the country as Park's unpopularity began to rise.

These demonstrations came to a decisive moment on October 16, 1979, when a student group calling for the end of dictatorship and the Yushin system began at Busan National University.[134] The action, which was part of the "Pu-Ma" struggle (named for the Pusan and Masan areas), soon moved into the streets of the city where students and riot police fought all day. By evening, up to 50,000 people had gathered in front of Busan city hall. Over the next two days several public offices were attacked and around 400 protesters were arrested.[134] On October 18, Park's government declared martial law in Busan. On the same day protests spread to Kyungnam University in Masan. Up to 10,000 people, mostly students and workers, joined the demonstrations against Park's Yushin System. Violence quickly escalated with attacks being launched at police stations and city offices of the ruling party. By nightfall a citywide curfew was put into place in Masan.[135]

Assassination

State funeral of Park Chung Hee

On October 26, 1979, six days after the student protests ended, Park Chung Hee was fatally shot in the head and chest by Kim Jae-gyu, the director of the KCIA, after a banquet at a safehouse in Gungjeong-dong, Jongno-gu, Seoul. Other KCIA officers then went to other parts of the building shooting dead four more presidential guards. Cha Ji-chul, chief of the Presidential Security Service, was also fatally shot by Kim. Kim and his group were later arrested by soldiers under South Korea's Army Chief of Staff. They were tortured [citation needed] and later executed.[136]

It is unclear whether this was a spontaneous act of passion by an individual or part of a pre-arranged attempted coup by the intelligence service. Kim claimed that Park was an obstacle to democracy and that his act was one of patriotism. The investigation's head, Chun Doo-hwan, rejected his claims and concluded that Kim acted to preserve his own power.[136]

Choi Kyu-hah became Acting President pursuant to Article 48 of the Yushin Constitution. Major General Chun Doo-hwan quickly amassed sweeping powers after his Defense Security Command was charged with investigating the assassination, first taking control of the military and the KCIA before installing another military junta and finally assuming the presidency in 1980.

Tombs of Yuk Young-soo and Park Chung Hee (2015)

Park, who was said to be a devout Buddhist,[2] was accorded the first South Korean interfaith state funeral on November 3 in Seoul. He was buried with full military honors at the National Cemetery near the grave of former president Syngman Rhee who died in 1965.[137] Kim Jae-gyu, whose motive for murdering Park remains unclear, was hanged on May 24, 1980.

Personal life

Park divorced his first wife, Kim Ho-nam, in 1950. Park professed to being and was reportedly a distant husband and father. His divorce request was seen as sudden and surprising for both Kim and the couple's daughter Park Jae-ok. Kim attempted to but failed to resist the divorce, and moved out of the household with her daughter. Eventually, she moved into a Buddhist temple in Busan, where she spent much of the rest of her life. Jae-ok left her mother at age 13 and moved to Seoul for high school. There, Park's new wife Yuk Young-soo learned of Jae-ok's existence, and invited her to come live with Park's new family. Park reportedly attempted to apologize to Jae-ok on a number of occasions, but she rebuffed all of these attempts. Eventually, she married diplomat Han Byeong-gi [ko], and spent much of the rest of her life abroad and out of the public spotlight. The two never reconciled, which she later expressed regret for.[138][139]

Park's eldest daughter from his second marriage (with Yuk Young-soo), Park Geun-hye, was elected the chairwoman of the conservative Grand National Party in 2004. She was elected as South Korea's 11th president and first female president in 2012 and took office in February 2013. Park Geun-hye's association to her father's legacy has served as a double-edged sword. She had previously been labeled as the daughter of a dictator; however she has been quoted as saying "I want to be judged on my own merits."[140] Her presidency ended in her impeachment in 2016 and removal from office in 2017.[141] She was sentenced to 24 years in prison on April 6, 2018.[142] Park was released in 2021 from the Seoul Detention Center.[143]

Legacy

Park Chung Hee remains a controversial figure in South Korea. The eighteen-year Park era is considered to be one of the most controversial topics for the Korean public, politicians, and scholars.[144] Opinion is split regarding his legacy, between those who credit Park for his reforms and those who condemn his authoritarian way of ruling the country, especially after 1971. Older generations who spent their adulthood during Park's rule tend to credit Park for building the economic foundation of the country and protecting the country from North Korea, as well as leading Korea to economic and global prominence. Park was listed as one of the top ten "Asians of the Century" by Time magazine in 1999.[145] An October 2021 Gallup Korea public opinion poll showed Park Chung Hee, Roh Moo-hyun, and Kim Dae-jung as the most highly rated presidents of South Korean history. The poll showed Park received a favorability rating of 72% and 82% from citizens in the age range of 50–60 and 60+ years respectively, and a favorability rating of 43% and 64% from citizens in the age range of 20–30 and 30–40 years, respectively.[4]

