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Lengua gótica

Este artículo contiene caracteres góticos . Sin la compatibilidad con la representación adecuada , es posible que vea signos de interrogación, cuadros u otros símbolos en lugar de letras.
Expansión de las primeras tribus germánicas hacia una Europa central que antes era predominantemente celta : [1]
   Asentamientos anteriores al 750  a. C.
   Nuevos asentamientos hacia el año 500  a. C.
   Nuevos asentamientos hacia el año 250  a. C.
   Nuevos asentamientos hacia el año  1 d.C.
Algunas fuentes también dan una fecha de 750 a. C. para la primera expansión desde el sur de Escandinavia y el norte de Alemania a lo largo de la costa del Mar del Norte hacia la desembocadura del Rin. [2]

El gótico es una lengua germánica oriental extinta que hablaban los godos . Se conoce principalmente a partir del Codex Argenteus , una copia del siglo VI de una traducción de la Biblia del siglo IV , y es la única lengua germánica oriental con un corpus textual considerable . Todas las demás, incluidas la borgoñona y la vándala , se conocen, si es que se conocen, solo a partir de nombres propios que sobrevivieron en relatos históricos y de préstamos lingüísticos de otras lenguas , principalmente romances .

Como lengua germánica, el gótico forma parte de la familia de las lenguas indoeuropeas . Es la primera lengua germánica de la que hay constancia en textos de tamaño considerable, pero carece de descendientes modernos. Los documentos más antiguos en gótico datan del siglo IV. La lengua estaba en decadencia a mediados del siglo VI, en parte debido a la derrota militar de los godos a manos de los francos , la eliminación de los godos en Italia y el aislamiento geográfico (en España, la lengua gótica perdió su última y probablemente ya en decadencia función como lengua eclesiástica cuando los visigodos se convirtieron del arrianismo al cristianismo niceno en 589). [3] La lengua sobrevivió como lengua doméstica en la península Ibérica (actual España y Portugal) hasta el siglo VIII. Se encuentran términos de apariencia gótica en manuscritos posteriores a esta fecha, pero pueden o no pertenecer a la misma lengua.

En la zona del bajo Danubio y en regiones montañosas aisladas de Crimea sobrevivió una lengua conocida como gótico de Crimea hasta la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII. Sin embargo, al carecer de ciertos cambios de sonido característicos del gótico, el gótico de Crimea no puede ser un descendiente directo de la lengua atestiguada en el Codex Argenteus. [4] [5]

La existencia de estos textos atestiguados tempranos hace del gótico una lengua de considerable interés en la lingüística comparada .

Historia y evidencia

Una hoja del Códice Ambrosiano B

Sólo se han conservado unos pocos documentos en gótico, pero no son suficientes para una reconstrucción completa de la lengua. La mayoría de las fuentes en gótico son traducciones o glosas de otras lenguas (en concreto, del griego ), por lo que es muy probable que los elementos lingüísticos extranjeros influyeran en los textos. Estas son las fuentes principales:

El manuscrito gótico mejor conservado, que data del siglo VI, fue preservado y transmitido por los ostrogodos del norte en la actual Italia. Contiene una gran parte de los cuatro evangelios . Como es una traducción del griego, el lenguaje del Codex Argenteus está repleto de palabras griegas prestadas y usos griegos. La sintaxis en particular a menudo se copia directamente del griego.
Contiene pasajes dispersos del Nuevo Testamento (incluyendo partes de los evangelios y las epístolas ), del Antiguo Testamento ( Nehemías ) y algunos comentarios conocidos como Skeireins . Es probable que el texto haya sido modificado en cierta medida por los copistas.
  • Codex Gissensis ( Gießen ): Una hoja con fragmentos de Lucas 23-24 (aparentemente un diglot gótico-latino) fue encontrada en una excavación en Arsinoë en Egipto en 1907 y fue destruida por daños causados ​​por el agua en 1945, después de que los investigadores ya habían hecho copias.
  • Códice Carolino ( Wolfenbüttel ): Cuatro hojas, fragmentos de Romanos 11-15 (un diglot gótico-latino).
  • Codex Vaticanus Latinus 5750 ( Ciudad del Vaticano ): Tres hojas, páginas 57-58, 59-60 y 61-62 del Skeireins . Se trata de un fragmento del Codex Ambrosianus E.
  • Gothica Bononiensia (también conocido como Codex Bononiensis o "fragmento de Bolonia"), un fragmento de palimpsesto , descubierto en 2009, de dos folios con lo que parece ser un sermón, que contiene además de texto no bíblico una serie de citas y alusiones bíblicas directas, tanto de partes previamente atestiguadas de la Biblia gótica (el texto está claramente tomado de la traducción de Ulfilas) como de otras previamente no atestiguadas (por ejemplo, Salmos , Génesis ). [6]
  • Fragmentos de Hács-Béndekpuszta (también conocidos como Fragmentos de Hács-Béndekpuszta o Tabella Hungarica ), que consisten en fragmentos de una placa de plomo de 1 mm de espesor con restos de versículos de los Evangelios.
  • El grafiti de Mangup: cinco inscripciones escritas en el alfabeto gótico descubiertas en 2015 en la basílica de Mangup , Crimea . Todos los grafitis datan de mediados del siglo IX, lo que los convierte en la última atestación del alfabeto gótico y la única procedente de fuera de Italia o Panonia . Los cinco textos incluyen una cita del Salmo 76, que de otro modo no estaría atestiguado, y algunas oraciones; el lenguaje no es notablemente diferente del de Wulfila y solo contiene palabras conocidas de otras partes de la Biblia gótica. [7]

Los informes sobre el descubrimiento de otras partes de la Biblia de Ulfilas no han sido confirmados. En 1968, Heinrich May afirmó haber encontrado en Inglaterra doce hojas de un palimpsesto que contenían partes del Evangelio de Mateo .

