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Ofensiva talibán de 2021

La ofensiva talibán de 2021 fue una ofensiva militar del grupo insurgente talibán y militantes aliados que condujo a la caída de la República Islámica de Afganistán con sede en Kabul y al fin de la guerra de casi 20 años en Afganistán que había comenzado tras la invasión estadounidense del país . La victoria talibán tuvo amplias ramificaciones nacionales e internacionales en relación con los derechos humanos y la proliferación del terrorismo . [87] La ​​ofensiva incluyó una continuación de la sucesión de abajo hacia arriba de rendiciones negociadas o pagadas a los talibanes desde el nivel de aldea hacia arriba que comenzó tras el acuerdo de febrero de 2020 entre Estados Unidos y los talibanes . [88] [89]

La ofensiva comenzó el 1 de mayo de 2021, [90] [91] [18] coincidiendo con la retirada de las 2.500 tropas de Estados Unidos en Afganistán , y las pertenecientes a otros aliados internacionales . [92] Un gran número de civiles armados, incluidas mujeres, se ofrecieron como voluntarios con el Ejército afgano en defensa, [93] [94] [95] mientras que algunos antiguos señores de la guerra, en particular Ismail Khan , también fueron reclutados. [96] A pesar de esto, los talibanes lograron importantes ganancias territoriales en el campo, aumentando el número de distritos que controlaban de 73 a 223 en los primeros tres meses de la ofensiva. [19] El 6 de agosto, los talibanes lanzaron un asalto a las capitales provinciales , y la mayoría de las ciudades se rindieron sin luchar, [97] culminando con victorias en batallas de semanas de duración en las principales ciudades de Herat , Kandahar y Lashkargah el 13 de agosto. [98] El 15 de agosto, el presidente Ashraf Ghani huyó del país [99] y los talibanes capturaron la capital afgana, Kabul, con solo una resistencia esporádica; así, el gobierno de la República Islámica de Afganistán cayó, [100] lo que resultó en la toma de facto del país y el restablecimiento del Emirato Islámico de Afganistán . [101] [102] [103] La velocidad de la toma de poder de los talibanes fue una sorpresa para muchos, incluidos los gobiernos de los Estados Unidos y sus aliados, [104] [105] [106] [107] Rusia [108] y los propios talibanes. [91]

Los factores anteriores a mayo de 2021 incluyeron el uso efectivo de las redes sociales en línea por parte de los talibanes, [89] su elección estratégica de atacar las provincias del norte, [109] [89] y la libertad de movimiento de los talibanes en las principales carreteras afganas que resultó de que las Fuerzas de Seguridad Nacional Afganas (ANSF) siguieran la estrategia recomendada por Estados Unidos de sacrificar las áreas rurales a favor de la defensa de los centros urbanos clave. [32] [66] [89] Los factores en la pérdida de las ANSF a manos de los talibanes incluyeron las caídas en febrero de 2020 y abril de 2021 en el apoyo estadounidense, en las que el software técnico, propietario y el apoyo logístico, en particular el apoyo aéreo, en el que las ANSF habían sido entrenadas para depender, fueron eliminados repentinamente. [110] [111] Los errores en el entrenamiento de la ANSF por parte de la coalición estadounidense fueron vistos como un factor, [111] junto con la policía afgana extorsionando a los locales, los oficiales militares financiándose inventando soldados fantasmas [112] y los meses de salarios impagos de la ANSF que siguieron al cambio de abril de 2021 en la gestión de los salarios de la ANSF a la administración militar afgana. [113] El amiguismo en los nombramientos militares de la ANSF y la incapacidad del presidente Ashraf Ghani para crear un consenso nacional efectivo y convencer a los señores de la guerra locales también fueron vistos como procesos clave de la derrota de la ANSF. [110] [61] [111] Los afganos también son más leales a sus lazos étnicos , tribales e incluso familiares tradicionales que a un gobierno central en Kabul, que los comandantes provinciales talibanes explotaron para negociar la rendición de muchas tropas. [114] [115] A largo plazo, la invasión estadounidense de Irak y su desplazamiento de la atención hacia esa región también se han citado como una razón para el resurgimiento de los talibanes a mediados y fines de la década de 2000. [116]

Fondo

En septiembre de 2020, el gobierno afgano liberó a más de 5.000 prisioneros talibanes, incluidos 400 acusados ​​o condenados por delitos graves como asesinato , como parte del acuerdo entre Estados Unidos y los talibanes. [117] Según el Consejo de Seguridad Nacional de Afganistán, muchos de los prisioneros liberados que eran "expertos" regresaron al campo de batalla y fortalecieron la mano de los talibanes. [118] Además, en el momento de la ofensiva final de los talibanes, la mayoría de los gobernadores provinciales afganos habían llegado a acuerdos con los militantes para cambiar de bando y unirse a los talibanes. [119] Un alto funcionario del Ministerio del Interior afgano, citado por el Washington Post, dijo que los talibanes tienen equipos de reclutamiento que se acercan a los funcionarios afganos y los presionan para que se unan a los talibanes. Dice que el gobierno afgano sospecha que una larga lista de gobernadores podría tener vínculos con los talibanes. [120]

Los talibanes también disfrutaron de un apoyo sustancial de varios otros grupos militantes armados, especialmente al-Qaeda y sus asociados [3] como Jamaat Ansarullah . [49] Según se informa, militantes de al-Qaeda en el subcontinente indio (AQIS) lucharon junto a los talibanes en la ofensiva de 2021. [5] En el sur y el este, varios grupos militantes paquistaníes apoyaron la ofensiva talibán, incluido Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (que tenía alrededor de 5.000 combatientes en Afganistán), [3] [121] Harkat-ul-Mujahideen , [3] Lashkar-e-Taiba y Jaish-e-Mohammed . [3] [122]

Ofensivo

Avances iniciales

En mayo, los talibanes capturaron 15 distritos del gobierno afgano, incluidos los distritos de Nirkh y Jalrez en la provincia de Maidan Wardak . [123] [124] Entre los lugares capturados estaba la presa de Dahla en la provincia de Kandahar , la segunda presa más grande de Afganistán. [125] Durante el mes, 405 tropas de la Fuerza de Seguridad Nacional Afgana (ANSF) y 260 civiles murieron en enfrentamientos, mientras que el Ministerio de Defensa afgano afirmó haber matado a 2.146 combatientes talibanes [74] [69] incluido un comandante de división talibán, Qari Jabar. [29] A fines de mayo, Portugal, Eslovenia, España y Suecia habían retirado completamente sus fuerzas de Afganistán. [126]

En junio, los talibanes capturaron 69 distritos del gobierno afgano. Entraron en las ciudades de Kunduz y Puli Khumri [123] [127] [92] y sitiaron Mazar-i-Sharif . [128] Entre los lugares que capturaron se encontraba el principal cruce fronterizo de Afganistán con Tayikistán y el distrito de Saydabad en la provincia de Maidan Wardak, que se considera la puerta de entrada a la capital de Afganistán, Kabul. [129] [130] Capturaron 700 camiones y Humvees de las fuerzas de seguridad afganas, y docenas de vehículos blindados, drones Boeing Insitu ScanEagle y sistemas de artillería . [80] [131]

Un Mil Mi-17 de la Fuerza Aérea afgana fue derribado por los talibanes, matando a tres pilotos, mientras que un UH-60 Black Hawk resultó dañado en tierra después de que un puesto de avanzada perteneciente a las Fuerzas Armadas afganas fuera bombardeado por los talibanes en el mismo mes. [51] [79] El 16 de junio, los combatientes talibanes ejecutaron a 22 comandos del ejército afgano que se rindieron en la ciudad de Dawlat Abad . Entre los muertos estaba el mayor Sohrab Azimi, hijo del general retirado Zahir Azimi. Fue ascendido póstumamente a general de brigada. [132] Testigos presenciales dijeron que el idioma que hablaban entre ellos los combatientes talibanes era extranjero, lo que indica que los combatientes no eran de la zona. [133] Durante el mes, 703 miembros de las Fuerzas de Seguridad Nacional afganas y 208 civiles murieron en enfrentamientos, mientras que el Ministerio de Defensa afirmó haber matado a 1.535 combatientes talibanes. [74] [69] El 19 de junio, el presidente Ashraf Ghani reemplazó al jefe del Estado Mayor del Ejército Nacional Afgano y a los ministros de Defensa e Interior. [134] A fines de junio, todos los países miembros de la Misión de Apoyo Decidido habían retirado sus tropas, excepto el Reino Unido, Turquía y los Estados Unidos.

