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Introducción

La economía ( / ˌ ɛ k ə ˈ n ɒ m ɪ k s , ˌ iː k ə -/ ) es una ciencia social que estudia la producción , distribución y consumo de bienes y servicios .

La economía se centra en el comportamiento y las interacciones de los agentes económicos y en el funcionamiento de las economías . La microeconomía analiza los elementos básicos de las economías , incluidos los agentes individuales y los mercados , sus interacciones y los resultados de dichas interacciones. Los agentes individuales pueden incluir, por ejemplo, hogares, empresas, compradores y vendedores. La macroeconomía analiza las economías como sistemas en los que interactúan la producción, la distribución, el consumo, el ahorro y el gasto de inversión , y los factores que las afectan: factores de producción , como el trabajo , el capital , la tierra y la empresa , la inflación , el crecimiento económico y las políticas públicas que tienen un impacto en estos elementos . También busca analizar y describir la economía global . ( Artículo completo... )

Actualizar con nuevas selecciones a continuación (purgar)

Artículos generales seleccionados

Imagen 1
La termoeconomía , también conocida como economía biofísica , es una escuela de economía heterodoxa que aplica las leyes de la mecánica estadística a la teoría económica. La termoeconomía puede considerarse como la física estadística del valor económico y es un subcampo de la econofísica .

Es el estudio de las formas y los medios por los cuales las sociedades humanas obtienen y utilizan energía y otros recursos biológicos y físicos para producir, distribuir, consumir e intercambiar bienes y servicios, al tiempo que generan diversos tipos de desechos e impactos ambientales. La economía biofísica se basa tanto en las ciencias sociales como en las ciencias naturales para superar algunas de las limitaciones y puntos ciegos más fundamentales de la economía convencional. Permite comprender algunos requisitos clave y condiciones marco para el crecimiento económico, así como las restricciones y límites relacionados. ( Artículo completo... )
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Solow en 2008

Robert Merton Solow, GCIH (/ˈsoʊloʊ/; August 23, 1924 – December 21, 2023) was an American economist and Nobel laureate whose work on the theory of economic growth culminated in the exogenous growth model named after him.

He was Institute Professor Emeritus of Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he was a professor from 1949 on. He was awarded the John Bates Clark Medal in 1961, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1987, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2014. Four of his PhD students, George Akerlof, Joseph Stiglitz, Peter Diamond, and William Nordhaus, later received Nobel Memorial Prizes in Economic Sciences in their own right. (Full article...)
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William Jack Baumol (February 26, 1922 – May 4, 2017) was an American economist. He was a professor of economics at New York University, Academic Director of the Berkley Center for Entrepreneurship and Innovation, and Professor Emeritus at Princeton University. He was a prolific author of more than eighty books and several hundred journal articles. He is the namesake of the Baumol effect.

Baumol wrote extensively about labor market and other economic factors that affect the economy. He also made significant contributions to the theory of entrepreneurship and the history of economic thought. He is among the most influential economists in the world according to IDEAS/RePEc. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971, the American Philosophical Society in 1977, and the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1987. (Full article...)
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Piero Sraffa FBA (5 August 1898 – 3 September 1983) was an influential Italian economist who served as lecturer of economics at the University of Cambridge. His book Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities is taken as founding the neo-Ricardian school of economics. (Full article...)
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Classical economics, classical political economy, or Smithian economics is a school of thought in political economy that flourished, primarily in Britain, in the late 18th and early-to-mid-19th century. Its main thinkers are held to be Adam Smith, Jean-Baptiste Say, David Ricardo, Thomas Robert Malthus, and John Stuart Mill. These economists produced a theory of market economies as largely self-regulating systems, governed by natural laws of production and exchange (famously captured by Adam Smith's metaphor of the invisible hand).

Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations in 1776 is usually considered to mark the beginning of classical economics. The fundamental message in Smith's book was that the wealth of any nation was determined not by the gold in the monarch's coffers, but by its national income. This income was in turn based on the labor of its inhabitants, organized efficiently by the division of labour and the use of accumulated capital, which became one of classical economics' central concepts. (Full article...)
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Marginalism is a theory of economics that attempts to explain the discrepancy in the value of goods and services by reference to their secondary, or marginal, utility. It states that the reason why the price of diamonds is higher than that of water, for example, owes to the greater additional satisfaction of the diamonds over the water. Thus, while the water has greater total utility, the diamond has greater marginal utility.