Park Geun-hye, Park's eldest daughter, became the 11th president of South Korea and the first female president of South Korea. Park Geun-hye's parentage served as a considerable source of controversy during the 2012 presidential election and throughout her administration, as detractors described her as the daughter of a dictator. Park was impeached, removed from office, and later sentenced to 27 years in prison as a result of an influence-peddling scandal.[142][143] Park's rule is also believed to be one of the main causes of regionalism which is a serious problem in Korea today.[146]

Economic impact

Park has been recognized and respected by many South Koreans as an exceptionally efficient leader, credited with making South Korea economically what it is today.[147] Park led the Miracle on the Han River, a period of rapid economic growth in South Korea. Under Park's rule, South Korea possessed one of the fastest growing national economies during the 1960s and 1970s. According to the Gapminder Foundation, extreme poverty was reduced from 66.9 percent in 1961 to 11.2 percent in 1979, making one of the fastest and largest reductions in poverty in human history.[108] This growth also encompassed declines in child mortality and increases in life expectancy. From 1961 to 1979 child mortality declined by 64%, the third-fastest decrease in child mortality of any country with over 10 million inhabitants during the same period.[148] Economic growth continued after Park's death and after considerable political turmoil in the wake of his assassination and the military coup d'état of December Twelfth.

Authoritarian rule

Park is regarded as a highly repressive dictator who curtailed freedoms and committed human rights abuses during his rule.[149][150] Dissolving the constitution to allow him unopposed rule, Park's blackmailing, arresting, jailing, and murdering of opposition figures are well documented.[151] The new constitution President Park implemented after declaring the state of emergency in 1971 gave him the power to appoint one third of the members of the National Assembly and even outlawed criticism of the constitution and of the president.[152][page needed] There were also many economic feats established during Park's regime, including the Gyeongbu Expressway, POSCO, the famous Five-Year Plans of South Korea, and the New Community Movement.[153] In 1987, South Korea eventually democratized as a result of the June Struggle movement.

Kim Dae-jung, a pro-democracy chief opponent of Park who was kidnapped, arrested, and sentenced to death by the Park administration, later served as the 8th president of South Korea.[154] On October 24, 2007, following an internal inquiry, South Korea's National Intelligence Service (NIS) admitted that its precursor, the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA), undertook the kidnapping of opposition leader and future President Kim Dae-jung, saying it had at least tacit backing from then-leader Park Chung Hee.[155][156]

Relationship with Japan

Park was accused of having pro-Japanese tendencies by some. Park is responsible for the beginning of a normalized relationship with Japan and today Japan is one of South Korea's top trading partners, surpassed only by the People's Republic of China and the United States.[157][158] The state nationalist (국가주의,國家主義) policies of the Park Chung-hee administration were influenced by Manchukuo economic system, and Japanese pre-war "statist" politics.[159] Park Chung-hee's political philosophy was influenced by Ikki Kita[160] and Nobusuke Kishi.[161]

The South Korean Center for Historical Truth and Justice (CHTJ) describes Park as a collaborator with Imperial Japan ("chinilpa") in their controversial Dictionary of Pro-Japanese Collaborators [ko] and Museum of Japanese Colonial History in Korea.[51][162]

Park's relationship regarding Japan has been extensively examined. Chong-Sik Lee points out that Park's admiration of both Admiral Yi Sun-sin and the Empire of Japan may seem contradictory. Lee argues that Park's admiration of Japan can be explained by his low opinion of the former Joseon Dynasty. Park saw the previous kings and the nobility as having failed to provide the lives of ordinary Koreans such as himself with education and economic mobility.[163]

Memorials

A number of monuments and memorials to Park now exist. One of Park's houses in Seoul is now a National Registered Cultural Heritage.[164] The Park Chung-hee Presidential Museum opened in 2021.[165]