Solo se han conservado fragmentos de la traducción gótica de la Biblia. Al parecer, la traducción se realizó en la región de los Balcanes por personas en estrecho contacto con la cultura cristiana griega. Al parecer, la Biblia gótica fue utilizada por los visigodos en el sur de Francia hasta la pérdida de la Francia visigoda a principios del siglo VI, [10] en la Iberia visigoda hasta aproximadamente el año 700, y quizás durante un tiempo en Italia, los Balcanes y Ucrania hasta al menos mediados del siglo IX. Durante el exterminio del arrianismo , los cristianos trinitarios probablemente sobrescribieron muchos textos en gótico como palimpsestos, o alternativamente recopilaron y quemaron documentos góticos. Aparte de los textos bíblicos, el único documento gótico sustancial que todavía existe -y el único texto extenso que se sabe que fue compuesto originalmente en lengua gótica- es el Skeireins , unas pocas páginas de comentarios sobre el Evangelio de Juan . [ cita requerida ]

Muy pocas fuentes secundarias medievales hacen referencia a la lengua gótica después de aproximadamente 800. En De incrementis ecclesiae Christianae (840-842), Walafrid Strabo , un monje franco que vivió en Suabia , escribe sobre un grupo de monjes que informaron que incluso entonces ciertos pueblos en Escitia ( Dobruja ), especialmente alrededor de Tomis , hablaban un sermo Theotiscus ('lengua germánica'), el idioma de la traducción gótica de la Biblia, y que usaban dicha liturgia. [11]

Muchos autores de los textos medievales que mencionan a los godos utilizaron la palabra godos para referirse a cualquier pueblo germánico de Europa del Este (como los varegos ), muchos de los cuales ciertamente no utilizaban la lengua gótica tal como se la conoce en la Biblia gótica. Algunos escritores incluso se refirieron a los pueblos de habla eslava como "godos". Sin embargo, de la traducción de Ulfilas se desprende claramente que, a pesar de algunas incógnitas, la lengua gótica pertenece al grupo de las lenguas germánicas, no al eslava.

En general, el término "lengua gótica" se refiere a la lengua de Ulfilas , pero las atestaciones en sí datan en gran parte del siglo VI, mucho después de que Ulfilas hubiera muerto. [ cita requerida ]

Alfabeto y transliteración

Se encontraron algunas inscripciones rúnicas góticas en toda Europa, pero debido a la cristianización temprana de los godos, la escritura rúnica fue rápidamente reemplazada por el alfabeto gótico recién inventado.

El gótico de Ulfilas, así como el de los Skeireins y otros manuscritos, se escribió utilizando un alfabeto que probablemente fue inventado por el propio Ulfilas para su traducción. Algunos eruditos (como Braune) afirman que se deriva únicamente del alfabeto griego , mientras que otros sostienen que hay algunas letras góticas de origen rúnico o latino .

Se utiliza un sistema estandarizado para transliterar palabras góticas al alfabeto latino . El sistema refleja las convenciones del alfabeto nativo, como escribir /iː/ larga como ei . Los godos usaban sus equivalentes de e y o solo para las vocales largas más altas, usando los dígrafos ai y au (como en francés ) para las vocales cortas o más bajas correspondientes. Hay dos sistemas de ortografía variantes: uno "bruto" que translitera directamente la escritura gótica original y uno "normalizado" que agrega diacríticos ( macrones y acentos agudos ) a ciertas vocales para aclarar la pronunciación o, en ciertos casos, para indicar el origen protogermánico de la vocal en cuestión. Este último sistema se usa generalmente en la literatura académica.

La siguiente tabla muestra la correspondencia entre la ortografía y el sonido de las vocales:

Notas:

La siguiente tabla muestra la correspondencia entre la ortografía y el sonido de las consonantes:

Fonología

Es posible determinar con más o menos exactitud cómo se pronunciaba el gótico de Ulfilas, principalmente mediante la reconstrucción fonética comparativa. Además, dado que Ulfilas intentó seguir el texto griego original tanto como le fue posible en su traducción, se sabe que utilizó las mismas convenciones de escritura que las del griego contemporáneo. Dado que el griego de ese período está bien documentado, es posible reconstruir gran parte de la pronunciación del gótico a partir de textos traducidos. Además, la forma en que se transcriben los nombres no griegos en la Biblia griega y en la Biblia de Ulfilas es muy informativa.

Vocales

Consonantes

En general, las consonantes góticas se ensordece al final de las palabras. El gótico es rico en consonantes fricativas (aunque muchas de ellas pueden haber sido aproximantes ; es difícil separarlas) derivadas por los procesos descritos en la ley de Grimm y la ley de Verner y características de las lenguas germánicas . El gótico es inusual entre las lenguas germánicas al tener un fonema /z/ , que no se ha convertido en /r/ mediante rotacización. Además, la duplicación de consonantes escritas entre vocales sugiere que el gótico hacía distinciones entre consonantes largas y cortas, o geminadas : atta [atːa] "papá", kunnan [kunːan] "saber" (en neerlandés kennen , en alemán kennen "saber", en islandés kunna ).

Paradas

Fricativas

Sonorantes

El gótico tiene tres consonantes nasales, una de las cuales es alófona de las otras, y todas se encuentran solo en distribución complementaria con ellas. Las nasales en gótico, como en la mayoría de los demás idiomas, se pronuncian en el mismo punto de articulación que la consonante que las sigue ( asimilación ). Por lo tanto, no son posibles grupos como [md] y [nb] .