El secretario de Defensa de Estados Unidos, Lloyd Austin, se reunió con el presidente afgano, Ashraf Ghani, en junio de 2021

El 22 de junio, los talibanes capturaron Sher Khan Bandar , el principal cruce fronterizo de Afganistán con Tayikistán, [135] y 13 distritos cayeron ante ellos en 24 horas. [136] El mismo día, hubo duros combates en la provincia de Baghlan cuando las fuerzas afganas lanzaron una operación en las afueras de Pul-e-Khumri, la capital provincial, matando a 17 combatientes talibanes, incluido Qari Khalid, un comandante de división talibán. [27] Simultáneamente, las fuerzas talibanes tomaron el control de Balkh y rodearon Mazar-i-Sharif, la capital de la provincia de Balkh. [137] [138] El 23 de junio, las fuerzas talibanes y afganas se enfrentaron dentro de Pul-e Khumri. [139]

El 25 de junio, los talibanes tomaron el control del distrito de Shinwari y del distrito de Ghorband en la provincia de Parwan, al norte de Kabul. [140] Ese mismo día, NBC News informó que los talibanes "estaban sorprendidos por la velocidad de su avance y habían evitado capturar algunos objetivos para no entrar en conflicto con los EE. UU.", [141] y el gobierno afgano lanzó un programa llamado Movilización Nacional que tenía como objetivo armar a los grupos de milicianos para luchar contra los talibanes. [142] Mientras tanto, el viceemir talibán Sirajuddin Haqqani emitió una serie de instrucciones en Voice of Jihad para el gobierno de los territorios capturados en la ofensiva. El investigador del Long War Journal de FDD, Thomas Joscelyn, argumentó que las declaraciones de Haqqani "parecían las que emitiría el jefe de una nación". [1]

Fuerzas pro gubernamentales afganas se reúnen en la provincia de Jowzjan

El 27 de junio, el distrito de Chaki Wardak y el distrito de Saydabad cayeron en manos de los talibanes después de que al menos 50 soldados afganos se rindieran y fueran capturados por los talibanes. El mismo día , el distrito de Rustaq , el distrito de Shortepa y el distrito de Arghistan cayeron en manos de los talibanes. ToloNews informó de que 108 distritos cayeron en manos de los talibanes en los dos últimos meses y que el ejército afgano había recuperado sólo 10. [143] [144] El 29 de junio, los talibanes lanzaron una ofensiva sobre Ghazni , lo que provocó violentos enfrentamientos en el interior de la ciudad. [145]

Escalada

En julio, los talibanes capturaron 64 distritos del gobierno afgano y entraron en la segunda y tercera ciudades más grandes de Afganistán, Kandahar y Herat respectivamente. [18] [146] [147] Durante el mes, 335 miembros de las Fuerzas de Seguridad Nacional afganas y 189 civiles murieron durante los enfrentamientos con los talibanes, mientras que el Ministerio de Defensa afirmó haber matado a 3.159 combatientes talibanes. [74] [69] Alrededor de 1.500 soldados afganos desertaron a Tayikistán, según su enviado de la Organización del Tratado de Seguridad Colectiva (OTSC). [75] Los medios iraníes informaron de que alrededor de 300 soldados y civiles afganos habían cruzado la frontera y entrado en Irán para escapar de los talibanes. [75]

El 2 de julio, Alemania e Italia retiraron sus tropas de Afganistán y las tropas estadounidenses abandonaron el aeródromo de Bagram , entregándoselo a las Fuerzas Armadas afganas. [148] Los ataques aéreos estadounidenses posteriores contra los talibanes se llevaron a cabo desde la base aérea de Al Udeid en Qatar y el grupo de ataque de portaaviones de la Armada estadounidense en el Golfo Pérsico , lo que requirió que los aviones de guerra viajaran varias horas para alcanzar sus objetivos. Según un funcionario de defensa estadounidense, estos ataques aéreos ascendieron a solo "un puñado" cada día. [149] [150]

El primer fin de semana de julio, cientos de mujeres armadas salieron a las calles del norte y centro de Afganistán en manifestaciones contra la ofensiva talibán, la más grande de las cuales tuvo lugar en Firozkoh , la capital de la provincia de Ghor . El gobernador provincial Abdulzahir Faizzada informó en una entrevista con The Guardian que muchas mujeres afganas, algunas de las cuales escaparon recientemente de los talibanes, han estado aprendiendo a usar armas de fuego para defenderse, y algunas ya han luchado contra los talibanes. El portavoz talibán Zabiullah Mujahid denunció los informes como " propaganda " y declaró que "las mujeres nunca tomarán armas contra nosotros". [151] Durante el fin de semana, los talibanes capturaron nueve puestos fronterizos pertenecientes al Ejército afgano en la provincia de Kunar , cerca de la frontera con Pakistán , durante los cuales 39 miembros del Ejército afgano se rindieron a los talibanes mientras que otros 31 huyeron a Pakistán. [75]

El 5 de julio, el presidente tayiko Emomali Rahmon anunció el despliegue de 20.000 soldados en la frontera entre Afganistán y Tayikistán , para evitar que la guerra se extendiera a Tayikistán. El 9 de julio, la Organización del Tratado de Seguridad Colectiva anunció que la Federación de Rusia desplegaría también 7.000 soldados en la frontera, para ayudar a Tayikistán. [152] [153] El 7 de julio, fuerzas pro gubernamentales derrotaron un intento talibán de capturar la ciudad de Qala e Naw . [43] El 8 de julio, los talibanes capturaron el distrito de Karukh, de importancia estratégica, en la provincia de Herat . [147]

El 8 de julio, Abubaker Muradi, subdirector de la Dirección Nacional de Seguridad (NDS), y Khir Mohammad Arefi, comandante de un ejército territorial, junto con decenas de otros miembros del personal de seguridad se entregaron a los talibanes sin luchar. Khan Jan Zafar y Mohammad Farid Akhizai, dos miembros del consejo provincial, también se entregaron a los talibanes el mismo día. [36]

Pobladores armados protestan en apoyo del gobierno afgano en la provincia de Jowzjan el 13 de julio de 2021

El 10 de julio, los talibanes capturaron el distrito de Panjwayi en la provincia de Kandahar [154] y rodearon la ciudad de Ghazni en el centro de Afganistán. [155] Los cruces fronterizos de Torghundi con Turkmenistán e Islam Qala con Irán fueron capturados por los talibanes. Durante la captura del cruce fronterizo de Islam Qala, algunos funcionarios de seguridad y aduanas afganos huyeron a través de la frontera con Irán para escapar de los talibanes. [156] [157] El 11 de julio, el ministro de Defensa australiano, Peter Dutton, anunció el fin de su presencia militar en Afganistán, y los últimos 80 efectivos habían abandonado el país en las últimas semanas. [158] El 12 de julio, el comandante de las fuerzas estadounidenses y de la OTAN en Afganistán, Austin S. Miller, renunció a su cargo. [159] El mismo día, el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores de Afganistán anunció que habían asesinado al jefe de inteligencia de los talibanes, Kari Shagasi, y arrestado a dos de sus seguidores en la provincia de Logar . [24] Hasta el 12 de julio, los talibanes habían arrebatado 148 distritos al gobierno afgano. [18] El 14 de julio, el puesto fronterizo afgano de Spin Boldak fue capturado por la fuerza talibán; [160] El periodista indio de Reuters, Danish Siddiqui, fue asesinado allí mientras cubría los combates dos días después. [161]

