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Consciencia

La atención plena es la habilidad cognitiva , generalmente desarrollada a través de la meditación , de mantener una conciencia metaatenta hacia los contenidos de la propia mente en el momento presente. [1] [2] [nota 1] [3] [web 1] [2] [4] [5] La atención plena deriva de sati , un elemento significativo de las tradiciones hindú y budista , [6] [7] y se basa en técnicas de meditación zen , vipassana y tibetana. [8] [9] [nota 2] Aunque las definiciones y técnicas de atención plena son muy variadas, [15] las tradiciones budistas describen lo que constituye la atención plena, como por ejemplo cómo surgen y cesan las percepciones del pasado, el presente y el futuro como impresiones sensoriales momentáneas y fenómenos mentales . [6] [16] [web 2] Entre las personas que han contribuido a la popularidad de la atención plena en el contexto occidental moderno se incluyen Thích Nhất Hạnh , Joseph Goldstein , Herbert Benson , Jon Kabat-Zinn y Richard J. Davidson . [17] [18]

La psicología clínica y la psiquiatría desde la década de 1970 han desarrollado una serie de aplicaciones terapéuticas basadas en la atención plena para ayudar a las personas que experimentan una variedad de condiciones psicológicas. [18] La práctica de la atención plena se ha empleado para reducir la depresión , [19] [ 20] [21] [22] [23] el estrés , [20] [24] [23] la ansiedad , [19] [20] [25] [23] y en el tratamiento de la adicción a las drogas . [26] [27] [28] Se han adoptado programas basados ​​en modelos de atención plena en escuelas, prisiones, hospitales, centros de veteranos y otros entornos, [29] [30] y se han aplicado programas de atención plena para obtener resultados adicionales, como el envejecimiento saludable , el control del peso , el rendimiento deportivo, [31] ayudar a los niños con necesidades especiales y como intervención durante el embarazo temprano.

Los estudios clínicos han documentado los beneficios de la atención plena tanto para la salud física como mental en diferentes categorías de pacientes, así como en adultos y niños sanos. [32] [33] [34] Los estudios han demostrado una relación positiva entre la atención plena como rasgo (que se puede cultivar mediante la práctica de intervenciones basadas en la atención plena) y la salud psicológica. [35] [36] La práctica de la atención plena parece proporcionar beneficios terapéuticos a las personas con trastornos psiquiátricos , [37] [38] [39] incluidos beneficios moderados para aquellos con psicosis . [40] [41] [42] Los estudios también indican que la rumia y la preocupación contribuyen a una variedad de trastornos mentales, [43] [44] y que las intervenciones basadas en la atención plena pueden mejorar la atención plena como rasgo [45] y reducir tanto la rumia como la preocupación. [44] [46] [47] Además, la práctica de la atención plena puede ser una estrategia preventiva para detener el desarrollo de problemas de salud mental. [48] ​​[49] [50] Se ha dicho que las prácticas de atención plena permiten a las personas responder de manera más efectiva a situaciones estresantes al ayudarlas a lograr el equilibrio entre la sobreidentificación y la supresión de sus experiencias emocionales al encontrar el punto medio que es el reconocimiento y la aceptación. [51]

La evidencia sugiere que participar en la meditación de atención plena puede influir en la salud física. [52] Por ejemplo, el hábito psicológico de insistir repetidamente en pensamientos estresantes parece intensificar los efectos fisiológicos del estresor (como resultado de la activación continua del sistema nervioso simpático y el eje hipotálamo-hipófisis-suprarrenal) con el potencial de conducir a manifestaciones clínicas relacionadas con la salud física. [53] [54] [55] Los estudios indican que la meditación de atención plena, que produce reducciones en la rumia , puede alterar estas vías clínicas biológicas. [53] [44] [56] Además, la investigación indica que la atención plena puede influir favorablemente en el sistema inmunológico [57] así como en la inflamación, [3] [58] [59] lo que en consecuencia puede afectar la salud física, especialmente considerando que la inflamación se ha relacionado con el desarrollo de varias condiciones de salud crónicas. [60] [61] Otros estudios respaldan estos hallazgos. [56] [62] [63]

Los críticos han cuestionado tanto la comercialización como la sobrecomercialización de la atención plena para los beneficios de salud, además de enfatizar la necesidad de más estudios controlados aleatorios, más detalles metodológicos en los estudios informados y el uso de tamaños de muestra más grandes . [3] [ necesita cita para verificar ] [36] [web 3] Si bien las intervenciones basadas en la atención plena pueden ser efectivas para los jóvenes, [64] [65] [66] la investigación no ha determinado los métodos en los que la atención plena podría introducirse y brindarse en las escuelas. [67]

Práctica

La práctica de la atención plena implica el proceso de desarrollar la habilidad de dirigir la atención a lo que sucede en el momento presente. [2] [6] [68]

Observación de la respiración, escaneo corporal y otras técnicas

Existen varios ejercicios diseñados para desarrollar la meditación consciente, a los que se puede ayudar con meditaciones guiadas "para cogerle el tranquillo". [8] [69] [nota 3] Como formas de autoobservación e interocepción , estos métodos aumentan la conciencia del cuerpo, por lo que suelen ser beneficiosos para personas con baja autoconciencia o baja conciencia de su cuerpo o estado emocional. Sin embargo, puede provocar ansiedad, ataques de pánico, depresión y disociación, [70] en personas muy centradas en sí mismas, su cuerpo y sus emociones. [71]

Horarios

Se recomienda a quienes meditan que comiencen con períodos cortos de unos 10 minutos de práctica de meditación por día. A medida que uno practica regularmente, se hace más fácil mantener la atención centrada en la respiración. [2] [76] Un antiguo dicho zen sugiere: "Debes sentarte a meditar durante 20 minutos todos los días, a menos que estés demasiado ocupado. En ese caso, debes sentarte durante una hora".

En el contexto budista; preceptos morales

En un contexto budista, el cumplimiento de los preceptos morales es una etapa preparatoria esencial para la atención plena o la meditación. [77] [78] Vipassana también incluye la contemplación y la reflexión sobre fenómenos como dukkha , anatta y anicca , y reflexiones sobre la causalidad y otras enseñanzas budistas. [79] [80]

Traducciones

La meditación consciente es parte de las tradiciones psicológicas budistas y de los estudios en desarrollo dentro de la psicología empírica . [6] [81] [82]

Sati y smṛti

El término budista traducido al español como “mindfulness” tiene su origen en el término pali sati y en su contraparte sánscrita smṛti . A menudo se traduce como “atención pura”, pero en la tradición budista tiene un significado y una aplicación más amplios, y el significado de estos términos ha sido tema de amplio debate y discusión. [83]

Según Bryan Levman, "la palabra sati incorpora el significado de 'memoria' y 'recuerdo' en gran parte de su uso tanto en los suttas como en el comentario [budista tradicional], y... sin el componente de memoria, la noción de atención plena no puede entenderse ni aplicarse adecuadamente, ya que la atención plena requiere memoria para su eficacia". [84]

Según Robert Sharf, smṛti originalmente significaba "recordar", "recoger", "tener presente", como en la tradición védica de recordar los textos sagrados. El término sati también significa "recordar". En el Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta el término sati significa recordar los dharmas , mediante los cuales se puede ver la verdadera naturaleza de los fenómenos. [83] Sharf se refiere al Milindapañha , que dice que el surgimiento de sati trae a la mente los dhammas saludables como los cuatro fundamentos de la atención plena, las cinco facultades, los cinco poderes , los siete factores del despertar, el noble óctuple sendero y el logro de la introspección. [85] Según Rupert Gethin,

[ sati ] debe entenderse como lo que permite la conciencia de la gama completa y la extensión de los dhammas ; sati es una conciencia de las cosas en relación con las cosas, y por lo tanto una conciencia de su valor relativo. Aplicado a los satipaṭṭhānas , presumiblemente lo que esto significa es que sati es lo que hace que el practicante de yoga "recuerde" que cualquier sentimiento que pueda experimentar existe en relación con toda una variedad o mundo de sentimientos que pueden ser hábiles o inhábiles, con defectos o sin defectos, relativamente inferiores o refinados, oscuros o puros". [86] [nota 5]