Accentuation and intonation

Accentuation in Gothic can be reconstructed through phonetic comparison, Grimm's law, and Verner's law. Gothic used a stress accent rather than the pitch accent of Proto-Indo-European. This is indicated by the shortening of long vowels [eː] and [oː] and the loss of short vowels [a] and [i] in unstressed final syllables.

Just as in other Germanic languages, the free moving Proto-Indo-European accent was replaced with one fixed on the first syllable of simple words. Accents do not shift when words are inflected. In most compound words, the location of the stress depends on the type of compound:

For example, with comparable words from modern Germanic languages:

Grammar

Morphology

Nouns and adjectives

Gothic preserves many archaic Indo-European features that are not always present in modern Germanic languages, in particular the rich Indo-European declension system. Gothic had nominative, accusative, genitive and dative cases, as well as vestiges of a vocative case that was sometimes identical to the nominative and sometimes to the accusative. The three genders of Indo-European were all present. Nouns and adjectives were inflected according to one of two grammatical numbers: the singular and the plural.

Nouns can be divided into numerous declensions according to the form of the stem: a, ō, i, u, an, ōn, ein, r, etc. Adjectives have two variants, indefinite and definite (sometimes indeterminate and determinate), with definite adjectives normally used in combination with the definite determiners (such as the definite article sa/þata/sō) while indefinite adjectives are used in other circumstances.,[20][21] Indefinite adjectives generally use a combination of a-stem and ō-stem endings, and definite adjectives use a combination of an-stem and ōn-stem endings. The concept of "strong" and "weak" declensions that is prevalent in the grammar of many other Germanic languages is less significant in Gothic because of its conservative nature: the so-called "weak" declensions (those ending in n) are, in fact, no weaker in Gothic (in terms of having fewer endings) than the "strong" declensions (those ending in a vowel), and the "strong" declensions do not form a coherent class that can be clearly distinguished from the "weak" declensions.

Although descriptive adjectives in Gothic (as well as superlatives ending in -ist and -ost) and the past participle may take both definite and indefinite forms, some adjectival words are restricted to one variant. Some pronouns take only definite forms: for example, sama (English "same"), adjectives like unƕeila ("constantly", from the root ƕeila, "time"; compare to the English "while"), comparative adjective and present participles. Others, such as áins ("some"), take only the indefinite forms.

The table below displays the declension of the Gothic adjective blind (English: "blind"), compared with the an-stem noun guma "man, human" and the a-stem noun dags "day":

This table is, of course, not exhaustive. (There are secondary inflexions of various sorts not described here.) An exhaustive table of only the types of endings that Gothic took is presented below.

Gothic adjectives follow noun declensions closely; they take same types of inflection.

Pronouns

Gothic inherited the full set of Indo-European pronouns: personal pronouns (including reflexive pronouns for each of the three grammatical persons), possessive pronouns, both simple and compound demonstratives, relative pronouns, interrogatives and indefinite pronouns. Each follows a particular pattern of inflection (partially mirroring the noun declension), much like other Indo-European languages. One particularly noteworthy characteristic is the preservation of the dual number, referring to two people or things; the plural was used only for quantities greater than two. Thus, "the two of us" and "we" for numbers greater than two were expressed as wit and weis respectively. While proto-Indo-European used the dual for all grammatical categories that took a number (as did Classical Greek and Sanskrit), most Old Germanic languages are unusual in that they preserved it only for pronouns. Gothic preserves an older system with dual marking on both pronouns and verbs (but not nouns or adjectives).

The simple demonstrative pronoun sa (neuter: þata, feminine: so, from the Indo-European root *so, *seh2, *tod; cognate to the Greek article ὁ, ἡ, τό and the Latin istud) can be used as an article, allowing constructions of the type definite article + weak adjective + noun.

The interrogative pronouns begin with ƕ-, which derives from the proto-Indo-European consonant *kʷ that was present at the beginning of all interrogatives in proto-Indo-European, cognate with the wh- at the beginning of many English interrogative, which, as in Gothic, are pronounced with [ʍ] in some dialects. The same etymology is present in the interrogatives of many other Indo-European languages: w- [v] in German, hv- in Danish, the Latin qu- (which persists in modern Romance languages), the Greek τ- or π-, the Slavic and Indic k- as well as many others.

Verbs

The bulk of Gothic verbs follow the type of Indo-European conjugation called 'thematic' because they insert a vowel derived from the reconstructed proto-Indo-European phonemes *e or *o between roots and inflexional suffixes. The pattern is also present in Greek and Latin:

The other conjugation, called 'athematic', in which suffixes are added directly to roots, exists only in unproductive vestigial forms in Gothic, just like in Greek and Latin. The most important such instance is the verb "to be", which is athematic in Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, and many other Indo-European languages.

Gothic verbs are, like nouns and adjectives, divided into strong verbs and weak verbs. Weak verbs are characterised by preterites formed by appending the suffixes -da or -ta, parallel to past participles formed with -þ / -t. Strong verbs form preterites by ablaut (the alternating of vowels in their root forms) or by reduplication (prefixing the root with the first consonant in the root plus aí) but without adding a suffix in either case. This parallels the Greek and Sanskrit perfects. The dichotomy is still present in modern Germanic languages:

Verbal conjugation in Gothic have two grammatical voices: the active and the medial; three numbers: singular, dual (except in the third person) and plural; two tenses: present and preterite (derived from a former perfect); three grammatical moods: indicative, subjunctive (from an old optative form) and imperative as well as three kinds of nominal forms: a present infinitive, a present participle, and a past passive. Not all tenses and persons are represented in all moods and voices, as some conjugations use auxiliary forms.