El 12 de julio, el presidente turcomano Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow ordenó el despliegue de tropas, armas pesadas y blindados en la frontera entre Afganistán y Turkmenistán , para evitar que el conflicto se extendiera a Turkmenistán. [162] El 16 de julio, Uzbekistán fue sede de una conferencia entre varios líderes de la región y diplomáticos extranjeros, incluido el presidente afgano Ghani, para promover la paz y prevenir una guerra civil. [163] Más tarde ese mes, los talibanes capturaron el distrito de Wakhan y, por lo tanto, también tenían el control de la frontera entre Afganistán y China . [164]

El 21 de julio, el jefe del Estado Mayor Conjunto, Mark Milley, informó de que la mitad de todos los distritos afganos estaban bajo control talibán y que el impulso estaba "de algún modo" del lado de los talibanes. [165] El 22 de julio, el Pentágono confirmó que la Fuerza Aérea de los Estados Unidos había llevado a cabo cuatro ataques aéreos en Afganistán a petición de funcionarios afganos. Dos de los ataques aéreos tenían como objetivo destruir el equipo militar capturado por los talibanes a las fuerzas de seguridad afganas; un cañón de artillería y un vehículo militar fueron destruidos. [59] Mientras tanto, la batalla por la ciudad de Kandahar continuaba, con el asentamiento siendo esencialmente asediado por los rebeldes. Todos los distritos circundantes, salvo el distrito de Daman , habían caído bajo el control talibán, y sólo el aeródromo de Kandahar (crucial para abastecer a las fuerzas de seguridad locales) permanecía bajo el control total del gobierno. Según el Long War Journal de la FDD , la caída del distrito de Daman en manos de los insurgentes haría extremadamente difícil para las fuerzas gubernamentales mantener la ciudad de Kandahar. [166] El 22 de julio, 100 personas murieron en un tiroteo masivo en Spin Boldak, provincia de Kandahar. [167] Las fuerzas pro gubernamentales obtuvieron victorias en la provincia de Bamiyán , cuando las milicias locales y la policía recuperaron los distritos de Sayghan y Kahmard de los talibanes, [168] y en la provincia de Herat, donde el gobierno recuperó el distrito de Karakh. [147] El 24 de julio, el gobierno impuso un toque de queda entre las 22.00 y las 4.00 en todas las provincias del país, excepto tres, para "frenar la violencia y reducir los movimientos y avances de los talibanes". [169] [170]

Situación el 25 de julio

El 25 de julio, un comandante clave de los talibanes, el muftí Ismael, resultó herido y cinco de sus guardias murieron en la explosión de una mina dirigida contra su convoy en la provincia de Faryab. [30]

El 26 de julio, un informe de la representante de las Naciones Unidas, Deborah Lyons, mostró un marcado aumento de las muertes de civiles como consecuencia de los combates entre el gobierno y los talibanes. Lyons imploró a ambas partes que protegieran a los civiles, ya que, según ella, se están matando mujeres y niños. [171] Ese mismo día, alrededor de 46 soldados afganos, incluidos 5 oficiales, buscaron refugio en Pakistán tras no poder defender su puesto militar. [75]

El 28 de julio, una delegación de los talibanes se reunió en Tianjin con el ministro de Asuntos Exteriores chino, Wang Yi , quien prometió el apoyo de la República Popular China a los talibanes con la condición de que cortaran sus vínculos con el Movimiento Islámico del Turkestán Oriental (en 2002, 400 militantes de la región de Xinjiang habían sido entrenados en campos de entrenamiento talibanes) [172] [173] [174] [175], prometiendo "devolver a los talibanes a la corriente política dominante" y ofreciendo acoger las conversaciones de paz entre el Gobierno de Afganistán y los talibanes. [176]

El 31 de julio, los talibanes habían entrado en las capitales provinciales de Helmand y Herat, capturando decenas de distritos en las provincias y también capturando cruces fronterizos con Irán y Turkmenistán. [177] [178] Entre otros, el importante distrito de Karakh de Herat fue nuevamente invadido por los rebeldes. Los insurgentes también cortaron la carretera entre el Aeropuerto Internacional de Herat y la ciudad de Herat, aunque el aeropuerto permaneció bajo control del gobierno. El Long War Journal sostuvo que la capacidad del gobierno para mantener el control de la ciudad de Herat sin que el aeropuerto abasteciera a los defensores era cuestionable. Mientras tanto, la ciudad de Kandahar permaneció en disputa. [147]

Soldados del Ejército Nacional Afgano en combate con los talibanes

Del 1 al 2 de agosto, las zonas de Safian, Qala-e-Kohneh y Kariz, en las afueras de Lashkar Gah, cayeron en manos de los talibanes. También se produjeron enfrentamientos entre los talibanes y el gobierno en los suburbios de la ciudad, en los que la Fuerza Aérea Afgana y la Fuerza Aérea de los Estados Unidos atacaron posiciones talibanes. El 2 de agosto, 40 civiles murieron y más de 100 resultaron heridos en los combates. [179] Después de capturar la estación de radio de Lashkar Gah, los talibanes comenzaron a transmitir su programación de La Voz de la Sharia . Los rebeldes también comenzaron a atacar el aeropuerto de la ciudad. Mientras tanto, el gobierno envió refuerzos para evitar que la ciudad cayera en manos de los insurgentes. [180]

El 3 de agosto, 13 personas, incluidos cinco atacantes, murieron en un bombardeo y tiroteo talibán en Kabul. [181] La operación de estilo inghimasi , llevada a cabo por el "Batallón del Mártir" talibán, tenía como objetivo matar al Ministro de Defensa Bismillah Khan Mohammadi ; sobrevivió al ataque. Mohammadi fue descrito por el Long War Journal como una de las figuras clave del gobierno responsable de contrarrestar la ofensiva talibán. [33] Al 5 de agosto, 115 miembros de las Fuerzas Nacionales de Seguridad afganas y 58 civiles murieron durante los enfrentamientos con los talibanes, mientras que el Ministerio de Defensa afirmó haber matado a 3.197 combatientes talibanes desde principios de mes. [74] [69]

Caída de las capitales provinciales

El 6 de agosto, los talibanes asesinaron a Dawa Khan Minapal, director del Centro de Información y Medios del Gobierno, en Kabul. [182] El mismo día, se informó de duros combates en la provincia de Jowzjan cuando los talibanes entraron en la capital provincial, Sheberghan . Los talibanes confirmaron la responsabilidad del asesinato de Minapal y advirtieron que atacarían a altos funcionarios de la administración en represalia por el aumento de los ataques aéreos. [183] ​​El mismo día, los talibanes capturaron la capital provincial de la provincia de Nimroz , Zaranj , lo que la convirtió en la primera captura por parte de los talibanes de una capital provincial desde la invasión estadounidense de 2001. [184] Los talibanes ejecutaron a docenas de soldados capturados en la provincia y les sacaron los ojos a algunos. [185] [186] [187] Los rebeldes procedieron a abrir las cárceles locales, lo que permitió que muchos reclusos escaparan. Como, según se informa, Zaranj había sido capturada sin casi resistencia, el periodista afgano Bilal Sarwary expresó sus sospechas de que alguien había "vendido" la ciudad a los talibanes. [188] Las publicaciones en las redes sociales sugirieron que los talibanes habían sido bien recibidos por algunos residentes de la ciudad, que tiene una larga historia de anarquía. Las imágenes que aparecieron en las redes sociales mostraban a combatientes talibanes conduciendo Humvees militares capturados, todoterrenos de lujo y camionetas por las calles mientras ondeaban banderas talibanes mientras los residentes locales, en su mayoría jóvenes y hombres jóvenes, los vitoreaban. [189] Un enviado de la ONU también advirtió que el país estaba entrando en una "fase más letal" de la guerra. [190] Los gobiernos de Gran Bretaña y Estados Unidos advirtieron a sus ciudadanos que abandonaran Afganistán "inmediatamente" en medio del avance talibán y el empeoramiento de la situación de seguridad. [191] [192]