Sharf señala además que esto tiene poco que ver con la "atención pura", la interpretación popular contemporánea de la sati , "ya que implica, entre otras cosas, la discriminación adecuada de la valencia moral de los fenómenos a medida que surgen". [86]

Georges Dreyfus también ha expresado su malestar con la definición de mindfulness como "atención pura" o "conciencia no elaborada, sin juicios, centrada en el presente", enfatizando que mindfulness en un contexto budista también significa "recordar", lo que indica que la función de mindfulness también incluye la retención de información. [87] [nota 6] Robert H. Sharf señala que la práctica budista tiene como objetivo la consecución de una "visión correcta", no solo de una "atención pura". [web 9] [nota 7] Jay L. Garfield , citando a Shantideva y otras fuentes, enfatiza que mindfulness está constituido por la unión de dos funciones, llamar a la mente y retener vigilantemente en la mente . Demuestra que existe una conexión directa entre la práctica de mindfulness y el cultivo de la moralidad, al menos en el contexto del budismo, del que se derivan las interpretaciones modernas de mindfulness. [88]

Traducción

El erudito en lengua pali Thomas William Rhys Davids (1843-1922) tradujo por primera vez sati en 1881 como mindfulness en inglés en sammā-sati "Atención correcta; la mente activa y vigilante". [89] Al señalar que Daniel John Gogerly (1845) tradujo inicialmente sammā-sati como "meditación correcta", [90] Davids dijo:

“Sati es literalmente ‘memoria’ pero se usa con referencia a la frase constantemente repetida ‘atento y reflexivo’ ( sato sampajâno ); y significa esa actividad mental y presencia mental constante que es uno de los deberes que se inculcan con más frecuencia al buen budista”. [91]

Traducciones alternativas

John D. Dunne dice que la traducción de sati y smṛti como atención plena es confusa. Varios eruditos budistas han comenzado a intentar establecer la "retención" como la alternativa preferida. [92] Bhikkhu Bodhi también describe el significado de sati como "memoria". [web 10] [nota 8] Los términos sati / smṛti se han traducido como:

Definiciones

Psicología

AM Hayes y G. Feldman han destacado que la atención plena puede considerarse una estrategia que contrasta con la estrategia de evitación de las emociones, por un lado, y con la estrategia de sobrecompromiso emocional, por el otro. [94] La atención plena también puede considerarse un medio para desarrollar el autoconocimiento y la sabiduría. [6]

Rasgo, estado y práctica

Según Brown, Ryan y Creswell, las definiciones de mindfulness suelen interpretarse de forma selectiva en función de quién lo estudie y cómo se aplique. Algunos han considerado el mindfulness como un estado mental, mientras que otros lo han visto como un conjunto de habilidades y técnicas. [82] También se puede hacer una distinción entre el estado de mindfulness y el rasgo de mindfulness. [95]

Según David S. Black, mientras que la "atención plena" se asociaba originalmente con creencias esotéricas y religiosas, y era "una capacidad alcanzable sólo por ciertas personas", [96] los investigadores científicos han traducido el término en términos mensurables, proporcionando una definición operativa válida de la atención plena. [97] [nota 9] Black menciona tres posibles dominios: [97]

  1. Un rasgo, una característica disposicional (un rasgo relativamente duradero), [97] la tendencia de una persona a entrar con más frecuencia y permanecer más fácilmente en estados de atención plena; [98]
  2. Un estado, un resultado (un estado de conciencia resultante del entrenamiento de atención plena), [97] estar en un estado de conciencia del momento presente; [98]
  3. Una práctica (la práctica de meditación de atención plena en sí misma). [nota 10]
Constructos similares a rasgos

Según Brown, la atención plena es:

Una cualidad de la conciencia que se manifiesta en las actividades a través de las cuales se potencia, pero que no es isomórfica con ellas”. [82]

Se han desarrollado varias medidas de atención plena que se basan en la autoevaluación de constructos similares a rasgos: [103]

Fenómeno de tipo estatal

Según Bishop, et alia, la atención plena es "un tipo de conciencia no elaborada, sin juicios y centrada en el presente, en la que cada pensamiento, sentimiento o sensación que surge en el campo de atención se reconoce y se acepta tal como es". [104]

Práctica de atención plena

La atención plena como práctica se describe como:

Según Steven F. Hick, la práctica de la atención plena implica tanto prácticas de meditación formales como informales y ejercicios no basados ​​en la meditación. [107] La ​​atención plena formal, o meditación, es la práctica de mantener la atención en el cuerpo, la respiración o las sensaciones, o lo que surja en cada momento. [107] La ​​atención plena informal es la aplicación de la atención consciente en la vida cotidiana. [107] Los ejercicios no basados ​​en la meditación se utilizan específicamente en la terapia dialéctica conductual y en la terapia de aceptación y compromiso . [107]

Definiciones que surgen en la enseñanza moderna de la meditación

Desde los años 70, la mayoría de los libros sobre meditación utilizan definiciones de mindfulness similares a la definición de Jon Kabat-Zinn como "conciencia del momento presente". Sin embargo, recientemente, varios maestros de meditación han propuesto definiciones bastante diferentes de mindfulness. Shinzen Young dice que una persona es consciente cuando tiene conciencia plena, y define eso como cuando "el poder de concentración, la claridad sensorial y la ecuanimidad [están] trabajando juntos". [web 11] John Yates (Culadasa) define el mindfulness como "la interacción óptima entre la atención y la conciencia periférica", donde distingue la atención y la conciencia periférica como dos modos distintos en los que uno puede ser consciente de las cosas. [108]

Budismo

Según el libro A Guide to Tranquil Wisdom Insight Meditation del monje budista estadounidense Ven Bhante Vimalaramsi , el término mindfulness suele interpretarse de forma diferente a la que formuló originalmente Buda. En el contexto del budismo, ofrece la siguiente definición:

La atención plena significa recordar observar cómo la atención de la mente se mueve de una cosa a otra. La primera parte de la atención plena es recordar observar la mente y recordar volver al objeto de meditación cuando te hayas desviado. La segunda parte de la atención plena es observar cómo la atención de la mente se mueve de una cosa a otra. [109]

En el budismo, la atención plena está estrechamente relacionada con el concepto de interser , un concepto filosófico utilizado por Thich Nhat Hanh para destacar la interconexión de todas las cosas. Esta filosofía, arraigada en enseñanzas budistas como la meditación vipassana y zen, enfatiza la conciencia del momento presente y la vida ética, lo que refleja la naturaleza interconectada de la existencia. [110] [111]

Otros usos

El término inglés mindfulness ya existía antes de que se utilizara en un contexto budista (occidental). Se registró por primera vez como myndfulness en 1530 ( John Palsgrave traduce del francés pensée ), como mindfulnesse en 1561 y como mindfulness en 1817. Los términos morfológicamente anteriores incluyen mindful (registrado por primera vez en 1340), mindfully (1382) y el obsoleto mindiness (c. 1200). [112]

Según el Diccionario Merriam-Webster, la atención plena también puede referirse a "un estado de conciencia". [web 12] Los sinónimos de este "estado de conciencia" son vigilia , [113] [114] atención , [web 13] estado de alerta, [web 14] prudencia, [web 14] escrupulosidad, [web 14] conciencia, [web 12] consciencia, [web 12] y observación. [web 12]

Modelos y marcos para prácticas de atención plena

Modelo de dos componentes

Se ha propuesto un modelo de dos componentes de atención plena basado en un consenso entre psicólogos clínicos como una definición operativa y comprobable [104]  :