Although the central concept of marginalism is that of marginal utility, marginalists, following the lead of Alfred Marshall, drew upon the idea of marginal physical productivity in explanation of cost. The neoclassical tradition that emerged from British marginalism abandoned the concept of utility and gave marginal rates of substitution a more fundamental role in analysis. Marginalism is an integral part of mainstream economic theory. (Full article...)
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The pluralism in economics movement is a campaign to change the teaching and research in economics towards more openness in its approaches, topics and standpoints it considers. The goal of the movement is to "reinvigorate the discipline ... [and bring] economics back into the service of society". Some have argued that economics had greater scientific pluralism in the past compared to the monist approach that is prevalent today. Pluralism encourages the inclusion of a wide variety of neoclassical and heterodox economic theories—including classical, Post-Keynesian, institutional, ecological, evolutionary, feminist, Marxist, and Austrian economics, stating that "each tradition of thought adds something unique and valuable to economic scholarship". (Full article...)
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Knut Wicksell, Swedish economist. Important source of inspiration for John Maynard Keynes and the Stockholm School.

The Stockholm School (Swedish: Stockholmsskolan) is a school of economic thought. It refers to a loosely organized group of Swedish economists that worked together, in Stockholm, Sweden primarily in the 1930s.

The Stockholm School had—like John Maynard Keynes—come to the same conclusions in macroeconomics and the theories of demand and supply. Like Keynes, they were inspired by the works of Knut Wicksell, a Swedish economist active in the early years of the twentieth century. (Full article...)
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From a legal point of view, a contract is an institutional arrangement for the way in which resources flow, which defines the various relationships between the parties to a transaction or limits the rights and obligations of the parties.

From an economic perspective, contract theory studies how economic actors can and do construct contractual arrangements, generally in the presence of information asymmetry. Because of its connections with both agency and incentives, contract theory is often categorized within a field known as law and economics. One prominent application of it is the design of optimal schemes of managerial compensation. In the field of economics, the first formal treatment of this topic was given by Kenneth Arrow in the 1960s. In 2016, Oliver Hart and Bengt R. Holmström both received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for their work on contract theory, covering many topics from CEO pay to privatizations. Holmström focused more on the connection between incentives and risk, while Hart on the unpredictability of the future that creates holes in contracts. (Full article...)
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Real business-cycle theory (RBC theory) is a class of new classical macroeconomics models in which business-cycle fluctuations are accounted for by real (in contrast to nominal) shocks. Unlike other leading theories of the business cycle, RBC theory sees business cycle fluctuations as the efficient response to exogenous changes in the real economic environment. That is, the level of national output necessarily maximizes expected utility, and governments should therefore concentrate on long-run structural policy changes and not intervene through discretionary fiscal or monetary policy designed to actively smooth out economic short-term fluctuations.

According to RBC theory, business cycles are therefore "real" in that they do not represent a failure of markets to clear but rather reflect the most efficient possible operation of the economy, given the structure of the economy. (Full article...)
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Wilhelm Röpke

Wilhelm Röpke (10 October 1899 – 12 February 1966) was a German economist and social critic, one of the spiritual fathers of the social market economy. A Professor of Economics, first in Jena, then in Graz, Marburg, Istanbul, and finally Geneva, Röpke theorised and collaborated to organise the post-World War II economic re-awakening of the war-wrecked German economy, deploying a program referred to as ordoliberalism, a more conservative variant of German liberalism.

With Alfred Müller-Armack and Alexander Rüstow (sociological neoliberalism) and Walter Eucken and Franz Böhm (ordoliberalism) he elucidated the ideas, which then were introduced formally by Germany's post-World War II Minister for Economics Ludwig Erhard, operating under Konrad Adenauer's Chancellorship. Röpke and his colleagues' economic influence therefore is considered largely responsible for enabling Germany's post-World War II "economic miracle". Röpke was also a historian and was nominated to the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1965. (Full article...)
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Eli Filip Heckscher (24 November 1879 – 23 December 1952) was a Swedish political economist and economic historian who was a professor at the Stockholm School of Economics.

He is known for the Heckscher–Ohlin theorem, an influential model of international trade that predicts that capital-abundant countries export capital-intensive goods, while labor-abundant countries export the labor-intensive goods. (Full article...)
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Henry George (September 2, 1839 – October 29, 1897) was an American political economist and journalist. His writing was immensely popular in 19th-century America and sparked several reform movements of the Progressive Era. He inspired the economic philosophy known as Georgism, the belief that people should own the value they produce themselves, but that the economic value of land (including natural resources) should belong equally to all members of society. George famously argued that a single tax on land values would create a more productive and just society.