El 7 de agosto, los talibanes habían capturado Sheberghan, convirtiéndose en la segunda captura de una capital provincial. [193] Abdul Rashid Dostum , el ex señor de la guerra y el hombre fuerte que tradicionalmente había dominado la ciudad, tomó a sus seguidores y huyó al distrito de Khwaja Du Koh , la única zona en la provincia de Jowzjan que todavía estaba en manos del gobierno. Mientras tanto, las fuerzas pro gubernamentales se habían reducido a un foco de resistencia en Lashkar Gah, mientras que Kandahar y Herat seguían siendo ferozmente disputadas. Los insurgentes también lanzaron repetidas incursiones en las otras capitales provinciales. [194] El mismo día, los bombarderos B-52 estadounidenses llevaron a cabo ataques aéreos contra los talibanes en Afganistán, operando desde la base aérea Al Udeid en Qatar . [195] Estados Unidos también estaba utilizando drones Reaper armados y cañoneras AC-130 Spectre que, según se informa, comenzaron ataques diarios contra objetivos alrededor de Kandahar, Herat y Lashkar Gah. [195] La defensa terrestre restante de Lashkar Gah y Kandahar estaba organizada principalmente por cientos de comandos afganos que habían sido rodeados por los insurgentes; como estos soldados eran las tropas mejor entrenadas y más motivadas del ejército afgano, el Long War Journal del FDD argumentó que su pérdida sería un gran revés en lo que respecta a la futura efectividad de las fuerzas de seguridad afganas. [41] El USS Ronald Reagan estaba lanzando aviones de combate rápidos para brindar apoyo a las misiones. [196] La Embajada de Estados Unidos en Kabul instó a todos los estadounidenses a abandonar el país inmediatamente debido a las crecientes preocupaciones de seguridad y la incapacidad de la embajada para garantizar la seguridad de los ciudadanos estadounidenses debido a la reducción del personal en la embajada. [197]

Al día siguiente, los talibanes capturaron las ciudades de Kunduz y Sar-e Pol después de fuertes enfrentamientos con las Fuerzas de Seguridad Nacional Afganas. En las batallas por las dos ciudades, se informó de deserciones masivas, ya que muchos soldados del Ejército Nacional Afgano se habían desmotivado por el rápido avance rebelde, así como por la propaganda talibán. Las fuerzas pro gubernamentales solo pudieron mantener la base militar y el aeropuerto de Kunduz. [198] [199] Los reporteros describieron la captura de Kunduz como "la ganancia más significativa para los talibanes desde que lanzaron su ofensiva en mayo", siendo la ciudad uno de los asentamientos más grandes de Afganistán, bien conectada con otros lugares notables del país, incluida Kabul, y considerada parte de una importante ruta de contrabando de drogas de Asia Central. [200] La batalla por Kunduz involucró a la Unidad Roja , las tropas de choque de élite talibanes, y resultó en la liberación de cientos de prisioneros, incluidos comandantes talibanes. [41] La ciudad de Taloqan también fue tomada por los talibanes a fines del 8 de agosto, lo que la convirtió en la quinta capital provincial en caer. [201] Las fuerzas gubernamentales se retiraron de la ciudad después del mediodía, [202] recuperando el distrito de Warsaj y el distrito de Farkhar . [203]

Combatientes talibanes descansando en un pueblo, agosto de 2021

El 9 de agosto, los talibanes capturaron Aybak , la capital de la provincia de Samangan . [204] El vicegobernador Sefatullah Samangani dijo a la agencia de noticias AFP que las fuerzas gubernamentales se habían retirado de la ciudad sin luchar después de que los representantes de la comunidad solicitaran que se evitara más violencia. [205] El mismo día, Asif Azimi, un ex senador de Samangan y un destacado señor de la guerra del partido Jamiat-e Islami , desertó a los talibanes. Azimi dijo que cientos de hombres bajo su mando también habían desertado a los talibanes. [44] El presidente Ashraf Ghani y otros líderes políticos también acordaron formar un centro de mando conjunto para coordinar y ayudar a las fuerzas del levantamiento público. [206]

El 10 de agosto se intensificaron los combates en torno a Mazar-i-Sharif. En Farah , capital de la provincia de Farah , los talibanes habían tomado el control del complejo del gobernador tras intensos combates entre los talibanes y las fuerzas gubernamentales. [207] También habían tomado el control de la sede de la policía y la prisión. Aunque continuaron los intensos combates, Farah se convirtió en la séptima capital provincial en caer. [208] Una octava capital provincial, Puli Khumri de la provincia de Baghlan , también fue capturada el 10 de agosto. [209] [210]

El 11 de agosto, Fayzabad, en la provincia de Badakhshan , se convirtió en la novena capital provincial capturada por los talibanes. Después de que los talibanes alcanzaran las puertas de la ciudad, las fuerzas gubernamentales decidieron retirarse al distrito de Farkhar y unirse a las fuerzas de seguridad allí tras la caída de Taloqan. [211] Antes de la invasión estadounidense, Fayzabad había sido el cuartel general de la Alianza del Norte . [212] El mismo día, los talibanes capturaron el aeropuerto de Kunduz y una importante base militar perteneciente al 217 Cuerpo Pamir después de que cientos de tropas afganas se rindieran, asegurando así el control de los talibanes sobre su equipo militar en Kunduz. La base militar era responsable de la seguridad de Kunduz, Takhar y Badakhshan y era una de las ocho instalaciones de este tipo en Afganistán; [213] su caída redujo aún más la moral del Ejército Nacional Afgano, al tiempo que hizo imposible una contraofensiva del gobierno para aliviar Mazar-i-Sharif. [214] La agencia de noticias Deutsche Presse (dpa) citó a dos concejales locales que dijeron que todo el 217º Cuerpo Pamir se rindió a las fuerzas talibanes en Kunduz. Un portavoz talibán también publicó un vídeo en Twitter que supuestamente mostraba a soldados del gobierno uniéndose a las filas de los militantes. [215] Las tropas sitiadas del 217º Cuerpo Pamir habían resistido durante tres días antes de rendirse; los rebeldes capturaron gran parte del equipo militar en la base y el aeropuerto. [214] Además, el día vio el reemplazo del general Wali Mohammad Ahmadzai por el general Haibatullah Alizai como nuevo jefe del Estado Mayor del Ejército afgano . El general Ahmadzai saliente se desempeñó como jefe del Estado Mayor del ejército afgano desde que asumió el cargo en junio de 2021. [34]

El 12 de agosto, los talibanes capturaron la ciudad de Ghazni , convirtiéndola en la décima capital provincial en caer en una semana. La ciudad se encuentra a lo largo de la autopista Kabul-Kandahar , que sirve como puerta de entrada entre Kabul y las fortalezas del sur. [216] [217] [218] El gobernador de la provincia de Ghazni pronto fue arrestado en Wardak por "rendirse sin luchar" a cambio de un paso seguro. [219] El mismo día, el gobierno central ofreció una propuesta de "poder compartido" en lugar de un alto el fuego; los talibanes rechazaron esta oferta afirmando que querían establecer un nuevo emirato islámico. [220] El mismo día también se produjo la caída de la estratégica base aérea Shindand en Herat [221] y la captura de dos helicópteros UH-60 Black Hawk estacionados en la base aérea. [83] A última hora de esa noche, Herat, la tercera ciudad más grande de Afganistán y la capital de la provincia homónima, cayó en manos de los talibanes. [222] La caída de Herat , después de dos semanas de asedio, obligó a Ismail Khan y otros altos funcionarios y fuerzas del gobierno a buscar refugio en un aeropuerto provincial y en el cuerpo del ejército fuera de la ciudad. [39] Por la mañana, Khan junto con Abdul Rahman Rahman, viceministro del Interior, y Hasib Sediqi, jefe de la Dirección Nacional de Seguridad en Herat, se rindieron a los talibanes. El comandante del 207 Cuerpo Zafar , Khyal Nabi Ahmadzai, [223] [224] y miles de fuerzas gubernamentales también se rindieron a los talibanes. [39] Según los funcionarios locales, todo un cuerpo del ejército afgano en la ciudad de Herat se derrumbó. [225] [226] En este punto, controlaban 11 de las 34 capitales provinciales de Afganistán. [227] Los talibanes también habían lanzado un asalto a Qala e Naw , capturando la ciudad después de no poder hacerlo en julio. [228] [229]

De la noche a la mañana, Kandahar fue capturada por los talibanes: fuertes enfrentamientos alrededor de la ciudad llevaron a la retirada del ANA , aumentando así el número de capitales provinciales controladas por los talibanes a trece. [230] [231]