Finally, there are forms called 'preterite-present': the old Indo-European perfect was reinterpreted as present tense. The Gothic word wáit, from the proto-Indo-European *woid-h2e ("to see" in the perfect), corresponds exactly to its Sanskrit cognate véda and in Greek to ϝοἶδα. Both etymologically should mean "I have seen" (in the perfect sense) but mean "I know" (in the preterite-present meaning). Latin follows the same rule with nōuī ("I have learned" and "I know"). The preterite-present verbs include áigan ("to possess") and kunnan ("to know") among others.

Syntax

Word order

The word order of Gothic is fairly free as is typical of other inflected languages. The natural word order of Gothic is assumed to have been like that of the other old Germanic languages; however, nearly all extant Gothic texts are translations of Greek originals and have been heavily influenced by Greek syntax.

Sometimes what can be expressed in one word in the original Greek will require a verb and a complement in the Gothic translation; for example, διωχθήσονται (diōchthēsontai, "they will be persecuted") is rendered:

Likewise Gothic translations of Greek noun phrases may feature a verb and a complement. In both cases, the verb follows the complement, giving weight to the theory that basic word order in Gothic is object–verb. This aligns with what is known of other early Germanic languages.[22]

However, this pattern is reversed in imperatives and negations:[23]

And in a wh-question the verb directly follows the question word:[23]

Clitics

Gothic has two clitic particles placed in the second position in a sentence, in accordance with Wackernagel's Law.

One such clitic particle is -u, indicating a yes–no question or an indirect question, like Latin -ne:

The prepositional phrase without the clitic -u appears as af þus silbin: the clitic causes the reversion of originally voiced fricatives, unvoiced at the end of a word, to their voiced form; another such example is wileid-u "do you (pl.) want" from wileiþ "you (pl.) want". If the first word has a preverb attached, the clitic actually splits the preverb from the verb: ga-u-láubjats "do you both believe...?" from galáubjats "you both believe".

Another such clitic is -uh "and", appearing as -h after a vowel: ga-h-mēlida "and he wrote" from gamēlida "he wrote", urreis nim-uh "arise and take!" from the imperative form nim "take". After iþ or any indefinite besides sums "some" and anþar "another", -uh cannot be placed; in the latter category, this is only because indefinite determiner phrases cannot move to the front of a clause. Unlike, for example, Latin -que, -uh can only join two or more main clauses. In all other cases, the word jah "and" is used, which can also join main clauses.

More than one such clitics can occur in one word: diz-uh-þan-sat ijōs "and then he seized them (fem.)" from dissat "he seized" (notice again the voicing of diz-), ga-u-ƕa-sēƕi "whether he saw anything" from gasēƕi "he saw".[24]

Comparison to other Germanic languages

For the most part, Gothic is known to be significantly closer to Proto-Germanic than any other Germanic language[citation needed] except for that of the (scantily attested) Ancient Nordic runic inscriptions, which has made it invaluable in the reconstruction of Proto-Germanic[citation needed]. In fact, Gothic tends to serve as the primary foundation for reconstructing Proto-Germanic[citation needed]. The reconstructed Proto-Germanic conflicts with Gothic only when there is clearly identifiable evidence from other branches that the Gothic form is a secondary development.[citation needed]

Distinctive features

Gothic fails to display a number of innovations shared by all Germanic languages attested later:

The language also preserved many features that were mostly lost in other early Germanic languages:

Lack of umlaut

Most conspicuously, Gothic shows no sign of morphological umlaut. Gothic fotus, pl. fotjus, can be contrasted with English foot : feet, German Fuß : Füße, Old Norse fótr : fœtr, Danish fod : fødder. These forms contain the characteristic change /u/ > /iː/ (English), /uː/ > /yː/ (German), /oː/ > /øː/ (ON and Danish) due to i-umlaut; the Gothic form shows no such change.

Lack of rhotacism

Proto-Germanic *z remains in Gothic as z or is devoiced to s. In North and West Germanic, *z changes to r by rhotacism:

Passive voice

Gothic retains a morphological passive voice inherited from Indo-European but unattested in all other Germanic languages except for the single fossilised form preserved in, for example, Old English hātte or Runic Norse (c. 400) haitē "am called", derived from Proto-Germanic *haitaną "to call, command".

The morphological passive in North Germanic languages (Swedish gör "does", görs "is being done") originates from the Old Norse middle voice, which is an innovation not inherited from Indo-European.

Dual number

Unlike other Germanic languages, which retained dual numbering only in some pronoun forms, Gothic has dual forms both in pronouns and in verbs. Dual verb forms exist only in the first and second person and only in the active voice; in all other cases, the corresponding plural forms are used. In pronouns, Gothic has first and second person dual pronouns: Gothic and Old English wit, Old Norse vit "we two" (thought to have been in fact derived from *wi-du literally "we two").

Reduplication

Gothic possesses a number of verbs which form their preterite by reduplication, another archaic feature inherited from Indo-European. While traces of this category survived elsewhere in Germanic, the phenomenon is largely obscured in these other languages by later sound changes and analogy. In the following examples the infinitive is compared to the third person singular preterite indicative:

Classification

The standard theory of the origin of the Germanic languages divides the languages into three groups: East Germanic (Gothic and a few other very scantily-attested languages), North Germanic (Old Norse and its derivatives, such as Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, and Faroese) and West Germanic (all others, including Old English, Old High German, Old Saxon, Old Dutch, Old Frisian and the numerous modern languages derived from these, including English, German, and Dutch). Sometimes, a further grouping, that of the Northwest Germanic languages, is posited as containing the North Germanic and West Germanic languages, reflecting the hypothesis that Gothic was the first attested language to branch off.