His most famous work, Progress and Poverty (1879), sold millions of copies worldwide. The treatise investigates the paradox of increasing inequality and poverty amid economic and technological progress, the business cycle with its cyclic nature of industrialized economies, and the use of rent capture such as land value taxation and other anti-monopoly reforms as a remedy for these and other social problems. (Full article...)
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Polanyi, c. 1918

Karl Paul Polanyi (/poʊˈlænji/; Hungarian: Polányi Károly [ˈpolaːɲi ˈkaːroj]; 25 October 1886 – 23 April 1964) was an Austro-Hungarian economic anthropologist, economic sociologist, and politician, best known for his book The Great Transformation, which questions the conceptual validity of self-regulating markets.

In his writings, Polanyi advances the concept of the Double Movement, which refers to the dialectical process of marketization and push for social protection against that marketization. He argues that market-based societies in modern Europe were not inevitable but historically contingent. Polanyi is remembered best as the originator of substantivism, a cultural version of economics, which emphasizes the way economies are embedded in society and culture. This opinion is counter to mainstream economics but is popular in anthropology, economic history, economic sociology and political science. (Full article...)
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The mythological judgement of Paris required selecting from three incomparable alternatives (the goddesses shown).

Decision theory or the theory of rational choice is a branch of probability, economics, and analytic philosophy that uses the tools of expected utility and probability to model how individuals should behave rationally under uncertainty. It differs from the cognitive and behavioral sciences in that it is prescriptive and concerned with identifying optimal decisions for a rational agent, rather than describing how people really do make decisions. Despite this, the field is important to the study of real human behavior by social scientists, as it lays the foundations for the rational agent models used to mathematically model and analyze individuals in fields such as sociology, economics, criminology, cognitive science, and political science. (Full article...)
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The Chicago school of economics is a neoclassical school of economic thought associated with the work of the faculty at the University of Chicago, some of whom have constructed and popularized its principles. Milton Friedman and George Stigler are considered the leading scholars of the Chicago school.

Chicago macroeconomic theory rejected Keynesianism in favor of monetarism until the mid-1970s, when it turned to new classical macroeconomics heavily based on the concept of rational expectations. The freshwater–saltwater distinction is largely antiquated today, as the two traditions have heavily incorporated ideas from each other. Specifically, new Keynesian economics was developed as a response to new classical economics, electing to incorporate the insight of rational expectations without giving up the traditional Keynesian focus on imperfect competition and sticky wages. (Full article...)
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Ernst Friedrich Schumacher CBE (16 August 1911 – 4 September 1977) was a British statistician and economist who is best known for his proposals for human-scale, decentralised and appropriate technologies. He served as Chief Economic Advisor to the British National Coal Board from 1950 to 1970, and founded the Intermediate Technology Development Group (now known as Practical Action) in 1966.

In 1995, his 1973 book Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If People Mattered was ranked by The Times Literary Supplement as one of the 100 most influential books published since World War II. In 1977 he published A Guide for the Perplexed as a critique of materialistic scientism and as an exploration of the nature and organisation of knowledge. (Full article...)
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New Institutional Economics (NIE) is an economic perspective that attempts to extend economics by focusing on the institutions (that is to say the social and legal norms and rules) that underlie economic activity and with analysis beyond earlier institutional economics and neoclassical economics.

The NIE assume that individuals are rational and that they seek to maximize their preferences, but that they also have cognitive limitations, lack complete information and have difficulties monitoring and enforcing agreements. As a result, institutions form in large part as an effective way to deal with transaction costs. (Full article...)
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New Keynesian economics is a school of macroeconomics that strives to provide microeconomic foundations for Keynesian economics. It developed partly as a response to criticisms of Keynesian macroeconomics by adherents of new classical macroeconomics.

Two main assumptions define the New Keynesian approach to macroeconomics. Like the New Classical approach, New Keynesian macroeconomic analysis usually assumes that households and firms have rational expectations. However, the two schools differ in that New Keynesian analysis usually assumes a variety of market failures. In particular, New Keynesians assume that there is imperfect competition in price and wage setting to help explain why prices and wages can become "sticky", which means they do not adjust instantaneously to changes in economic conditions. (Full article...)
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Arrow in 1996

Kenneth Joseph Arrow (August 23, 1921 – February 21, 2017) was an American economist, mathematician, writer, and political theorist. Along with John Hicks, he won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1972.