Después de varias semanas de combates en la batalla de Lashkargah , la ciudad de Lashkargah , capital de la provincia de Helmand , fue capturada por los talibanes el 13 de agosto. [232] El mismo día, los talibanes tomaron el control de Chaghcharan (también llamada Firozkoh), la capital de la provincia de Ghor . [233] Los funcionarios dijeron que la ciudad cayó sin ningún combate, convirtiéndose en la decimoquinta capital provincial en caer ante los talibanes en una semana. [234] Firozkoh tenía una población de casi 132.000 personas. [233] Más tarde, el 13 de agosto, los talibanes capturaron Puli Alam , Qalat y Tarinkot , las capitales provinciales de las provincias de Logar , Zabul y Uruzgan respectivamente. [101] [235] Los partidarios del gobierno opusieron una defensa decidida en Logar antes de ser invadidos, mientras que Zabul y Uruzgan sólo se rindieron a los rebeldes después de que los defensores locales juzgaron que su situación era insostenible y optaron por retirarse. En contraste, Qalat y Fayroz Koh cayeron sin ningún combate. Qalat había sido privada de defensores que habían sido enviados a Kandahar, y los funcionarios de Fayroz Koh prefirieron negociar una toma de posesión en lugar de ser "aplastados por la ofensiva talibán". El Long War Journal sostuvo que la caída de estas capitales provinciales permitió a los talibanes sitiar Kabul, y describió al gobierno afgano como "al borde del colapso". [236]

El presidente de Estados Unidos , Joe Biden, en una videoconferencia con la vicepresidenta Harris y el equipo de Seguridad Nacional de Estados Unidos , para analizar la situación en Afganistán el 14 de agosto de 2021

El 14 de agosto de 2021, los talibanes capturaron siete capitales provinciales: Gardez , Sharana , Asadabad , Maymana , Mihtarlam , [237] Nili , [238] y Mazar-i-Sharif , la cuarta ciudad más grande de Afganistán. Dos caudillos antitalibanes de larga data, a saber, Dostum y Atta Muhammad Nur , huyeron a Uzbekistán. [239] [102] [240] [241] Abas Ebrahimzada, un legislador de la provincia de Balkh , dijo que en Mazar-i-Sharif, el ejército nacional se rindió primero, lo que provocó que la milicia progubernamental y otras fuerzas perdieran la moral y se rindieran ante el asalto de los talibanes a la ciudad. [242] Zabihullah Mohmand, el comandante del cuerpo de Mazar-i-Sharif, también se rindió a los talibanes. [35] Tras la pérdida de la ciudad, Atta Muhammad Nur declaró en una publicación de Facebook que su derrota en Mazar-i-Sharif fue planificada y responsabilizó a las fuerzas gubernamentales de la derrota. No especificó quién estaba detrás de la conspiración ni proporcionó ningún detalle más allá de decir que él y Dostum están en un lugar seguro. [242] Más tarde, las fuerzas talibanes también entraron en Maidan Shar , centro de la provincia de Maidan Wardak . En este punto, los rebeldes habían rodeado Kabul, mientras que el Ejército Nacional Afgano había caído en el caos tras su rápida derrota en todo el país. Solo el 201.º Cuerpo y la 111.ª División, ambos con base en la capital afgana, quedaron operativos. [243]

El 15 de agosto de 2021, los talibanes entraron sin oposición en Jalalabad , la capital de la provincia de Nangarhar . [244] Fue la vigésimo sexta capital provincial en caer, y su captura dejó a Kabul como la última ciudad importante bajo el control del gobierno afgano. [245] Poco después, Maidan Shar, [246] Khost , [247] [248] Bamiyán , [249] Mahmud-i-Raqi , [250] Charikar [251] y Parun [250] también cayeron. Los comandos afganos lograron evacuar con éxito el aeropuerto de Kandahar el mismo día; el aeropuerto todavía había estado en manos de leales al gobierno hasta ese momento. [252] Las fuerzas de seguridad entregaron el aeródromo de Bagram a los talibanes; la base aérea albergaba a unos 5.000 prisioneros talibanes y del Estado Islámico de Irak y el Levante . [253]

También el 15 de agosto, las autoridades de Uzbekistán detuvieron a 84 soldados afganos que habían cruzado la frontera y proporcionaron asistencia médica tanto a los soldados detenidos como a un grupo de soldados que se había reunido en el lado afgano del puente Termez-Khairaton. [254]

El 16 de agosto, la Fuerza de Protección de Khost (KPF), una unidad de milicia creada por la CIA en los primeros años de la invasión estadounidense, se rindió a las fuerzas talibanes en el este de Afganistán después de intentar huir a la provincia de Paktia . Según periodistas locales citados por Interfax , unos 6.000 miembros de la KPF en 1.200 vehículos se rindieron a los talibanes, y en las redes sociales se publicó un vídeo de la rendición. [255]

Puentes aéreos de la OTAN

Soldados británicos desplegados en Kabul para ayudar en la retirada de la OTAN, 13 de agosto de 2021

El 12 de agosto, pocas horas después de la caída de Herat , los gobiernos de los Estados Unidos y del Reino Unido anunciaron el despliegue de 3.000 y 600 de sus tropas, respectivamente, en el aeropuerto de Kabul para asegurar el transporte aéreo de sus nacionales, el personal de la embajada y los civiles afganos que trabajaban con las fuerzas de la coalición fuera del país. Los funcionarios dijeron que el primer despliegue se produciría en las siguientes 24 a 48 horas, y que se completaría a finales de mes. Según esas fuentes, se utilizarían aviones chárter para la evacuación, ya que el aeropuerto de Kabul todavía permitía el vuelo de aviones comerciales en ese momento; se utilizarían aviones militares si eso resultaba imposible. Según el gobierno británico, la evacuación y su fecha se habían planeado desde hacía mucho tiempo, pero un funcionario afgano dijo que la fecha se adelantó porque la situación de seguridad se deterioró rápidamente. Además de los 3.000 soldados estadounidenses, se colocaron otros 3.500 en estado de alerta en Kuwait en caso de que la situación se intensificara y se produjera un nuevo conflicto armado con los talibanes. [256] [257] [258] Canadá anunció que se desplegarían unidades de fuerzas especiales canadienses para evacuar al personal de la embajada en Kabul, que alberga a familias afganas que han trabajado con personal canadiense en el pasado. [259] Los gobiernos danés y noruego anunciaron que sus embajadas en Kabul cerrarían por razones de seguridad y procedieron a evacuar a su personal diplomático y a los afganos que trabajaban junto a ellos. [260]

Caída de Kabul

Combatientes talibanes en Kabul, 17 de agosto de 2021

El 15 de agosto, a pesar de emitir un comunicado diciendo que no tenían planes de tomar la capital afgana "por la fuerza", los talibanes entraron en las afueras de Kabul desde múltiples direcciones, incluido el distrito de Kalakan , el distrito de Qarabagh y el distrito de Paghman . [261] Se informó de un apagón en toda la ciudad y un posible asalto y levantamiento de reclusos en la prisión de Pul-e-Charkhi . [262] [263] Los helicópteros Boeing CH-47 Chinook y Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk comenzaron a aterrizar en la embajada estadounidense en Kabul para llevar a cabo evacuaciones y los diplomáticos estaban destruyendo rápidamente documentos clasificados . [264]

El Ministerio del Interior afgano anunció que el presidente Ghani había decidido renunciar al poder y que se formaría un gobierno provisional dirigido por los talibanes; [265] el ex presidente Hamid Karzai iba a formar parte del equipo negociador. [266] Los talibanes ordenaron a sus combatientes que esperaran a que se produjera una transferencia pacífica del poder y que no entraran en Kabul por la fuerza. [267]

El 15 de agosto se informó de que el presidente Ghani había abandonado el país rumbo a Tayikistán . [268] La salida de Ghani de Afganistán fue criticada por muchos afganos y observadores externos. [269] [270] Nikita Ishchenko, portavoz de la embajada de Rusia en Kabul, afirmó que Ghani huyó de Afganistán con cuatro coches y helicópteros llenos de dinero. [271] Hablando más tarde desde los Emiratos Árabes Unidos, Ghani dijo que se fue por consejo de los ayudantes del gobierno para evitar ser linchado (el presidente afgano Mohammad Najibullah había sido ahorcado públicamente tras la anterior toma de poder de los talibanes en 1996). [272] Negó los informes de que había llevado grandes sumas de dinero con él, señalando que había pasado por la aduana a su llegada a los EAU. [273] El Inspector General Especial para la Reconstrucción de Afganistán (SIGAR) también lo consideró "poco probable" , pero sostiene que Ghani se llevó 500.000 dólares estadounidenses cuando escapó. [274] [275]

Soldados estadounidenses con afganos evacuando el Aeropuerto Internacional Hamid Karzai el 21 de agosto, después de que los talibanes capturaran Kabul.