El primer componente implica la autorregulación de la atención para mantenerla centrada en la experiencia inmediata, lo que permite un mayor reconocimiento de los acontecimientos mentales en el momento presente. El segundo componente implica adoptar una orientación particular hacia las propias experiencias en el momento presente, una orientación que se caracteriza por la curiosidad, la apertura y la aceptación. [115]

En este modelo de dos componentes, la atención autorregulada (el primer componente) "implica tomar conciencia de la experiencia actual -observar y prestar atención a los campos cambiantes de "objetos" (pensamientos, sentimientos, sensaciones), de un momento a otro- regulando el foco de atención". La orientación a la experiencia (el segundo componente) implica mantener una actitud de curiosidad sobre los objetos experimentados en cada momento, y sobre dónde y cómo divaga la mente cuando se desvía del foco de atención seleccionado. Se pide a los clientes que eviten tratar de producir un estado particular (por ejemplo, relajación), sino que simplemente observen cada objeto que surge en el flujo de conciencia . [116]

El modelo de cinco agregados

Un antiguo modelo de la mente, conocido generalmente como el modelo de los cinco agregados [81], permite comprender la manifestación momento a momento de la experiencia consciente subjetiva y, por lo tanto, puede ser un recurso teórico potencialmente útil para orientar las intervenciones de atención plena. Este modelo se basa en la descripción budista tradicional de los Skandhas .

Los cinco agregados se describen a continuación:

  1. Forma material: incluye tanto el cuerpo físico como la materia externa donde los elementos materiales se mueven continuamente hacia y desde el cuerpo material.
  2. Sentimientos: pueden ser agradables, desagradables o neutrales.
  3. Percepciones: representan estar consciente de los atributos de un objeto (por ejemplo, color, forma, etc.)
  4. Volición: representa el comportamiento corporal, verbal o psicológico.
  5. Conciencia sensorial: se refiere a la información procedente de los cinco sentidos (sensaciones de la vista, el oído, el olfato, el gusto o el tacto) o a un pensamiento que surge en la mente.

Este modelo describe cómo la conciencia sensorial genera sentimientos, percepción o volición, y cómo las actitudes previamente condicionadas y las asociaciones pasadas de los individuos influyen en esta generación. Se describe que los cinco agregados surgen y cesan constantemente en el momento presente. [81]

Cultivando el autoconocimiento y la sabiduría

La práctica de la atención plena puede utilizarse para desarrollar gradualmente el autoconocimiento y la sabiduría. [6] En este sentido, las enseñanzas budistas proporcionan instrucciones detalladas sobre cómo se puede llevar a cabo una indagación sobre la naturaleza de la mente, y esta guía puede ayudar a dar sentido a la propia experiencia subjetiva. Esto podría incluir la comprensión de lo que es el "momento presente", cómo surgen diversos pensamientos, etc., a raíz de la información de los sentidos, la naturaleza condicionada de los pensamientos y otras realizaciones. [6] En las enseñanzas budistas, la sabiduría última se refiere a obtener una comprensión profunda de todos los fenómenos o "ver las cosas como son". [6] [web 2]

Desarrollo histórico

Budismo

La atención plena como práctica occidental moderna se basa en el zen y en la Vipassana moderna , [8] [9] [nota 11] e implica el entrenamiento de sati, que significa "conciencia momento a momento de los eventos presentes", pero también "recordar ser consciente de algo". [119]

Budismo primitivo

Sati es uno de los siete factores de la iluminación . La atención plena "correcta" o "correcta" (Pali: sammā-sati , sánscrito samyak-smṛti ) es el séptimo elemento del Noble Óctuple Sendero . La atención plena es un antídoto contra el engaño y se considera un "poder" (Pali: bala ) que contribuye a la consecución del Nirvana . Esta facultad se convierte en un poder en particular cuando se combina con una comprensión clara de lo que está sucediendo. El Nirvana es un estado del ser en el que la codicia, el odio y el engaño (Pali: moha ) han sido superados y abandonados, y están ausentes de la mente.

Según Paul Williams , refiriéndose a Erich Frauwallner , la atención plena proporcionó el camino hacia la liberación en el budismo temprano , "observando constantemente la experiencia sensorial para evitar el surgimiento de antojos que impulsarían la experiencia futura hacia renacimientos". [13] [nota 12] Según Vetter, Jhanas puede haber sido la práctica central original del Buda , que ayudó al mantenimiento de la atención plena. [120]

Según Thomas William Rhys Davids , la doctrina de la atención plena es "quizás la más importante" después de las Cuatro Nobles Verdades y el Noble Óctuple Sendero . TW Rhys Davids consideraba las enseñanzas de Gautama Buda como una técnica racional para la autorrealización y rechazaba algunas partes de ella, principalmente la doctrina del renacimiento, como supersticiones residuales. [121]

Zazen

El objetivo del zazen es simplemente sentarse , es decir, suspender todo pensamiento crítico y dejar que las palabras, ideas, imágenes y pensamientos pasen sin involucrarse en ellos. [122] [123]

ContemporáneoVipassana-meditación

En la meditación vipassana moderna , tal como la propaga el movimiento vipassana , sati ayuda a vipassana , la percepción de la verdadera naturaleza de la realidad, es decir, las tres marcas de la existencia , la impermanencia y el sufrimiento de cada cosa condicionada que existe, y el no-yo . [6] [16] Con esta percepción, el practicante se convierte en un llamado Sotāpanna , un "entrante en la corriente", la primera etapa en el camino hacia la liberación . [web 2] [web 15] [nota 13]

Vipassana se practica junto con Samatha , y también juega un papel central en otras tradiciones budistas. [16] [124] Según la ortodoxia Theravada contemporánea, Samatha se utiliza como preparación para Vipassanā, pacificando la mente y fortaleciendo la concentración para permitir el trabajo de introspección, que conduce a la liberación .

La meditación vipassanā ha ganado popularidad en Occidente a través del movimiento budista vipassana moderno, inspirado en las prácticas de meditación del budismo Theravāda, [117] que emplea la meditación vipassanā y ānāpāna como sus técnicas principales y pone énfasis en las enseñanzas del Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta.

Anapanasati, satipaṭṭhāna y vipassana

Anapanasati es la atención plena a la respiración. "Sati" significa atención plena ; "ānāpāna" se refiere a la inhalación y la exhalación. Anapanasati significa sentir las sensaciones causadas por los movimientos de la respiración en el cuerpo. El Sutta Anapanasati ofrece una exposición sobre esta práctica. [nota 14]

Satipaṭṭhāna es el establecimiento de la atención plena en la vida cotidiana, manteniendo tanto como sea posible una conciencia tranquila del propio cuerpo, sentimientos, mente y dhammas . La práctica de la atención plena apoya el análisis que da como resultado el surgimiento de la sabiduría (Pali: paññā , sánscrito: prajñā ). [16]

Samprajaña,apramadayAtape

En la práctica Theravada contemporánea, "atención plena" también incluye samprajaña , que significa "comprensión clara" y apramāda, que significa "vigilancia". [web 17] [nota 15] Los tres términos a veces se traducen (de manera confusa) como "atención plena", pero todos tienen matices específicos de significado.