In economics, Arrow was a major figure in post-World War II neoclassical economic theory. Many of his former graduate students have gone on to win the Nobel Memorial Prize themselves. His contributions to social choice theory, notably "Arrow's impossibility theorem", and his work on general equilibrium analysis are significant. He has also provided foundational work in many other areas of economics, including endogenous growth theory and the economics of information. (Full article...)
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Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought and anti-capitalist market socialist economic theory that advocates for workers' control of the means of production, a market economy made up of individual artisans and workers' cooperatives, and occupation and use property rights. As proponents of the labour theory of value and labour theory of property, mutualists oppose all forms of economic rent, profit and non-nominal interest, which they see as relying on the exploitation of labour. Mutualists seek to construct an economy without capital accumulation or concentration of land ownership. They also encourage the establishment of workers' self-management, which they propose could be supported through the issuance of mutual credit by mutual banks, with the aim of creating a federal society.

Mutualism has its roots in the utopian socialism of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier. It first developed a practical expression in Josiah Warren's community experiments in the United States, which he established according to the principles of equitable commerce based on a system of labor notes. Mutualism was first formulated into a comprehensive economic theory by the French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who proposed the abolition of unequal exchange and the establishment of a new economic system based on reciprocity. In order to establish such a system, he proposed the creation of a "People's Bank" that could issue mutual credit to workers and eventually replace the state; although his own attempts to establish such a system were foiled by the 1851 French coup d'état. (Full article...)
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The upper-left space $\Theta$ depicts the type space and the upper-right space X the space of outcomes. The social choice function $f(\theta )$ maps a type profile to an outcome. In games of mechanism design, agents send messages $M$ in a game environment $g$ . The equilibrium in the game $\xi (M,g,\theta )$ can be designed to implement some social choice function $f(\theta )$ .

Mechanism design, sometimes called implementation theory or institution design, is a branch of economics, social choice, and game theory that deals with designing game forms (or mechanisms) to implement a given social choice function. Because it starts with the end of the game (an optimal result) and then works backwards to find a game that implements it, it is sometimes described as reverse game theory.

Mechanism design has broad applications, including traditional domains of economics such as market design, but also political science (through voting theory) and even networked systems (such as in inter-domain routing). (Full article...)
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Disequilibrium macroeconomics is a tradition of research centered on the role of disequilibrium in economics. This approach is also known as non-Walrasian theory, equilibrium with rationing, the non-market clearing approach, and non-tâtonnement theory. Early work in the area was done by Don Patinkin, Robert W. Clower, and Axel Leijonhufvud. Their work was formalized into general disequilibrium models, which were very influential in the 1970s. American economists had mostly abandoned these models by the late 1970s, but French economists continued work in the tradition and developed fixprice models. (Full article...)
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Georgist campaign button from the 1890s in which the cat on the badge refers to a slogan "Do you see the cat?" to draw analogy to the land question

Georgism, also called in modern times Geoism, and known historically as the single tax movement, is an economic ideology holding that people should own the value that they produce themselves, while the economic rent derived from land—including from all natural resources, the commons, and urban locations—should belong equally to all members of society. Developed from the writings of American economist and social reformer Henry George, the Georgist paradigm seeks solutions to social and ecological problems, based on principles of land rights and public finance that attempt to integrate economic efficiency with social justice.

Georgism is concerned with the distribution of economic rent caused by land ownership, natural monopolies, pollution rights, and control of the commons, including title of ownership for natural resources and other contrived privileges (e.g., intellectual property). Any natural resource that is inherently limited in supply can generate economic rent, but the classical and most significant example of land monopoly involves the extraction of common ground rent from valuable urban locations. Georgists argue that taxing economic rent is efficient, fair, and equitable. The main Georgist policy recommendation is a tax assessed on land value, arguing that revenues from a land value tax (LVT) can be used to reduce or eliminate existing taxes (such as on income, trade, or purchases) that are unfair and inefficient. Some Georgists also advocate for the return of surplus public revenue to the people by means of a basic income or citizen's dividend. (Full article...)
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Eugen Ritter von Böhm-Bawerk (German: [bøːm ˈbaːvɛʁk]; born Eugen Böhm, 12 February 1851 – 27 August 1914) was an economist from Austria-Hungary who made important contributions to the development of macroeconomics and to the Austrian School of Economics. He served intermittently as the Austrian Minister of Finance between 1895 and 1904. He is also noted for writing extensive criticisms of Marxism. (Full article...)

Sabías...