A minority opinion (the so-called Gotho-Nordic hypothesis) instead groups North Germanic and East Germanic together. It is based partly on historical claims: for example, Jordanes, writing in the 6th century, ascribes to the Goths a Scandinavian origin. There are a few linguistically significant areas in which Gothic and Old Norse agree against the West Germanic languages.

Perhaps the most obvious is the evolution of the Proto-Germanic *-jj- and *-ww- into Gothic ddj (from Pre-Gothic ggj?) and ggw, and Old Norse ggj and ggv ("Holtzmann's Law"), in contrast to West Germanic where they remained as semivowels. Compare Modern English true, German treu, with Gothic triggws, Old Norse tryggr.

However, it has been suggested that these are, in fact, two separate and unrelated changes.[25] A number of other posited similarities exist (for example, the existence of numerous inchoative verbs ending in -na, such as Gothic ga-waknan, Old Norse vakna; and the absence of gemination before j, or (in the case of old Norse) only g geminated before j, e.g. Proto-Germanic *kunją > Gothic kuni (kin), Old Norse kyn, but Old English cynn, Old High German kunni). However, for the most part these represent shared retentions, which are not valid means of grouping languages. That is, if a parent language splits into three daughters A, B and C, and C innovates in a particular area but A and B do not change, A and B will appear to agree against C. That shared retention in A and B is not necessarily indicative of any special relationship between the two.

Similar claims of similarities between Old Gutnish (Gutniska) and Old Icelandic are also based on shared retentions rather than shared innovations.

Another commonly-given example involves Gothic and Old Norse verbs with the ending -t in the 2nd person singular preterite indicative, and the West Germanic languages have -i. The ending -t can regularly descend from the Proto-Indo-European perfect ending *-th₂e, while the origin of the West Germanic ending -i (which, unlike the -t-ending, unexpectedly combines with the zero-grade of the root as in the plural) is unclear, suggesting that it is an innovation of some kind, possibly an import from the optative. Another possibility is that this is an example of independent choices made from a doublet existing in the proto-language. That is, Proto-Germanic may have allowed either -t or -i to be used as the ending, either in free variation or perhaps depending on dialects within Proto-Germanic or the particular verb in question. Each of the three daughters independently standardized on one of the two endings and, by chance, Gothic and Old Norse ended up with the same ending.

Other isoglosses have led scholars to propose an early split between East and Northwest Germanic. Furthermore, features shared by any two branches of Germanic do not necessarily require the postulation of a proto-language excluding the third, as the early Germanic languages were all part of a dialect continuum in the early stages of their development, and contact between the three branches of Germanic was extensive.

Polish linguist Witold Mańczak argued that Gothic is closer to German (specifically Upper German) than to Scandinavian and suggested that their ancestral homeland was located in the southernmost part of the Germanic territories, close to present-day Austria, rather than in Scandinavia. Frederik Kortlandt has agreed with Mańczak's hypothesis, stating: "I think that his argument is correct and that it is time to abandon Iordanes' classic view that the Goths came from Scandinavia."[26]

Influence

The reconstructed Proto-Slavic language features several apparent borrowed words from East Germanic (presumably Gothic), such as *xlěbъ, "bread", vs. Gothic hlaifs.[27]

The Romance languages also preserve several loanwords from Gothic, such as Portuguese agasalho (warm clothing), from Gothic *𐌲𐌰𐍃𐌰𐌻𐌾𐌰 (*gasalja, "companion, comrade"); ganso (goose), from Gothic *𐌲𐌰𐌽𐍃 (*gans, "goose"); luva (glove), from Gothic 𐌻𐍉𐍆𐌰 (lōfa, "palm of the hand"); and trégua (truce), from Gothic 𐍄𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍅𐌰 (triggwa, "treaty; covenant"). Other examples include the French broder (to embroider), from Gothic *𐌱𐍂𐌿𐌶𐌳𐍉𐌽 (*bruzdon, "to embroider"); gaffe (gaffe), from Gothic 𐌲𐌰𐍆𐌰𐌷 (gafāh, "catch; something which is caught"); and the Italian bega (quarrel, dispute), from Gothic *𐌱𐌴𐌲𐌰 (*bēga, "quarrel").

Use in Romanticism and the Modern Age

J. R. R. Tolkien

Several linguists have made use of Gothic as a creative language. The most famous example is "Bagme Bloma" ("Flower of the Trees") by J. R. R. Tolkien, part of Songs for the Philologists. It was published privately in 1936 for Tolkien and his colleague E. V. Gordon.[28]

Tolkien's use of Gothic is also known from a letter from 1965 to Zillah Sherring. When Sherring bought a copy of Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War in Salisbury, she found strange inscriptions in it; after she found his name in it, she wrote him a letter and asked him if the inscriptions were his, including the longest one on the back, which was in Gothic. In his reply to her he corrected some of the mistakes in the text; he wrote for example that hundai should be hunda and þizo boko ("of those books"), which he suggested should be þizos bokos ("of this book"). A semantic inaccuracy of the text which he mentioned himself is the use of lisan for read, while this was ussiggwan. Tolkien also made a calque of his own name in Gothic in the letter, which according to him should be Ruginwaldus Dwalakoneis.[29]

Gothic is also known to have served as the primary inspiration for Tolkien's invented language, Taliska[30] which, in his legendarium, was the language spoken by the race of Men during the First Age before being displaced by another of his invented languages, Adûnaic. As of 2022, Tolkien's Taliska grammar has not been published.