Bibliography

Honors

National honors

Foreign honors

In popular culture

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c as Chief Cabinet Minister of the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction.
  2. ^ Park's paternal grandfather, Park Yŏng-kyu (박영규; 1840–1914), had inherited enough land to feed the family and hoped to support Park's father in taking the gwageo: the civil service examinations that determined placement in high-level government jobs. Instead, Park's father passed the less-prestigious mugwa, the military examinations.[10][11] He was considered a persuasive talker; after participating in the rebellion, he talked his way out of being executed. He was apparently the only survivor from among 300 tried.[11]
  3. ^ She gave birth to Park alone, as the rest of the family was outside of the home at the time. She cut the umbilical cord herself.[15]
  4. ^ Park claims in his autobiography that the path was 8 km long,[21] but if the reconstructed path is measured today, it is around 6 km.[22]
  5. ^ 오전에 네 시간 수업을 했으니까 학교수업 개시가 8시라고 기억한다... 시간이 좀 늦다고 생각하면 구보로 20리 길을 거의 뛰어야 했다... 학교에 가지고 간 도시락이 겨울에는 얼어서 찬밥을 먹으면 나는 흔히 체해서 가끔은 음식을 토하기도 하고 체하면 때로는 아침밥을 먹지 않고 가기도 했다... 며칠 동안 밥을 먹지 못하면 이웃집의 침장이 할아버지가 있었는데 거기에 가서 침을 맞았다.
  6. ^ Nobody in his village had access to a clock.[21]
  7. ^ Park's father reportedly had a large frame.[11]
  8. ^ These feelings may have been further reinforced by one of Park's teachers at Taegu Normal School, Kim Yŏng-ki (김영기). Popular with the Korean students, Kim was an ardent Korean nationalist who vocally disparaged the former Korean kingdoms and criticized Korean culture.[32]
  9. ^ According to classmate and friend Kim Pyŏng-hŭi (김병희; 金昞熙), one day Park expressed interest in joining the military, and Kim skeptically teased his ambition. Twenty-five years later, they reminisced about the conversation after Park became the military dictator of South Korea.[36]
  10. ^ Because it was against school policy for students to be in relationships.[40]
  11. ^ Park and other students with poor grades were allowed to graduate likely because there was a significant need for teachers. Most of the students that did not graduate were not kicked out because of their grades, but instead because they had been caught reading socialist literature.[42]
  12. ^ Some scholars argue that local officials, in an effort to make their districts seem more patriotic, pressured locals into applying.[48] There were several reasons that service could have been appealing, however. Most of the applicants were from poor sharecropping families who likely would have appreciated the military salary and benefits. Military service also improved their social status; in Korea, Koreans were at the bottom of the social ladder, but in Manchuria, they were above the Chinese majority. Abuses committed by Koreans in Manchuria have since contributed to anti-Korean sentiment in China.[49]
  13. ^ His age was not the only issue; applicants were also required to be unmarried. However, it's likely that Park concealed his marital status.[51]
  14. ^ Ryu based this theory on an account from an ethnic Korean in China who allegedly served under Park in the unit.[56] Jiandao was a hotbed for militant resistance against the Japanese Empire, with famous fighters like Kim Il Sung and Hong Beom-do having operated there.[56] Park is already controversial in contemporary South Korea for collaborating with the Japanese Empire; the idea that he voluntarily suppressed Korean freedom fighters would make him even more controversial. What followed was a series of lawsuits that alleged defamation, including several from Park's daughter Park Geun Ryeong, who sued Ryu and several publishers of Ryu's works. This sparked a debate over academic freedom and free speech. Over a hundred scholars published a letter in protest of the lawsuits, in which they argued Park had been a public figure and not just a private citizen, so he should be discussed publicly.[57]
  15. ^ Lee notes that none of Park's records at the academy are known to exist to confirm this, however.[62]
  16. ^ Lee theorized that Park deliberately chose a given name and surname that had "no trace of Korean in it". While it was common for Koreans to choose Japanese-sounding surnames, notably under the sōshi-kaimei policies, they often kept their given names and read them with a Japanese pronunciation. If he had done this, Park's name would probably have been read "Takagi Seiki" (高木正熙).[66]
  17. ^ Lee noted that both coups had similar justifications provided. The February 26 coup accused the zaibatsu corporations of wielding unfair political influence, with Park's coup doing the same with the chaebol.[62]
  18. ^ At the ceremony, he received an award and gold watch from Manchukuo Emperor Puyi.[72]
  19. ^ According to Lee, Park was disappointed with what he observed. Many of the Chinese soldiers had been pressed into service, were undisciplined, and often poor and illiterate.[73]

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Sources

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