El 15 de agosto por la tarde, un Embraer 314 de la Fuerza Aérea Afgana y un MiG-29 de la Fuerza Aérea de Uzbekistán colisionaron en el aire y ambos aviones se estrellaron en la región de Surxondaryo, en Uzbekistán . Los pilotos de ambos aviones se eyectaron y aterrizaron con paracaídas. [276] Más temprano ese mismo día, Uzbekistán dijo que había detenido a 84 soldados afganos que habían cruzado la frontera en busca de asistencia médica mientras huían de las ofensivas de los talibanes. [277]

El 16 de agosto, el portavoz talibán Mohammad Naeem dijo en una entrevista con Al Jazeera que la guerra había terminado en Afganistán. Dijo que los talibanes habían logrado lo que querían, que no permitirían que el territorio de Afganistán se utilizara contra nadie y que no querían dañar a nadie. [278] El mismo día, la oficina del fiscal general de Uzbekistán dijo que 22 aviones militares y 24 helicópteros con unos 585 soldados afganos habían llegado a Uzbekistán. Alrededor de 158 soldados afganos cruzaron la frontera de Uzbekistán a pie. [76]

El Pentágono confirmó que el jefe del Comando Central de Estados Unidos en Qatar , el general Kenneth F. McKenzie Jr. , se reunió con los líderes talibanes con base en la capital de Qatar, Doha . Los funcionarios talibanes aceptaron las condiciones establecidas por McKenzie para que los refugiados huyeran utilizando el aeropuerto de Kabul . [279] [280]

El 23 de agosto, el portavoz talibán Suhail Shaheen indicó que no estarían dispuestos a extender la fecha límite del 31 de agosto para la retirada de las fuerzas estadounidenses de Afganistán. [281] El mismo día, el director de la Agencia Central de Inteligencia (CIA), William J. Burns , mantuvo una reunión secreta en Kabul con el líder talibán Abdul Ghani Baradar , quien regresó a Afganistán desde el exilio en Qatar, para discutir la fecha límite del 31 de agosto. [282] [283]

Crímenes de guerra

Los talibanes cometieron una serie de crímenes de guerra durante su ofensiva de 2021.

El 16 de junio, en Dawlat Abad , 22 comandos desarmados de las Fuerzas Especiales afganas fueron ejecutados cuando intentaban rendirse a las fuerzas talibanes. Un vídeo del incidente circuló ampliamente y fue difundido por la CNN . Samira Hamidi, de Amnistía Internacional, describió el incidente como "el asesinato a sangre fría de soldados que se rendían, un crimen de guerra". Pidió que se investigara el incidente como parte de la investigación de la Corte Penal Internacional en Afganistán . [284]

El 8 de julio, soldados afganos ejecutaron a un aldeano afgano obligándolo a sentarse sobre un artefacto explosivo improvisado (AEI) antes de que explotara. [285] La víctima, llamada Barakatullah, fue acusada de ayudar a los talibanes por la policía afgana y la milicia antitalibán. El padre de Barakatullah negó que su hijo estuviera trabajando con los talibanes. El incidente tuvo lugar al sur de la ciudad de Sharana , capital de la provincia de Paktika , y el vídeo del incidente fue subido a TikTok . El equipo de observadores de France 24 pudo verificar y geolocalizar el vídeo. Fawad Aman, portavoz del Ministerio de Defensa afgano , negó que se hubiera producido un incidente de ese tipo. [285] Un periodista afgano, Naseeb Zadran, dijo que no se trataba de un incidente aislado y que reflejaba la impunidad de la que gozaba el ejército afgano. [285] [286]

El 16 de julio, los talibanes mataron a Danish Siddiqui , periodista que trabajaba para Reuters y ganador del premio Pulitzer , en la provincia de Kandahar . El cuerpo del periodista fallecido fue entregado posteriormente a la Cruz Roja y funcionarios sanitarios de la India y Afganistán afirmaron que el cuerpo de Siddiqui había sido gravemente mutilado por los combatientes talibanes. [287]

El 22 de julio, se informó de que hombres armados habían asesinado al menos a 100 personas en el distrito de Spin Boldak , provincia de Kandahar , Afganistán , tras la toma de control del distrito por los talibanes. El gobierno afgano culpó a los talibanes de los asesinatos. [288] Los grupos de derechos humanos también han culpado a los talibanes de una serie de asesinatos por venganza contra personas cercanas al general Abdul Raziq Achakzai en la provincia de Kandahar. [287]

El 1 de agosto, la Fuerza Aérea Afgana bombardeó un pequeño hospital privado en la ciudad de Lashkargah , matando a una persona e hiriendo a otras tres. El propietario del hospital dijo que la Fuerza Aérea Afgana había atacado su hospital porque creían erróneamente que los talibanes estaban recibiendo tratamiento allí. El propietario negó que los combatientes talibanes estuvieran recibiendo tratamiento en su hospital y que el personal de su hospital también se había reducido debido a los intensos combates en la ciudad. [289]

El 6 de agosto, las fuerzas talibanes se atribuyeron la responsabilidad del asesinato, el 5 de agosto, de Dawa Khan Menapal , director del centro de información y medios de comunicación del gobierno, en Kabul. [290] El mismo día, durante el cual los talibanes tomaron el control de Zaranj , el activista de derechos humanos Laal Gul Laal declaró que la ejecución de 30 soldados por los talibanes era un crimen de guerra. Según TOLOnews , algunos de los soldados fueron torturados y los talibanes les extirparon los ojos antes de matarlos. [291]

El 20 de agosto, Amnistía Internacional señaló que una masacre de hazaras perpetrada por los talibanes a principios de julio en la provincia de Ghazni era un "indicador horroroso" de lo que ocurriría en el futuro. [292] Los hombres hazaras fueron fusilados y torturados hasta la muerte de diversas maneras: uno fue estrangulado con su propia bufanda y le cortaron los músculos del brazo, y a otro le dispararon y lo hicieron pedazos. [292]

Factores clave

Los procesos clave en la ofensiva talibán de 2021 comenzaron tras el acuerdo de febrero de 2020 entre Estados Unidos y los talibanes , incluida una sucesión de abajo hacia arriba de rendiciones negociadas o pagadas a los talibanes desde el nivel de aldea hacia arriba, [88] [89] el uso efectivo por parte de los talibanes de las redes sociales en línea [89] y su elección estratégica de atacar las provincias del norte, [109] [89] y la libertad de movimiento de los talibanes en las principales carreteras afganas que resultó de que las Fuerzas de Seguridad Nacional Afganas (ANSF) siguieran la estrategia recomendada por Estados Unidos de sacrificar las áreas rurales a favor de la defensa de los centros urbanos clave. [32] [66] [89]

Tanto la caída del apoyo estadounidense en febrero de 2020 como los cambios en el apoyo estadounidense a partir de abril de 2021 contribuyeron a debilitar la eficacia de la ANSF, al eliminar el apoyo técnico, el software propietario y el apoyo logístico, en particular el apoyo aéreo, después de que la ANSF hubiera sido entrenada como una fuerza armada fuertemente dependiente de una infraestructura aérea de alta tecnología. [110] [111]

No permitimos que se volvieran menos dependientes. Los afganos no podían entregarles los alimentos ni comprarles el combustible, nosotros lo hacíamos por ellos. Así que, básicamente, los hicimos dependientes.