Others

On 10 February 1841, the Bayerische Akademie für Wissenschaften published a reconstruction in Gothic of the Creed of Ulfilas.[31]

The Thorvaldsen museum also has an alliterative poem, "Thunravalds Sunau", from 1841 by Massmann, the first publisher of the Skeireins, written in the Gothic language. It was read at a great feast dedicated to Thorvaldsen in the Gesellschaft der Zwanglosen in Munich on July 15, 1841. This event is mentioned by Ludwig von Schorn in the magazine Kunstblatt from the 19th of July, 1841.[32] Massmann also translated the academic commercium song Gaudeamus into Gothic in 1837.[33]

In 2012, professor Bjarne Simmelkjær Hansen of the University of Copenhagen published a translation into Gothic of Adeste Fideles for Roots of Europe.[34]

In Fleurs du Mal, an online magazine for art and literature, the poem Overvloed of Dutch poet Bert Bevers appeared in a Gothic translation.[35]

Alice in Wonderland has been translated into Gothic (Balþos Gadedeis Aþalhaidais in Sildaleikalanda) by David Carlton in 2015 and is published by Michael Everson.[36][37]

Examples

The Lord's Prayer in Gothic:

𐌰𐍄𐍄𐌰

atta

/ˈatːa

Father

𐌿𐌽𐍃𐌰𐍂

unsar

ˈunsar

our,

𐌸𐌿

þu

θuː

thou

𐌹𐌽

in

in

in

𐌷𐌹𐌼𐌹𐌽𐌰𐌼

himinam

ˈhiminam

heaven,

𐍅𐌴𐌹𐌷𐌽𐌰𐌹

weihnai

ˈwiːhnɛː

be holy

𐌽𐌰𐌼𐍉

namo

ˈnamoː

name

𐌸𐌴𐌹𐌽

þein

θiːn

thy.

𐌵𐌹𐌼𐌰𐌹

qimai

ˈkʷimɛː

Come

𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌹𐌽𐌰𐍃𐍃𐌿𐍃

þiudinassus

ˈθiu̯ðinasːus

kingdom

𐌸𐌴𐌹𐌽𐍃

þeins

θiːns

thy,

𐍅𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌸𐌰𐌹

wairþai

ˈwɛrθɛː

happen

𐍅𐌹𐌻𐌾𐌰

wilja

ˈwilja

will

𐌸𐌴𐌹𐌽𐍃

þeins

θiːns

thy,

𐍃𐍅𐌴

swe

sweː

as

𐌹𐌽

in

in

in

𐌷𐌹𐌼𐌹𐌽𐌰

himina

ˈhimina

heaven

𐌾𐌰𐌷

jah

jah

also

𐌰𐌽𐌰

ana

ana

on

𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌸𐌰𐌹

airþai

ˈɛrθɛː

earth.

𐌷𐌻𐌰𐌹𐍆

hlaif

hlɛːɸ

Loaf

𐌿𐌽𐍃𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌽𐌰

unsarana

ˈunsarana

our,

𐌸𐌰𐌽𐌰

þana

ˈθana

the

𐍃𐌹𐌽𐍄𐌴𐌹𐌽𐌰𐌽

sinteinan

ˈsinˌtiːnan

daily,

𐌲𐌹𐍆

gif

ɡiɸ

give

𐌿𐌽𐍃

uns

uns

us

𐌷𐌹𐌼𐌼𐌰

himma

ˈhimːa

this

𐌳𐌰𐌲𐌰

daga

ˈdaɣa

day,

𐌾𐌰𐌷

jah

jah

and

𐌰𐍆𐌻𐌴𐍄

aflet

aɸˈleːt

forgive

𐌿𐌽𐍃

uns

uns

us,

𐌸𐌰𐍄𐌴𐌹

þatei

ˈθatiː

that

𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌰𐌽𐍃

skulans

ˈskulans

debtors

𐍃𐌹𐌾𐌰𐌹𐌼𐌰

sijaima

ˈsijɛːma

be,

𐍃𐍅𐌰𐍃𐍅𐌴

swaswe

ˈswasweː

just as

𐌾𐌰𐌷

jah

jah

also

𐍅𐌴𐌹𐍃

weis

ˈwiːs

we

𐌰𐍆𐌻𐌴𐍄𐌰𐌼

afletam

aɸˈleːtam

forgive

𐌸𐌰𐌹𐌼

þaim

θɛːm

those

𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌰𐌼

skulam

ˈskulam

debtors

𐌿𐌽𐍃𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌹𐌼

unsaraim

ˈunsarɛːm

our.

𐌾𐌰𐌷

jah

jah

And

𐌽𐌹

ni

ni

not

𐌱𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌲𐌰𐌹𐍃

briggais

ˈbriŋɡɛːs

bring

𐌿𐌽𐍃

uns

uns

us

𐌹𐌽

in

in

in

𐍆𐍂𐌰𐌹𐍃𐍄𐌿𐌱𐌽𐌾𐌰𐌹

fraistubnjai

ˈɸrɛːstuβnijɛː

temptation,

𐌰𐌺

ak

ak

but

𐌻𐌰𐌿𐍃𐌴𐌹

lausei

ˈlɔːsiː

loose

𐌿𐌽𐍃

uns

uns

us

𐌰𐍆

af

aɸ

from

𐌸𐌰𐌼𐌼𐌰

þamma

ˈθamːa

the

𐌿𐌱𐌹𐌻𐌹𐌽

ubilin

ˈuβilin

evil.

𐌿𐌽𐍄𐌴

unte

ˈunteː

For

𐌸𐌴𐌹𐌽𐌰

þeina

ˈθiːna

thine

𐌹𐍃𐍄

ist

ist

is

𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰𐌽𐌲𐌰𐍂𐌳𐌹

þiudangardi

ˈθiu̯ðanˌɡardi

kingdom

𐌾𐌰𐌷

jah

jah

and

𐌼𐌰𐌷𐍄𐍃

mahts

mahts

might

𐌾𐌰𐌷

jah

jah

and

𐍅𐌿𐌻𐌸𐌿𐍃

wulþus

ˈwulθus

glory

𐌹𐌽

in

in

in

𐌰𐌹𐍅𐌹𐌽𐍃

aiwins

ˈɛːwins/

eternity.