En una correspondencia disponible al público entre Bhikkhu Bodhi y B. Alan Wallace , Bodhi ha descrito las opiniones del Venerable Nyanaponika Thera sobre la "conciencia correcta" y la sampajañña de la siguiente manera:

Sostuvo que en la práctica adecuada de la atención correcta, sati tiene que estar integrada con sampajañña, la comprensión clara, y que sólo cuando estos dos trabajan juntos la atención correcta puede cumplir su propósito previsto. [125] [nota 16]

Monitoreo de procesos mentales

Según Buddhadasa , el objetivo de la atención plena es detener el surgimiento de pensamientos y emociones perturbadoras que surgen del contacto sensorial. [126]

Según Grzegorz Polak, la tradición budista en desarrollo, incluida la Theravada, ha entendido erróneamente que las cuatro upassanā (fundamentos de la atención plena) se refieren a cuatro fundamentos diferentes. Según Polak, las cuatro upassanā no se refieren a cuatro fundamentos diferentes, sino a la conciencia de cuatro aspectos diferentes del aumento de la atención plena: [127]

Estoicismo

La escuela filosófica griega del estoicismo, fundada por Zenón de Citio, incluía prácticas parecidas a las del mindfulness, como los ejercicios de visualización. En sus Discursos , el filósofo estoico Epicteto aborda en particular el concepto de atención ( prosoche ), una idea que también se encuentra en Séneca y Marco Aurelio . [128] Al cultivarla con el tiempo, esta habilidad evitaría que el practicante se volviera desatento y se moviera por el instinto en lugar de según la razón. [129]

cristianismo

Las tradiciones de atención plena también se encuentran en algunas tradiciones espirituales cristianas. En sus Reglas para comer, San Ignacio de Loyola enseña: “que se guarde de concentrarse en lo que come y que al comer no se apresure por apetito, sino que sea dueño de sí mismo, tanto en la manera de comer como en la cantidad de lo que come” [130] . ​​Es posible que se haya inspirado en el Enchiridion de Epicteto [128] .

Trascendentalismo

El practicante de mindfulness Jon Kabat-Zinn se refiere a Thoreau como un predecesor del interés por el mindfulness, junto con otros trascendentalistas eminentes como Emerson y Whitman: [web 18]

La experiencia colectiva [nota 17] de sabios, yoguis y maestros zen ofrece una visión del mundo que complementa la predominantemente reduccionista y materialista que domina actualmente el pensamiento y las instituciones occidentales. Pero esta visión no es particularmente "oriental" ni mística. Thoreau vio el mismo problema con nuestro estado mental ordinario en Nueva Inglaterra en 1846 y escribió con gran pasión sobre sus desafortunadas consecuencias. [web 18]

Las formas de religión y espiritualidad asiáticas que se introdujeron en Occidente fueron influenciadas por el trascendentalismo y otras manifestaciones del esoterismo occidental del siglo XIX . El trascendentalismo estaba estrechamente relacionado con la Iglesia Unitaria, [131] [web 19] que en la India colaboró ​​con Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) y su Brahmo Samaj . [131] Encontró que el unitarismo se acercaba más al verdadero cristianismo, [131] y tenía una fuerte simpatía por los unitarios. [132] Esta influencia funcionó en Vivekananda , cuya interpretación moderna pero idiosincrásica del hinduismo se hizo muy popular en Occidente. [133] La meditación Vipassana, presentada como un sistema de meditación de siglos de antigüedad, fue una reinvención del siglo XIX, [134] que ganó popularidad en el sureste debido a la accesibilidad de los sutras budistas a través de traducciones al inglés de la Pali Text Society. [117] Llegó a la atención occidental en el siglo XIX gracias a la Sociedad Teosófica . [117] [135] El budismo zen ganó popularidad por primera vez en Occidente a través de los escritos de DT Suzuki , quien intentó presentar una interpretación moderna del zen, ajustada a los gustos occidentales. [117] [117]

Jon Kabat-Zinn y MBSR

En 1979, Jon Kabat-Zinn fundó el programa de Reducción del Estrés Basada en la Atención Plena (MBSR, por sus siglas en inglés) en la Universidad de Massachusetts para tratar a los enfermos crónicos. [web 20] Este programa impulsó la aplicación de las ideas y prácticas de la atención plena en la medicina [136] para el tratamiento de una variedad de afecciones en personas tanto sanas como enfermas. MBSR y programas similares se aplican ahora ampliamente en escuelas, prisiones, hospitales, centros de veteranos y otros entornos.

Las prácticas de mindfulness se inspiraron principalmente en enseñanzas del mundo oriental , en particular de las tradiciones budistas. Kabat-Zinn conoció la meditación por primera vez gracias a Philip Kapleau , un misionero zen que vino a hablar en el MIT, donde Kabat-Zinn estudiaba. Kabat-Zinn estudió meditación con otros maestros zen-budistas como Thích Nhất Hạnh y Seungsahn . [9] También estudió en la Insight Meditation Society y finalmente enseñó allí. [9] Una de las técnicas de MBSR, el "escaneo corporal", se derivó de una práctica de meditación ("barrido") de la tradición birmana U Ba Khin , tal como la enseñó SN Goenka en sus retiros de Vipassana , que comenzó en 1976. Desde entonces, el método de escaneo corporal se ha adaptado ampliamente a entornos seculares, independientemente de los contextos religiosos o culturales. [nota 18] [nota 19]

Kabat-Zinn también estuvo influenciado por el libro The Varieties of Religious Experience de William James [137], que sugiere que las religiones apuntan hacia la misma experiencia, y que las figuras de la contracultura de los años 1960 interpretaron como que la misma verdad universal y experiencial podría alcanzarse de diferentes maneras, incluso a través de actividades no religiosas. [web 21]

Popularización, “movimiento mindfulness”

La atención plena está ganando cada vez más popularidad como práctica en la vida diaria, aparte de la meditación budista de introspección y su aplicación en la psicología clínica. [76] En este contexto, la atención plena se define como la conciencia momento a momento de los pensamientos, sentimientos, sensaciones corporales y el entorno circundante, caracterizada principalmente por la "aceptación" (atención a los pensamientos y sentimientos sin juzgar si son correctos o incorrectos). La atención plena centra el cerebro humano en lo que se está sintiendo en cada momento, en lugar de en su rumia normal sobre el pasado o el futuro. [web 22] La atención plena puede considerarse un modo de ser, [web 23] y puede practicarse fuera de un entorno formal. [web 24] La terminología utilizada por los estudiosos de la religión, los científicos, los periodistas y los escritores de medios populares para describir este movimiento de "popularización" de la atención plena, y los muchos nuevos contextos de práctica de la atención plena que han surgido, ha evolucionado regularmente durante los últimos 20 años, con algunas [ ¿cuáles? ] críticas que han surgido. [138]

The latest changes when people moved from real-life meditation sessions to the applications on their smart devices has been even more accelerated by the global pandemic. Modern applications like are adapting to the needs of their users by using AI technology, involving professional psychologists and offering many different mindfulness approaches to serve a wider audience.[web 25]

Applications

According to Jon Kabat-Zinn the practice of mindfulness may be beneficial to many people in Western society who might be unwilling to adopt Buddhist traditions or vocabulary.[139] Western researchers and clinicians who have introduced mindfulness practice into mental health treatment programs usually teach these skills independently of the religious and cultural traditions of their origins.[1] Programs based on MBSR and similar models have been widely adopted in schools, prisons, hospitals, veterans centers, and other environments.[140]

Therapy programs

Mindfulness-based stress reduction

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) is a mindfulness-based program[web 26] developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center, which uses a combination of mindfulness meditation, body awareness, and yoga to help people become more mindful.[2] While MBSR has its roots in spiritual teachings, the program itself is secular.[2]

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) is a psychological therapy designed to aid in preventing the relapse of depression, specifically in individuals with Major depressive disorder (MDD).[141] It uses traditional cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) methods and adds in newer psychological strategies such as mindfulness and mindfulness meditation. Cognitive methods can include educating the participant about depression.[142] Mindfulness and mindfulness meditation focus on becoming aware of all incoming thoughts and feelings and accepting them, but not attaching or reacting to them.[143]

Like CBT, MBCT functions on the theory that when individuals who have historically had depression become distressed, they return to automatic cognitive processes that can trigger a depressive episode.[144] The goal of MBCT is to interrupt these automatic processes and teach the participants to focus less on reacting to incoming stimuli, and instead accepting and observing them without judgment.[144] This mindfulness practice allows the participant to notice when automatic processes are occurring and to alter their reaction to be more of a reflection. Research supports the effects of MBCT in people who have been depressed three or more times and demonstrates reduced relapse rates by 50%.[145]