—John Sopko, Inspector General Especial para la Reconstrucción de Afganistán [293]

También se atribuyó la culpa a errores en el entrenamiento de la ANSF por parte de la coalición estadounidense [111], junto con el hecho de que la policía afgana extorsionó a los lugareños y se financió inventando soldados fantasmas . [112] El cambio repentino de la gestión salarial de la ANSF en abril de 2021 a la administración militar afgana provocó meses de salarios de la ANSF sin pagar. [113]

El favoritismo en los nombramientos militares de la ANSF y la incapacidad del presidente Ashraf Ghani para crear un consenso nacional efectivo también fueron vistos como procesos clave que llevaron a la derrota de la ANSF. [110] [61] La falta de confianza de los señores de la guerra locales en el liderazgo político a nivel nacional contribuyó a su voluntad de negociar con los talibanes o rendirse ante ellos. [111]

La estrategia de los talibanes

Sucesión de cesiones negociadas o pagadas

A principios de 2020, los talibanes iniciaron una campaña de negociaciones desde abajo en las aldeas rurales con los funcionarios gubernamentales de menor rango. Los funcionarios llamaron a los acuerdos resultantes "altos el fuego". Según funcionarios afganos y estadounidenses entrevistados por Susannah George de The Washington Post , la palabra "alto el fuego" era engañosa, ya que los talibanes pagaron a los funcionarios para que transfirieran armas de las ANSF a los talibanes. [88] Continuando hasta mediados de 2021, cada rendición sucesiva se utilizó para ayudar a convencer a otros líderes gubernamentales y de aldea y aumentar el tamaño a nivel de distrito, para permitir que las fuerzas talibanes tomaran el control de gran parte de Afganistán sin luchas militares. [88] [89] Después del anuncio del presidente estadounidense Biden en abril de 2021 que confirmaba una retirada total e incondicional de Estados Unidos, la cadena de rendiciones se aceleró, aumentando a nivel de provincia. [88]

La cadena de rendiciones proporcionó mayores recursos en términos de vehículos gubernamentales para transportar a las fuerzas talibanes. [89]

Según oficiales de las fuerzas especiales afganas entrevistados por Susannah George, algunas de las rendiciones estuvieron motivadas por los pagos, mientras que otras se debieron al oportunismo: el deseo de estar en el lado ganador que se volvió creíble después del acuerdo de febrero de 2020 entre Estados Unidos y los talibanes . [88]

Elizabeth Threlkeld, ex funcionaria del Departamento de Estado de Estados Unidos, dijo que el rápido avance de los talibanes y la rendición pacífica de algunas unidades del ejército afgano habían alentado a muchos otros a seguir su ejemplo. [114]

El papel de las redes sociales en línea

Los talibanes utilizaron las redes sociales en línea para convencer a los afganos de que "el gobierno era ilegítimo" y que los talibanes lograrían tomar el control de Afganistán. Saad Mohseni , director de TOLOnews , afirmó que el "alcance de los talibanes era fantástico" y que "aprovecharon las diferencias intratribales, étnicas, religiosas e ideológicas para ganarse a la gente" y explotaron las quejas populares contra el gobierno. [89]

The Washington Post contrasted the Taliban's claims to follow "ancient moral codes" with its "strikingly sophisticated social media tactics to build political momentum". Themes spread by Taliban social media users aimed to override the Taliban's violent reputation while remaining within social content guidelines. The Washington Post suggested that the Taliban were being advised by a public relations firm, like corporate and political actors. The audience for Taliban online social media was seen to be as much international – expatriate Afghans and "Western powers" – as local. The message promoted in mid 2021 was "a gentler, more reassuring face of the Taliban". Taliban spokesperson Suhail Shaheen has 350,000 Twitter followers. Much of Taliban social media communication was carried out on Twitter and WhatsApp, with WhatsApp used to request intervention by the Taliban in solving local problems. The Taliban had mastered effective use of hashtags by 2019.[294]

Northern Afghanistan

During the Afghan Civil War (1996–2001), resistance to the Taliban was strongest in northern Afghanistan, the base of the Northern Alliance. According to the Afghanistan Analysts Network, the Taliban's concentration of its forces in the north may have been an attempt to forestall the creation of a second Northern Alliance after the withdrawal of US forces.[109]

The Afghan government had not expected the Taliban to mount serious attacks in the north.[89]

Freedom of military movement on highways

Andrew Watkins, senior analyst for Afghanistan at the International Crisis Group, said there was no evidence that the Taliban had increased their manpower to conduct this offensive, aside from utilising some of the 5,000 insurgents who had been released earlier.[32] Watkins believes that the end of US airstrikes changed the scenario. He says that the end of US airstrikes granted the insurgents freedom of movement and they were able to regroup, plan and strengthen their supply lines without fear of US airstrikes.[32] An international official interviewed by Voice of America stated that the Taliban had been able to move their forces freely throughout Afghanistan after the US–Taliban deal with almost no intervention from the Afghan government forces.[66]

According to David Zucchino, writing in The New York Times, the ANSF followed US military advice to concentrate their forces on urban centres, allowing rural areas to be sacrificed. The result was that the Taliban took control of most of Afghanistan's main highways in the northern winter of 2020/2021. Zucchino saw this as a key element of the ANSF losing the war against the Taliban. The Taliban control of the highways blocked ANSF supply and reinforcement lines and yielded revenue to the Taliban who taxed truck drivers.[89]

Drop in US support for the ANSF

According to Sami Sadat, a three-star general of the ANSF, the February 2020 US–Taliban deal resulted to an "effectively ... overnight" change in the rules for US air support for the Afghan armed forces, leading to a sudden increase in battle effectiveness by the Taliban. The April 2021 confirmation by US president Biden of the US pullout resulted in the loss of contractors, proprietary software and weapons systems including the Afghan army's helicopter missile-defence system. The Afghan army had been trained on a high-tech military model using helicopters, airstrikes and technically specialised reconnaissance units. According to Sadat, the loss of technical support made the US high-tech army model ineffective, losing helicopter support for resupplying military bases, and aerial and laser-guided weapons.[110]

Ali Yawar Adili, country director of the Afghanistan Analysts Network, said that Afghan officials—including Ghani—never expected that the US would be halting logistical and air support to the Afghan forces. Afghan troops were heavily dependent on logistical and air support provided by the US and they were deeply shocked when US support was withdrawn.[114]

Military historian Frederick Kagan agreed that Biden's way of making, timing and announcing his April 2021 withdrawal decision was a key factor in the defeat of the ANSF. He argued that very few US allies, including NATO members, "have the capacity to provide their own advanced air power, air cover, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance assets".[111]

Issues with Afghan forces

The effect of promises of evacuation on the Afghan military

"Former Afghan president Ashraf Ghani said that some professional military and intelligence officials as well as strong army units were given promises before the fall of Kabul that they would be evacuated, and their departure was one of the main reasons for the collapse of the Afghan military."[295]

Training and funding

According to official US "lessons learned" reports, the US coalition delayed its initial funding of the ANSF when the Taliban were weak after the 2001 US invasion, and when the Taliban were stronger, "[cut] corners on training and funding". The errors in training led to provincial police extorting money from local residents and getting paid for ghost soldiers.[111]

Ghost soldiers

Corrupt Afghan army officers leading ghost battalions, who pocket the salaries of absent soldiers, were a known issue in the Afghan military.[112][296] In a 2016 report, the US Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction (SIGAR) said "neither the United States nor its Afghan allies know how many Afghan soldiers and police actually exist, how many are in fact available for duty, or, by extension, the true nature of their operational capabilities". In early 2019, at least 42,000 ghost soldiers were removed from the army's payroll.[112] However, the same year Afghanistan's Ministry of Defense denied the existence of ghost soldiers in the Afghan military. The ministry's spokesman, Rohullah Ahmadzai, said that all personnel of Afghan military have physical presence on their duties and those who were involved in corruption are under investigation by the ministry.[297]

On 30 July, SIGAR said there were "corrosive effects of corruption within the ANDSF, inaccuracies on the actual strength of the Afghan forces, lack of combat readiness, will to fight, unsustainability due to dependencies on advanced equipment, lack of focus on ministerial-level capabilities, and lack of critical information, such as assessments of district control, that could be used to help measure the ANDSF's performance in recent years".[298]