𐌰𐍄𐍄𐌰 𐌿𐌽𐍃𐌰𐍂 𐌸𐌿 𐌹𐌽 𐌷𐌹𐌼𐌹𐌽𐌰𐌼 𐍅𐌴𐌹𐌷𐌽𐌰𐌹 𐌽𐌰𐌼𐍉 𐌸𐌴𐌹𐌽 𐌵𐌹𐌼𐌰𐌹 𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌹𐌽𐌰𐍃𐍃𐌿𐍃 𐌸𐌴𐌹𐌽𐍃 𐍅𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌸𐌰𐌹 𐍅𐌹𐌻𐌾𐌰 𐌸𐌴𐌹𐌽𐍃 𐍃𐍅𐌴 𐌹𐌽 𐌷𐌹𐌼𐌹𐌽𐌰 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌰𐌽𐌰 𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌸𐌰𐌹 𐌷𐌻𐌰𐌹𐍆 𐌿𐌽𐍃𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌽𐌰 𐌸𐌰𐌽𐌰 𐍃𐌹𐌽𐍄𐌴𐌹𐌽𐌰𐌽 𐌲𐌹𐍆 𐌿𐌽𐍃 𐌷𐌹𐌼𐌼𐌰 𐌳𐌰𐌲𐌰 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌰𐍆𐌻𐌴𐍄 𐌿𐌽𐍃 𐌸𐌰𐍄𐌴𐌹 𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌰𐌽𐍃 𐍃𐌹𐌾𐌰𐌹𐌼𐌰 𐍃𐍅𐌰𐍃𐍅𐌴 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐍅𐌴𐌹𐍃 𐌰𐍆𐌻𐌴𐍄𐌰𐌼 𐌸𐌰𐌹𐌼 𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌰𐌼 𐌿𐌽𐍃𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌹𐌼 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌽𐌹 𐌱𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌲𐌰𐌹𐍃 𐌿𐌽𐍃 𐌹𐌽 𐍆𐍂𐌰𐌹𐍃𐍄𐌿𐌱𐌽𐌾𐌰𐌹 𐌰𐌺 𐌻𐌰𐌿𐍃𐌴𐌹 𐌿𐌽𐍃 𐌰𐍆 𐌸𐌰𐌼𐌼𐌰 𐌿𐌱𐌹𐌻𐌹𐌽 𐌿𐌽𐍄𐌴 𐌸𐌴𐌹𐌽𐌰 𐌹𐍃𐍄 𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰𐌽𐌲𐌰𐍂𐌳𐌹 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌼𐌰𐌷𐍄𐍃 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐍅𐌿𐌻𐌸𐌿𐍃 𐌹𐌽 𐌰𐌹𐍅𐌹𐌽𐍃

atta unsar þu in himinam weihnai namo þein qimai þiudinassus þeins wairþai wilja þeins swe in himina jah ana airþai hlaif unsarana þana sinteinan gif uns himma daga jah aflet uns þatei skulans sijaima swaswe jah weis afletam þaim skulam unsaraim jah ni briggais uns in fraistubnjai ak lausei uns af þamma ubilin unte þeina ist þiudangardi jah mahts jah wulþus in aiwins

/ˈatːa ˈunsar θuː in ˈhiminam ˈwiːhnɛː ˈnamoː θiːn ˈkʷimɛː ˈθiu̯ðinasːus θiːns ˈwɛrθɛː ˈwilja θiːns sweː in ˈhimina jah ana ˈɛrθɛː hlɛːɸ ˈunsarana ˈθana ˈsinˌtiːnan ɡiɸ uns ˈhimːa ˈdaɣa jah aɸˈleːt uns ˈθatiː ˈskulans ˈsijɛːma ˈswasweː jah ˈwiːs aɸˈleːtam θɛːm ˈskulam ˈunsarɛːm jah ni ˈbriŋɡɛːs uns in ˈɸrɛːstuβnijɛː ak ˈlɔːsiː uns aɸ ˈθamːa ˈuβilin ˈunteː ˈθiːna ist ˈθiu̯ðanˌɡardi jah mahts jah ˈwulθus in ˈɛːwins/

Father our, thou in heaven, {be holy} name thy. Come kingdom thy, happen will thy, as in heaven also on earth. Loaf our, the daily, give us this day, and forgive us, that debtors be, {just as} also we forgive those debtors our. And not bring us in temptation, but loose us from the evil. For thine is kingdom and might and glory in eternity.