Mindfulness-based pain management

Mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM) is a mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) providing specific applications for people living with chronic pain and illness.[web 27][146] Adapting the core concepts and practices of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), MBPM includes a distinctive emphasis on the practice of 'loving-kindness', and has been seen as sensitive to concerns about removing mindfulness teaching from its original ethical framework.[146][147] It was developed by Vidyamala Burch and is delivered through the programs of Breathworks.[web 27][146] It has been subject to a range of clinical studies demonstrating its effectiveness.[146][148][149][150][151][152][153][154]

Acceptance and commitment therapy

Acceptance and commitment therapy or (ACT) (typically pronounced as the word "act") is a form of clinical behavior analysis (CBA)[155] used in psychotherapy. It is a psychological intervention that uses acceptance and mindfulness strategies mixed in different ways[156] with commitment and behavior-change strategies, to increase psychological flexibility. The approach was originally called comprehensive distancing.[157] It was developed in the late 1980s[158] by Steven C. Hayes, Kelly G. Wilson, and Kirk Strosahl.[159]

Dialectical behavior therapy

Mindfulness is a "core" exercise used in dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), a psychosocial treatment Marsha M. Linehan developed for treating people with borderline personality disorder. DBT is dialectic, says Linehan,[160] in the sense of "the reconciliation of opposites in a continual process of synthesis." As a practitioner of Buddhist meditation techniques, Linehan says:

This emphasis in DBT on a balance of acceptance and change owes much to my experiences in studying meditation and Eastern spirituality. The DBT tenets of observing, mindfulness, and avoidance of judgment are all derived from the study and practice of Zen meditations.[161]

Mode deactivation therapy

Mode deactivation therapy (MDT) is a treatment methodology that is derived from the principles of cognitive-behavioral therapy and incorporates elements of Acceptance and commitment therapy, Dialectical behavior therapy, and mindfulness techniques.[162] Mindfulness techniques such as simple breathing exercises are applied to assist the client in awareness and non-judgmental acceptance of unpleasant and distressing thoughts and feelings as they occur in the present moment. Mode Deactivation Therapy was developed and is established as an effective treatment for adolescents with problem behaviors and complex trauma-related psychological problems, according to recent publications by Jack A. Apsche and Joan Swart.[163]

Other programs

Morita therapy

The Japanese psychiatrist Shoma Morita, who trained in Zen meditation, developed Morita therapy upon principles of mindfulness and non-attachment.[164]

IFS

Internal Family Systems Model (IFS), developed by Richard C. Schwartz, emphasizes the importance of both therapist and client engaging in therapy from the Self, which is the IFS term for one's "spiritual center". The Self is curious about whatever arises in one's present experience and open and accepting toward all manifestations.[165]

Mindfulness relaxation

Mindfulness relaxation uses breathing methods, guided imagery, and other practices to relax the body and mind and help reduce stress.[166]

Schools

In 2012 Congressman Tim Ryan of Ohio published A Mindful Nation, and received a $1 million federal grant to teach mindfulness in schools in his home district.[76]

Mindful Kids Miami is a tax-exempt, 501 (c)(3), non-profit corporation established in 2011 dedicated to making age-appropriate mindfulness training available to school children in Miami-Dade County public and private schools. This is primarily accomplished by training educators and other childcare providers to incorporate mindfulness practices in the children's daily activities.[167]

In 2000, The Inner Kids Program, a mindfulness-based program developed for children, was introduced into public and private school curricula in the greater Los Angeles area.[168]

MindUP, a classroom-based program spearheaded by Goldie Hawn's Hawn Foundation, teaches students to self-regulate behavior and mindfully engage in focused concentration required for academic success. For the last decade, MindUP has trained teachers in over 1,000 schools in cities from Arizona to Washington.[169]

The Holistic Life Foundation, a non-profit organization that created an in-school mindfulness program called Mindful Moment, is currently serving almost 350 students daily at Robert W. Coleman Elementary School and approximately 1300 students at Patterson Park High School in Baltimore, Maryland. At Patterson High School, the Mindful Moment program engages the school's faculty along with the students during a 15-minute mindfulness practice at the beginning and end of each school day.[170]

Mindful Life Project, a non-profit 501(c)3 based out of Richmond, California, teaches mindfulness to elementary school students in underserved schools in the South Richmond school district. Utilizing curriculum, "Rise-Up" is a regular school day intervention program serving 430 students weekly, while "Mindful Community" is currently implemented at six South Richmond partner schools. These in-school mindfulness programs have been endorsed by Richmond Mayor Gayle McLaughlin, who has recommended additional funding to expand the program in order to serve all Richmond youth.[citation needed]

Education

Mindfulness practices are becoming more common within educational institutions including Elementary and Secondary schools. This has been referred to as part of a 'contemplative turn' in education that has emerged since the turn of the millennium.[171] The applications of mindfulness in schools are aimed at calming and relaxation of students as well as for students and educators to build compassion and empathy for others.[172] An additional benefit to Mindfulness in education is for the practice to reduce anxiety and stress in students.[173] Based on a broad meta-analytical review, scholars said that the application of mindfulness practice enhances the goals of education in the 21st century, which include adapting to a rapidly changing world and being a caring and committed citizen. Within educational systems, the application of mindfulness practices shows an improvement of students' attention and focus, emotional regulation, creativity, and problem solving skills.[174] As discussed by Ergas and Todd, the development of this field since the turn of the millennium has brought diverse possibilities as well as complexities, given the origins of mindfulness within Buddhism and the processes of its secularization and measurement based on science.[140]

Renshaw and Cook state, "As scientific interest in the utility of Mindfulness-Based Intervention (MBI) in schools grew steadily, popular interest in mindfulness in schools seemed to grow exponentially".[175] Despite research on mindfulness being comparatively unexamined, especially with young students, the practice has seen a spike in use within the educational arena. "A relatively recent addition to discourse around preventing school expulsion and failure, mindfulness is gaining popularity for its potential to improve students' social, emotional, behavioral, and learning-related cognitive control, thereby improving academic outcomes".[176] Researchers and educators are interested in how mindfulness can provide optimal conditions for a students' personal development and academic success. Current research on mindfulness in education is limited but can provide insight into the potential benefits for students, and areas of improvement for future studies.[34][177]

Mindfulness in the classroom is being touted as a promising new intervention tool for young students. According to Choudhury and Moses, "Although still marginal and in some cases controversial, secular programs of mindfulness have been implemented with ambitious goals of improving attentional focus of pupils, social-emotional learning in "at-risk" children and youth, not least, to intervene in problems of poverty and incarceration".[178] Emerging research is concerned with studying teachers and programs using mindfulness practices with students and is discovering tension arising from the moral reframing of eastern practices in western school settings. As cited by Renshaw and Cook, "Unlike most other approaches to contemporary school-based intervention, which are squarely grounded in behavioral, cognitive-behavioral, and ecological systems theories, MBIs have their origins in Eastern religious traditions".[175] Some school administrators are concerned about implementing such practices, and parents have been reported to take their children out of mindfulness programs because of their personal religious beliefs. Yet, MBIs continue to be accepted by the mainstream in both primary and secondary schools because, "Mindfulness practices, particularly in relation to children who might otherwise be considered broken or unredeemable, fill a critical niche – one that allows its advocates to imagine a world where people can change, become more compassionate, resilient, reflective, and aware; a world with a viable future".[178] As mindfulness in education continues to develop, ethical consequences will remain a controversial issue because the generic description for the "benefits" and "results" of MBIs are largely concerned with individual and inward-focused achievement, rather than the original Buddhist ideal of global human connection.