... que en un estudio para UNICEF, Reginald Green encontró que más de dos millones de niños menores de cinco años habían muerto en Angola y Mozambique debido a las políticas económicas del régimen del apartheid sudafricano ?
... que Eleanor Hadley , una candidata a doctorado en economía de 29 años , fue reclutada por el Comandante Supremo de las Potencias Aliadas para implementar políticas antimonopolio en el Japón ocupado ?
... que Elizabeth Wilkins eligió trabajar en la Comisión Federal de Comercio con la esperanza de que la agencia ahora esté posicionada para abordar la injusticia económica?
... que la selección de Palu como capital de la regencia de Palu provocó protestas en la cercana ciudad de Donggala , preocupada por perder el desarrollo económico?
... ¿La investigación del economista Nisvan Erkal mostró que la política de hijo único de China creaba niños que carecían de cualidades importantes para el éxito social y económico?
... ¿que la teoría del desarrollo económico de Michael Kremer se inspiró en su olvido de comprar papel higiénico para una sesión de capacitación?

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Imágenes seleccionadas

Image 1La tasa de desempleo en Estados Unidos desde 1990 hasta 2022 (según Economics )
Image 2Un ejemplo de frontera de posibilidades de producción con puntos ilustrativos marcados (de Economía )
Image 3Una ilustración básica de un ciclo económico (de Economía )
Image 4Una pintura de 1638 de un puerto marítimo francés durante el apogeo del mercantilismo.
Image 5John Maynard Keynes , un teórico económico clave (de Economía )
Image 6Un mapa que muestra las principales rutas comerciales de mercancías en la Europa medieval tardía (de Economía )
Image 7La publicación de La riqueza de las naciones de Adam Smith en 1776 se considera la primera formalización del pensamiento económico.
Image 8Un científico ambiental tomando muestras de agua
Image 9El modelo de oferta y demanda describe cómo varían los precios como resultado de un equilibrio entre la disponibilidad y la demanda de un producto. El gráfico representa un aumento de la demanda de D ₁ a D ₂ y el consiguiente aumento del precio y de la cantidad necesaria para alcanzar un nuevo punto de equilibrio en la curva de oferta (S).
Image 10Lista de países por producto interno bruto (PPA) per cápita en abril de 2022 (de Economía )
Image 11La crítica marxista de la economía política proviene del trabajo del filósofo alemán Karl Marx .
Image 12Bolsa de Valores de São Paulo en Brasil , una red de comercio electrónico que reúne a compradores y vendedores a través de una plataforma de comercio electrónico
Image 13Los economistas estudian las decisiones comerciales, de producción y de consumo, incluidas las que ocurren en un mercado tradicional.
Image 14La contaminación puede ser un ejemplo simple de falla del mercado: si los costos de producción no son soportados por los productores sino por el medio ambiente, las víctimas de accidentes u otros, entonces los precios están distorsionados.

En las noticias

29 de octubre de 2024 – Crisis económica alemana: El sindicato metalúrgico alemán IG Metall inicia una huelga para protestar por las condiciones laborales y los salarios de 3,9 millones de trabajadores del país. (DW)
23 de octubre de 2024: invasión rusa de Ucrania: El Departamento de Defensa de Estados Unidos ultima un préstamo de 20.000 millones de dólares a Ucrania para apoyo militar y económico como parte de un préstamo colectivo de 50.000 millones de dólares entre los miembros del G7 . (Reuters)
23 de octubre de 2024 – Demografía de Alemania , crisis económica alemana: El Instituto Ifo de Investigación Económica informa que Alemania experimentó una disminución de la tasa de natalidad del 13% a nivel nacional y de hasta el 17,5% en el este de Alemania entre 2021 y 2023, y el instituto atribuye la disminución a varias razones, incluida la pandemia de COVID-19 , la guerra ruso-ucraniana y la alta inflación . (DW)
14 de octubre de 2024 – Premio Nobel de Ciencias Económicas: El Premio Nobel de Economía de este año se otorga al economista turco-estadounidense Daron Acemoglu , al economista británico-estadounidense Simon Johnson y al economista británico James A. Robinson por sus estudios "sobre cómo se forman las instituciones y cómo afectan a la prosperidad". (The New York Times) (Premio Nobel)
1 de octubre de 2024 –: Tres personas mueren y otras quince resultan heridas en un apuñalamiento masivo en un supermercado del distrito de Songjiang , en Shanghái (China) . La policía arrestó a un hombre de 37 años en el lugar de los hechos y añadió que el hombre había llegado a Shanghái para "desahogar su ira debido a una disputa económica personal". (Reuters) (BBC News)

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