See also

References

  1. ^ Kinder, Hermann (1988), Penguin Atlas of World History, vol. I, London: Penguin, p. 108, ISBN 0-14-051054-0.
  2. ^ "Languages of the World: Germanic languages". The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago, IL, United States: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1993. ISBN 0-85229-571-5.
  3. ^ Strategies of Distinction: Construction of Ethnic Communities, 300–800 (Transformation of the Roman World, vol. 2) by Walter Pohl, ISBN 90-04-10846-7 (pp. 119–121)
  4. ^ Stearns 1978, p. 118.
  5. ^ MacDonald Stearns, Das Krimgotische. In: Heinrich Beck (ed.), Germanische Rest- und Trümmersprachen, Berlin/New York 1989, p. 175–194, here the chapter Die Dialektzugehörigkeit des Krimgotischen on p. 181–185
  6. ^ Carla Falluomini, 'Zum gotischen Fragment aus Bologna II: Berichtigungen und neue Lesungen', Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und Literatur 146.3 (2017) pp. 284–294.
  7. ^ *Vinogradov, Andrey; Korobov, Maksim (2018). "Gothic graffiti from the Mangup basilica". NOWELE. North-Western European Language Evolution. 71 (2): 223–235. doi:10.1075/nowele.00013.vin.
  8. ^ Braune/Ebbinghaus, Gotische Grammatik, Tübingen 1981
  9. ^ Krause, Wolfgang. Handbuch des Gotischen. Niemeyer.
  10. ^ Carla Falluomini, "Traces of Wulfila's Bible Translation in Visigothic Gaul", Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik 80 (2020) pp. 5–24.
  11. ^ Alice L. Harting-Correa, "Walahfrid Strabo's libellus de exordiis et incrementis quarundam in observationibus ecclesiasticis rerum. A translation and liturgical commentary", Leiden-New York-Köln: Brill, 1996 (ISBN 90 04 09669 8), pp. 72–73. Discussion between W. Haubrichs and S. Barnish in D. H. Green (2007), "Linguistic and Literary Traces of the Ostrogoths", The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective, Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, eds., part of Studies in Historical Archaeoethnology, Volume 7, Giorgio Ausenda, series ed. (Oxford: Boydell Press, ISBN 978-1-84383-074-0.), p. 409 and n1.
  12. ^ a b Prokosch p. 105
  13. ^ a b Wright (1910 edition) p. 362
  14. ^ See also Cercignani, Fausto (1986). "The Development of the Gothic Vocalic System". In Brogyanyi, Bela; Krömmelbein, Thomas (eds.). Germanic Dialects: Linguistic and Philological Investigations. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins. pp. 121–151. ISBN 90-272-3526-0.
  15. ^ For the Gothic short vowels see also Cercignani, Fausto (1979). "The Development of the Gothic Short/Lax Subsystem". Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung. 93 (2): 272–278.
  16. ^ But see Cercignani, Fausto (1984). "The Enfants Terribles of Gothic "Breaking": hiri, aiþþau, etc". The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 12 (3–4): 315–344.
  17. ^ See also Cercignani, Fausto (1979). "The Reduplicating Syllable and Internal Open Juncture in Gothic". Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung. 93 (1): 126–132.
  18. ^ Miller 2019, p. 33.
  19. ^ Snædal, Magnús (2011). "Gothic <ggw>" (PDF). Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis. 128: 145–154. doi:10.2478/v10148-011-0019-z.
  20. ^ Ratkus, Artūras (1 August 2018). "Weak adjectives need not be definite". Indogermanische Forschungen. 123 (1): 27–64. doi:10.1515/if-2018-0002. S2CID 172125588.
  21. ^ Ratkus, Artūras (25 October 2018). "This is not the same: the ambiguity of a Gothic adjective". Folia Linguistica Historica. 39 (2): 475–494. doi:10.1515/flih-2018-0017. S2CID 150114192.
  22. ^ Eythórsson, Thórhallur (2001). "Functional Categories, Cliticization, and Verb Movement in the Early Germanic Languages". In Thráinsson, Höskuldur; Epstein, Samuel David & Peter, Stever (eds.). Studies in Comparative Germanic Syntax. Vol. II. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 109–10. ISBN 978-1-402-00294-6.
  23. ^ a b Eythórsson, Thórhallur (2001). "Functional Categories, Cliticization, and Verb Movement in the Early Germanic Languages". In Thráinsson, Höskuldur; Epstein, Samuel David & Peter, Stever (eds.). Studies in Comparative Germanic Syntax. Vol. II. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-402-00294-6.
  24. ^ Eythórsson, Thórhallur (2001). "Functional Categories, Cliticization, and Verb Movement in the Early Germanic Languages". In Thráinsson, Höskuldur; Epstein, Samuel David & Peter, Stever (eds.). Studies in Comparative Germanic Syntax. Vol. II. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 117–18, 122. ISBN 978-1-402-00294-6.
  25. ^ Voyles, J. B. (1992). Early Germanic Grammar. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 0-12-728270-X.
  26. ^ Kortlandt 2001.
  27. ^ Holzer, Georg (1990). "Germanische Lehnwörter im Urslavischen: Methodologisches zu ihrer Identifizierung" [Germanic word-borrowings in proto-slavic: towards a methodology of their identiification]. Croatica, Slavica, Indoeuropaea (in German). 8 (Ergänzungsband). Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 59–67. ISBN 9783700117742. Retrieved 2014-01-07.
  28. ^ Shippey, Tom (2003). The road to Middle-earth: Revised and Expanded edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 26. ISBN 0-618-25760-8.
  29. ^ Bellet, Bertrand; Babut, Benjamin. "Apostil to Thucydides". Glæmscrafu.
  30. ^ J.R.R. Tolkien, "The Comparative Tables", Parma Eldalamberon 19, p. 22
  31. ^ Gelehrte Anzeigen. Munich: Bayerisch Akademie für Wissenschaften. 1841.
  32. ^ Massmann, Hans Ferdinand. "Thunravalds Sunau". Thorvaldsen museum.
  33. ^ "'Das gothische Gaudeamus' – Digitalisat | MDZ". www.digitale-sammlungen.de.
  34. ^ Simmelkjær Hansen, Bjarne. "qimandau triggwai" (PDF). Roots of Europe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2016-09-29.
  35. ^ "Fleurs du Mal Magazine » BERT BEVERS: OVERVLOED (TRANSLATION 6)".
  36. ^ "The Mad Challenge of Translating "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland"".
  37. ^ "Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland – in Gothic".

Sources

External links

Gothic edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For a list of words relating to Gothic language, see the Gothic language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Gothic
Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Patrologia Latina vol. 18