Available research reveals a relationship between mindfulness and attention. Semple, Lee, Rosa, & Miller say, "Anxiety can impair attention and promote emotionally reactive behaviors that interfere with the development of good study skills, so it seems reasonable that increased mindfulness would be associated with less anxiety".[179] They conducted a randomized trial of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Children (MBCT-C) that found promise in managing anxiety for elementary school-aged children, and suggests that those who completed the program displayed fewer attention problems. In addition, Flook shows how an eight-week mindfulness awareness program was evaluated in a random and controlled school setting and measured the effects of awareness practices on executive functions in elementary school children. Their findings concluded, "Participation in the mindfulness awareness program was associated with improvements in behavioral regulation, metacognition, and overall executive functions".[180] In the study by Flook, parents and teachers completed questionnaires which propose that participation in mindfulness programs is associated with improvements in child behavioral regulation. These perspectives are a valuable source of data given that caregivers and educators interact with the children daily and across a variety of settings. According to Eklund, Omalley, and Meyer, "School-based practitioners should find promise in the evidence supporting mindfulness-based practices with children, parents, and educators".[176] Lastly, a third study by Zenner, Herrnleben-Kurz, and Walach concluded, "Analysis suggest that mindfulness-based interventions for children and youths are able to increase cognitive capacity of attending and learning by nearly one standard deviation and yield".[174] Application of Mindfulness-Based Interventions continue to increase in popularity and practice.[citation needed]

Mindfulness-Based Interventions are rising across western culture, but its effectiveness in school programs is still being determined. Research contends, "Mindfulness-based approaches for adults are effective at enhancing mental health, but few controlled trials have evaluated their effectiveness among young people".[181] Although much of the available studies find a high number of mindfulness acceptability among students and teachers, more research needs to be conducted on its effects on well-being and mental health for students. In a firmly controlled experiment, Johnson, Burke, Brinkman, and Wade evaluated "the impact of an existing and widely available school-based mindfulness program". According to their research, "no improvements were demonstrated on any outcome measured either immediately post-intervention or at three-month follow-up".[182] Many questions remain on which practices best implement effective and reliable mindfulness programs at schools, and further research is needed to identify the optimal methods and measurement tools for mindfulness in education.[citation needed]

Business

Mindfulness training appears to be getting popular in the business world, and many large corporations have been incorporating mindfulness practices into their culture.[183][184][185] For example, companies such as Google, Apple, Procter & Gamble, General Mills, Mayo Clinic, and the U.S. Army offer mindfulness coaching, meditation breaks and other resources to their employees to improve workplace functioning.[183][186]

The introduction of mindfulness in corporate settings still remains in early stages and its potential long-term impact requires further assessment. Mindfulness has been found to result in better employee well-being,[187] lower levels of frustration, lower absenteeism and burnout as well as an improved overall work environment.[186]

Law

Legal and law enforcement organizations are also showing interest in mindfulness:[188]

Prison-programs

Mindfulness has been taught in prisons, reducing hostility and mood disturbance among inmates, and improving their self-esteem.[190] Additional studies indicate that mindfulness interventions can result in significant reductions in anger, reductions in substance use, increased relaxation capacity, self-regulation and optimism.[191][192]

Government

Many government organizations offer mindfulness training.[193] Coping Strategies is an example of a program utilized by United States Armed Forces personnel.[citation needed] The British Parliament organized a mindfulness-session for its members in 2014, led by Ruby Wax.[web 28]

Scientific research

Effects and efficacy of mindfulness practice

Mindfulness has gained increasing empirical attention since 1970[18][140] and has been studied often as an intervention for stress reduction.[27][194] Meta analyses indicate its beneficial effects for healthy adults,[20][195][196] for adolescents and children,[174][34] as well as for different health-related outcomes including weight management,[197][198][199] psychiatric conditions,[200][201][202] heart disease,[62][56] sleep disorders,[203][204][205] cancer care,[206][207][208][209] adult autism treatment,[210] multiple sclerosis,[211][212] and other health-related conditions.[213][214][215] An often-cited meta-analysis on meditation research published in JAMA in 2014,[216] found insufficient evidence of any effect of meditation programs on positive mood, attention, substance use, eating habits, sleep, and weight, but found that there is moderate evidence that meditation reduces anxiety, depression, and pain. However, this study included a highly heterogeneous group of meditation styles (i.e., it did not focus exclusively on mindfulness meditation), which is a significant limitation of this study. Additionally, while mindfulness is well known to have positive psychological effect among individuals diagnosed with various types of cancers,[209] the evidence is unclear regarding its effectiveness in men with prostate cancer.[208]

Thousands of studies on meditation have been conducted, though the methodological quality of some of the studies is poor. Recent reviews have described many of these issues.[3][35][217] Nonetheless, mindfulness meditation is a popular subject for research, and many present potential benefits for a wide array of conditions and outcomes. For example, the practice of mindfulness has also been used to improve athletic performance,[218][31] as a beneficial intervention for children with special needs and their caregivers,[219][220][221] as a viable treatment option for people with insomnia[222][223] an effective intervention for healthy aging,[224][225][226] as a strategy for managing dermatological conditions[227] and as a useful intervention during early pregnancy.[228][229][230] Recent studies have also demonstrated that mindfulness meditation significantly attenuates physical pain through multiple, unique mechanisms.[231] Meditation also may allow one to modulate pain. When exposed to pain from heating, the brain scans of the mindfulness meditation participants (by use of functional magnetic resonance imaging) showed their brains notice the pain equally, however it does not get converted to a perceived pain signal. As such they experienced up to 40–50% less pain.[232]

Research has also investigated mindful movements and mindful exercises for different patient populations.[233][234]

Neurological studies

Research studies have also focused on the effects of mindfulness on the brain using neuroimaging techniques, physiological measures and behavioral tests.[3][194][235] Research on the neural perspective of how mindfulness meditation works suggests that it exerts its effects in components of attention regulation, body awareness and emotional regulation.[236] When considering aspects such as sense of responsibility, authenticity, compassion, self-acceptance and character, studies have shown that mindfulness meditation contributes to a more coherent and healthy sense of self and identity.[237][238] Neuroimaging techniques suggest that mindfulness practices such as mindfulness meditation are associated with "changes in the anterior cingulate cortex, insula, temporo-parietal junction, fronto-limbic network and default mode network structures."[236][239] Further, mindfulness meditation may prevent or delay the onset of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease.[240] Additionally, mindfulness-induced emotional and behavioral changes have been found to be related to functional and structural changes in the brain.[239][241] It has also been suggested that the default mode network of the brain can be used as a potential biomarker for monitoring the therapeutic benefits of meditation.[242] Recent research also suggest that the practice of mindfulness could influence genetic expression leading to a reduced risk of inflammation-related diseases and favourable changes in biomarkers.[243][244]

Grey matter concentrations in brain regions that regulate emotion, self-referential processing, learning and memory processes have shown changes in density following MBSR.[245][242] Additionally, MBSR practice has been associated with improvement of the immune system[3][58] which could explain the correlation between stress reduction and increased quality of life.[246] Part of these changes are a result of the thickening of the prefrontal cortex (executive functioning) and hippocampus (learning and memorisation ability), the shrinking of the amygdala (emotion and stress response) and the strengthening of the connections between brain cells.[247][248][249] Long-term meditators have larger amounts of gyrification ("folding" of the cortex, which may allow the brain to process information faster) than people who do not meditate. Further, a direct correlation was found between the amount of gyrification and the number of meditation years, possibly providing further proof of the brain's neuroplasticity, or ability to adapt to environmental changes.[247]

Associations of mindfulness with other variables

Mindfulness (as a trait, distinguished from mindfulness practice) has been linked to many outcomes. In an overview,[36] Keng, Smoski, and Robins summarize: "Trait mindfulness has been associated with higher levels of life satisfaction, agreeableness, conscientiousness, vitality, self esteem, empathy, sense of autonomy, competence, optimism, and pleasant affect. A 2020 study found links between dispositional mindfulness and prosocial behavior.[250] Studies have also demonstrated significant negative correlations between mindfulness and depression, neuroticism, absentmindedness, dissociation, rumination, cognitive reactivity, social anxiety, difficulties in emotion regulation, experiential avoidance, alexithymia, intensity of delusional experience in the context of psychosis, and general psychological symptoms." (References to underlying studies omitted from quotation.)

Effects on mindfulness

The mechanisms that make people less or more mindful have been researched less than the effects of mindfulness programmes, so little is known about which components of mindfulness practice are relevant for promoting mindfulness. For example, meta-analyses have shown that mindfulness practice does increase mindfulness when compared to active control groups.[34][196] This may be because we do not know how to measure mindfulness. It could also be that mindfulness is dose-dependent and increases with more experience.[251][252] To counter that, Bergomi et al.[253] found that "results provide evidence for the associations between self-reported mindfulness and meditation practice and suggest that mindfulness is particularly associated with continued practice in the present, rather than with accumulated practice over years."

Some research into other mechanisms has been done. One study[254] conceptualized such mechanisms in terms of competition for attention. In a test of that framework, mindfulness was found to be associated (as predicted) with having an activated intention to be mindful, with feeling good, and with not being hurried or very busy. Regarding the relationship between feeling good and being mindful, a different study[255] found that causality probably works both ways: feeling good increases mindfulness, and mindfulness increases feeling good.

One theory suggests an additional mechanism termed as reperceiving. Reperceiving is the beneficial effect that comes after the process of being mindful after all the intention, attention, and attitude has been experienced. Through reperceiving there is a shift in perspective. Reperceiving permits disassociation from thoughts, emotions, and physical sensations, and allows one to exist with them instead of being defined by them.[256]

Adverse effects

Meditation (of which mindfulness is just a version) has also been correlated with unpleasant experiences.[257][258][259][260] In some cases, it has also been linked to psychosis and suicide.[261][262][263][264] Both the soundness of its scientific foundations and the desirability of its societal effects have been questioned.[265][266][267][268]

In one study, published in 2019, of 1,232 regular meditators with at least two months of meditation experience, about a quarter reported having had particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences (such as anxiety, fear, distorted emotions or thoughts, altered sense of self or the world), which they thought may have been caused by their meditation practice. Meditators with high levels of repetitive negative thinking and those who only engage in deconstructive meditation were more likely to report unpleasant side effects. Adverse effects were less frequently reported in women and religious meditators.[269]

Another study from 2021 on the effects of mindfulness-based programs (MBPs) found negative side-effects in 37% of the sample while lasting bad effects in 6–14% of the sample.[270] Most of the side effects were related to signs of dysregulated arousal (i.e., hyperarousal and dissociation). The majority of these adverse events occurred as a result of regular practice at home or during class, something that challenges the notion that it is only intense practice that can give rise to negative experiences; as it turns out intense all-day retreats or working with difficulty practice accounts for only 6% of adverse effects. The symptoms most readily recognized as negative were those of hyperarousal (e.g., anxiety and insomnia). On the other hand,

while dissociation symptoms (e.g., emotional blunting, derealization, and self-disturbance) were both less frequent and less likely to be appraised as negative, they were still associated with more than 5–10 times greater risk for lasting bad effects… This means that re-appraisal of dissociative symptoms via non-judgmental acceptance is not sufficient to prevent impairment in functioning and should not constitute the only response. Instead, training in how to recognize dissociative symptoms as potential indicators of the need for intervention, which have recently been added to some mindfulness teacher training programs may be important.[271]

There is also mounting evidence that meditation can disturb various prosocial behaviors. By blunting emotions, in particular the social emotions of guilt and shame, it may produce deficits in the feelings of empathy and remorse thus creating calm but callous practitioners. In one study with 1400 participants researchers found that focused-breathing meditation can dampen the relationship between transgressions and the desire to engage in reparative prosocial behaviors.[272] Another study found that meditation can increase the trait of selfishness. The study, consisting of two interrelated parts and totaling 691 participants, found that a mindfulness induction, compared to a control condition, led to decreased prosocial behavior. This effect was moderated by self-construals such that people with relatively independent self-construals became less prosocial while people with relatively interdependent self-construals became more so. In the western world where independent self-construals generally predominate meditation may thus have potentially detrimental effects.[273] These new findings about meditations socially problematic effects imply that it can be contraindicated to use meditation as a tool to handle acute personal conflicts or relational difficulties; in the words of Andrew Hafenbrack, one of the authors of the study, “If we 'artificially' reduce our guilt by meditating it away, we may end up with worse relationships, or even fewer relationships”.[274]

Difficult experiences encountered in meditation are mentioned in traditional sources; and some may be considered to be an expected part of the process, e.g., seven stages of purification mentioned in Theravāda Buddhism. Possible "unwholesome or frightening visions" are mentioned in a practical manual on vipassanā meditation.[275] Classical sources have various terms for "meditation sickness" and related difficulties, such as zouhuorumo (走火入魔; 'fire possession'), chanbing (禪病; 'Chan disease') and mojing (魔境; 'demonic states').[276]

An article from the Journal of Buddhist Ethics states,

Problematic experiences such as strange sensations, unexplained pains, psychological instability, undesired hallucinations, sexual anomalies, uncontrollable behaviors, demonic possession, suicidality, and so forth seem to be quite well-known and well-documented across traditions.[276]

Concerns and criticism

Scholarly research

Many of the above cited review studies also indicate the necessity for more high-quality research in this field such as conducting intervention studies using larger sample sizes, the use of more randomized controlled studies and the need for providing more methodological details in reported studies.[3][36] The majority of studies also either measure mindfulness as a trait, and in research that use mindfulness interventions in clinical practice, the lack of true randomisation poses a problem for understanding the true effectiveness of mindfulness. Experimental methods using randomised samples, though, suggest that mindfulness as a state or temporary practice can influence felt emotions such as disgust and promote abstract decision-making.[277][278][279] There are also a few review studies that have found little difference between mindfulness interventions and control groups, though they did also indicate that their intervention group was treated too briefly for the research to be conclusive.[280][281] In some domains, such as sport, a lack of internal validity across studies prevents any strong claims being made about the effects of mindfulness.[31] These studies also list the need for more robust research investigations. Several issues pertaining to the assessment of mindfulness have also been identified including the current use of self-report questionnaires.[3][36][282] Potential for bias also exists to the extent that researchers in the field are also practitioners and possibly subject to pressures to publish positive or significant results.[8]

Various scholars have criticized how mindfulness has been defined or represented in recent Western psychology publications.[104][283]These modern understandings depart significantly from the accounts of mindfulness in early Buddhist texts and authoritative commentaries in the Theravada and Indian Mahayana traditions.[283]: 62 [284] Adam Valerio has introduced the idea that conflict between academic disciplines over how mindfulness is defined, understood, and popularly presented may be indicative of a personal, institutional, or paradigmatic battle for ownership over mindfulness, one where academics, researchers, and other writers are invested as individuals in much the same way as religious communities.[138]

Shortcomings

The popularization of mindfulness as a "commodity"[web 29] has been criticized, being termed "McMindfulness" by some critics.[web 30][web 31][285] According to John Safran, the popularity of mindfulness is the result of a marketing strategy:[web 29] "McMindfulness is the marketing of a constructed dream; an idealized lifestyle; an identity makeover."[286][web 29] The psychologist Thomas Joiner says that modern mindfulness meditation has been "corrupted" for commercial gain by self-help celebrities, and suggests that it encourages unhealthy narcissistic and self-obsessed mindsets.[287][288]

According to Purser and Loy, mindfulness is not being used as a means to awaken to insight in the "unwholesome roots of greed, ill will and delusion,"[web 30] but reshaped into a "banal, therapeutic, self-help technique" that has the opposite effect of reinforcing those passions.[web 30] While mindfulness is marketed as a means to reduce stress, in a Buddhist context it is part of an all-embracing ethical program to foster "wise action, social harmony, and compassion."[web 30] The privatization of mindfulness neglects the societal and organizational causes of stress and discomfort, instead propagating adaptation to these circumstances.[web 30] According to Bhikkhu Bodhi, "[A]bsent a sharp social critique, Buddhist practices could easily be used to justify and stabilize the status quo, becoming a reinforcement of consumer capitalism."[web 30] The popularity of this new brand of mindfulness has resulted in the commercialization of meditation through self-help books, guided meditation classes, and mindfulness retreats.

Mindfulness is said to be a $4bn industry. More than 60,000 books for sale on Amazon have a variant of "mindfulness" in their title, touting the benefits of Mindful Parenting, Mindful Eating, Mindful Teaching, Mindful Therapy, Mindful Leadership, Mindful Finance, a Mindful Nation, and Mindful Dog Owners, to name just a few.[289]

Buddhist commentators have criticized the movement as being presented as equivalent to Buddhist practice, while in reality it is very possibly denatured with undesirable consequences, such as being ungrounded in the traditional reflective morality and therefore, astray from traditional Buddhist ethics. Criticisms suggest it to be either de-moralized or re-moralized into clinically based ethics. The conflict is often presented with concern to the teacher's credentials and qualifications, rather than the student's actual practice. Reformed Buddhist-influenced practices are being standardized and manualized in a distinct separation from Buddhism - which is seen as a religion based in monastic temples - and expressed as “mindfulness” in a new psychology ethic, practiced in modern meditation centers.[290]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Baer cites Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994): Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion, p.4.
  2. ^ While translated as "mindfulness," and often interpreted as "bare attention," the term sati has broader connotations: "memory,"[10] "retention,"[11] "mindfulness, alertness, self-possession."[10] In a Buddhist context it has a wider meaning and purpose, related to vipassana, namely Sampajañña discerning what is beneficial and what is not, and calming the mind by this discernment.[12][13][14]
  3. ^ Kabat-Zinn, in Full Catastrophe Living (Revised Edition) (2013), p. lxiv advises to use CD's with guided mindfulness practices: "Almost everybody finds it easier, when embarking for the first time on a daily meditation practice, to listen to an instructor-guided audio program and let it "carry them along" in the early stages, until they get the hang of it from the inside, rather than attempting to follow instructions from a book, however clear and detailed they may be."

    Compare Rupert Gethin (2004), On the practice of Buddhist meditation, pp. 202–03, noting that the Buddhist sutras hardly explain how to meditate, and then stating that "the effective practice of meditation requires the personal instruction of a teacher." Gethin seems to echo Vetter (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, who notes that the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta describes the Buddha as instructing his first followers in turn: instructing two or three of them, while the others go out begging for food, signifying the need for personal instruction to learn how to practice dhyana.
  4. ^ See also Eating One Raisin: A First Taste of Mindfulness for a hand-out file
  5. ^ Quotes from Gethin, Rupert M.L. (1992), The Buddhist Path to Awakening: A Study of the Bodhi-Pakkhiȳa Dhammā. Brill's Indological Library, 7. Leiden and New York: Brill
  6. ^ Dreyfus concludes his examination by stating: "[T]he identification of mindfulness with bare attention ignores or, at least, underestimates the cognitive implications of mindfulness, its ability to bring together various aspects of experience so as to lead to the clear comprehension of the nature of mental and bodily states. By over-emphasizing the nonjudgmental nature of mindfulness and arguing that our problems stem from conceptuality, contemporary authors are in danger of leading to a one-sided understanding of mindfulness as a form of therapeutically helpful spacious quietness. I think that it is important not to lose sight that mindfulness is not just a therapeutic technique but is a natural capacity that plays a central role in the cognitive process. It is this aspect that seems to be ignored when mindfulness is reduced to a form of nonjudgmental present-centered form of awareness of one's experiences.[87]
  7. ^ Sharf: "Mahasi's technique did not require familiarity with Buddhist doctrine (notably abhidhamma), did not require adherence to strict ethical norms (notably monasticism), and promised astonishingly quick results. This was made possible through interpreting sati as a state of "bare awareness"—the unmediated, non-judgmental perception of things "as they are," uninflected by prior psychological, social, or cultural conditioning. This notion of mindfulness is at variance with premodern Buddhist epistemologies in several respects. Traditional Buddhist practices are oriented more toward acquiring "correct view" and proper ethical discernment, rather than "no view" and a non-judgmental attitude."[web 9]
  8. ^ "The word derives from a verb, sarati, meaning "to remember," and occasionally in Pali sati is still explained in a way that connects it with the idea of memory. But when it is used in relation to meditation practice, we have no word in English that precisely captures what it refers to. An early translator cleverly drew upon the word mindfulness, which is not even in my dictionary. This has served its role admirably, but it does not preserve the connection with memory, sometimes needed to make sense of a passage.[web 10]
  9. ^ Black: "[S]everal decades of research methodology and scientific discovery have defrayed these myths; mindfulness is now widely considered to be an inherent quality of human consciousness. That is, a capacity of attention and awareness oriented to the present moment that varies in degree within and between individuals, and can be assessed empirically and independent of religious, spiritual, or cultural beliefs.[96]
  10. ^ "Mindfulness meditation" may refer to either the secular, western practice of mindfulness,[99] or to modern Buddhist Vipassana-meditation.[100][101][102]
  11. ^ Vipassana as taught by teachers from the Vipassana movement is a 19th-century development, inspired by and reacting against Western modernism.[117][118] See also Buddhist modernism.
  12. ^ Frauwallner, E. (1973), History of Indian Philosophy, trans. V.M. Bedekar, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Two volumes., pp.150 ff
  13. ^ In Mahayana contexts, it entails insight into what is variously described as sunyata, dharmata, the inseparability of appearance and emptiness (two truths doctrine), clarity and emptiness, or bliss and emptiness.[web 16]
  14. ^ Majjhima Nikaya (MN), sutta number 118. See Thanissaro, 2006. Other discourses that describe the full four tetrads can be found in the Samyutta Nikaya's Anapana-samyutta (Ch. 54), such as SN 54.6 (Thanissaro, 2006a), SN 54.8 (Thanissaro, 2006b) and SN 54.13 (Thanissaro, 1995a). The one-tetrad exposition of anapanasati is found, for instance, in the Kayagata-sati Sutta (MN 119; Thanissaro, 1997), the Maha-satipatthana Sutta (DN 22; Thanissaro, 2000) and the Satipatthana Sutta (MN 10; Thanissaro, 1995b).
  15. ^ [I]n Buddhist discourse, there are three terms that together map the field of mindfulness [...] [in their Sanskrit variants] smṛti (Pali: sati), samprajaña (Pali: Sampajañña) and apramāda (Pali: appamada).[web 17]
  16. ^ According to this correspondence, Ven. Nyanaponika spent his last ten years living with and being cared for by Bodhi. Bodhi refers to Nyanaponika as "my closest kalyāṇamitta in my life as a monk."
  17. ^ The resort to "experience" as the ground for religious truths is a strategy which goes back to Schleiermacher, as a defense against the growing influence of western rationality on the religious life of Europeans in the 19th century. See Sharf (1995), Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience.[118]
  18. ^ "Historically a Buddhist practice, mindfulness can be considered a universal human capacity proposed to foster clear thinking and open-heartedness. As such, this form of meditation requires no particular religious or cultural belief system." - Mindfulness in Medicine by Ludwig and Kabat-Zinn, available at jama.ama-assn.org
  19. ^ "Kabat-Zinn (2000) suggests that mindfulness practice may be beneficial to many people in Western society who might be unwilling to adopt Buddhist traditions or vocabulary. Thus, Western researchers and clinicians who have introduced mindfulness practice into mental health treatment programs usually teach these skills independently of the religious and cultural traditions of their origins (Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Linehan, 1993b)."[1]

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Further reading

Wikiquote has quotations related to Mindfulness.
Look up 念 in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The Wikibook Dialectical Behavioral Therapy has a page on the topic of: Core Mindfulness Skills
Look up Mindfulness in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mindfulness.

Origins

Buddhism

Psychology

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Critical