American intellectual Noam Chomsky has linked the collapse of the Afghan army to the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive by ISIS and 1968 Tet revolt and offensive in Vietnam, in which assessments of governmental forces didn't account for the massive absences due to ghost soldiers led to very similar US military debacles.[299]

Lack of loyalty towards government in Kabul

Many Afghans are more loyal towards their traditional ethnic, tribal and even familial ties than they are to the Afghan army, which the provincial Taliban commanders exploited to negotiate surrender of many troops.[114] Any sense of loyalty towards central government in Kabul is overshadowed by strong loyalty towards tribes and region.[115] Mike Martin, a former British army officer, said that Ghani lacked the political skills to keep Afghanistan's many different ethnic groups loyal to the idea of a national cause.[114] Veteran Italian general and a former Chief of Staff of International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), Giorgio Battisti, said the division of Afghanistan along the tribal lines and loyalties is "stronger than loyalty to any institution". He said that an ethnic Tajik Afghan sent to Helmand province does not understand why he has to defend ethnic Pashtun Afghans there.[300]

Anatol Lieven, a British scholar-journalist, writes that Afghanistan "is divided along many lines, which often crisscross one another in highly confusing ways". There is tension and mistrust between different Afghan ethnic groups like Pashtuns, Tajiks, Uzbeks and Hazaras, and a deep divide between the liberal world of educated Afghans in Kabul and the people who live in the deeply conservative countryside. Lieven says that while Afghanistan has a central government and an army, in practice the central government is incapable of extending its administration to most of its own territory, or of keeping its own followers loyal to the state rather than other centers of power.[301]

On the other hand, the Taliban were united by a militant Islamist ideology.[115]

Salary payment management

For years the Pentagon was responsible for paying salary directly to the Afghan soldiers.[113] The responsibility for those payment was transferred to the Kabul government since the announcement of planned withdrawal in April. Since then numerous Afghan soldiers have complained that they have not been paid in months and in many cases their units were no longer receiving food, supplies or ammunition.[113] Gen. Wesley Clark, a former NATO supreme allied commander, told CNN that many Afghan soldiers saw the job in military as paycheck, and not a cause. He said that Afghan military is composed of various tribes and factions that were historically at odds with each other. He also said that it is an old Afghan trick to side with the winner or at least stay away from the losing side, and that is why Afghan military disintegrated so quickly.[302]

Senior Afghan officials also sold fuel and ammunition supplies belonging to Afghan security forces.[303]

Military politicisation

The politicisation of Afghan military resulted in unqualified politicians,[110] loyal to Ashraf Ghani, securing key positions in Afghan military.[61] Hamdullah Mohib, Ghani's national security adviser, took direct control of military operations despite having no military experience. According to several senior government officials and diplomats, Mohib's orders often bypassed the normal chain of command.[32][31] Experts say that there were Generals in Afghan security forces that were put in charge through connections rather than capability.[304]

Vali Nasr blamed Ghani for "fail[ing] from day one to create a political consensus in Kabul" to resist the Taliban.[111]

General Sami Sadat said that while defending Lashkargah from Taliban forces, he was named as commander of the ANSF special forces by president Ashraf Ghani, effectively forcing him to stop leading his unit and arrive in Kabul on 15 August, by which time Sadat states that he "never even had a chance" of securing Kabul.[110]

Alleged human rights abuses

Patricia Gossman, a senior Human Rights Watch researcher, told Insider that issues such as human rights abuses and corruption undermined state credibility in the eyes of Afghan communities and played a big role in the country's fall. Gossman said that US and its allies had aligned themselves with notorious figures in Afghanistan who were reviled by many communities because of atrocities committed by them in the past.[304] Afghan leaders within the government, military, and police have been accused of crimes ranging from corruption to murder, rape, torture, and war crimes. Asadullah Khalid, a former Afghan defense minister, was allegedly engaged in or ordered torture, sexual violence, and extrajudicial killings, according to Human Rights Watch. Abdul Raziq Achakzai, a former Afghan National Police chief, was accused of running secret detention centers and carrying out or ordering torture and extrajudicial killings by human right organisations. Erol Yayboke, a Center for Strategic and International Studies expert, told Insider that when it came to Afghanistan, the US and its allies were "choosing the least bad partner."[304]

Foreign support for the Taliban

Pakistan

The Taliban's victory was facilitated by support from Pakistan. Although Pakistan was a major US ally before and after the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, elements of the Pakistan government (including the military and intelligence services) have for decades maintained strong logistical and tactical ties with Taliban militants, and this support helped support the insurgency in Afghanistan.[305][306] For example, the Haqqani Network, a Taliban affiliate based on Pakistan, had strong support from Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), the Pakistan intelligence agency.[305] Taliban leaders found a safe haven in Pakistan, lived in the country, transacted business and earned funds there, and receiving medical treatment there.[305][306] Some elements of the Pakistani establishment sympathized with Taliban ideology, and many Pakistan officials considered the Taliban as an asset against India.[305][306] Bruce Riedel noted that "The Pakistani army believes Afghanistan provides strategic depth against India, which is their obsession."[306]

Russia and Iran

Dr. Antonio Giustozzi, a senior research fellow at Royal United Services Institute on terrorism and conflict, wrote, "Both the Russians and the Iranians helped the Taliban advance at a breakneck pace in May–August 2021. They contributed to funding and equipping them, but perhaps even more importantly they helped them by brokering deals with parties, groups and personalities close to either country, or even both. [...] The Revolutionary Guards helped the Taliban's advance in western Afghanistan, including by lobbying various strongmen and militia commanders linked to Iran not to resist the Taliban."[307]

Local warlord loyalties

On 12 August, former US adviser Vali Nasr, said that there was "no kind of leadership that would give local warlords reasons for why they should resist the Taliban. So the more they see the Taliban victory is inevitable, the more the victory becomes inevitable, because they just cut their own deals with them".[111]

US assessments

On 8 July, US President Joe Biden stated: "The likelihood there's going to be the Taliban overrunning everything and owning the whole country is highly unlikely."[308]

On 23 June, the United States Intelligence Community estimated that the Afghan government could fall within the next six months following the US withdrawal.[309] On 10 August, US officials revised the previous six month estimate, saying that it could happen much more quickly, and that some scenarios envisioned the fall of Kabul within 30 to 90 days.[310][311] On 13 August, reports appeared that "senior Western diplomatic sources" expected the Taliban to enter Kabul within the next seven days.[312]

On 8 July, US President Joe Biden speaking to reporters in a press conference, said that a Taliban takeover of Afghanistan is not inevitable, stating, "the Afghan troops have 300,000 well-equipped—as well-equipped as any army in the world—and an air force against something like 75,000 Taliban". Biden said that the US intelligence community had not assessed that the Afghan government would likely collapse. When asked about whether there were parallels between this withdrawal and what happened in Vietnam, the President replied:

"None whatsoever. Zero. What you had is—you had entire brigades breaking through the gates of our embassy—six, if I'm not mistaken. The Taliban is not the south—the North Vietnamese army. They're not—they're not remotely comparable in terms of capability. There's going to be no circumstance where you see people being lifted off the roof of an embassy in the—of the United States from Afghanistan. It is not at all comparable."

Biden added that "...the likelihood there's going to be the Taliban overrunning everything and owning the whole country is highly unlikely".[313] On 15 August, during the entrance of the Taliban into Kabul, diplomats and staff were evacuated from the US embassy in Kabul via US Black Hawk and Chinook helicopters.[314]

On 11 July, Pentagon press secretary John Kirby said that the ANDSF "have much more capacity than they've ever had before" and, "they know how to defend their country". On 9 August, Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction John Sopko stated that the US military command "knew how bad the Afghan military was".[66]

On 12 August, US officials said that the surprising speed of the Taliban offensive[315] was connected to both structural and political issues, such as early under-investment in local governments, lack of sufficient nation building, societal structures in clans, topography, ghost soldiers[296] and unequal quality of troops,[clarification needed] as well as the recent peace agreement and amnesty of Taliban prisoners.[111][316]

A report from the American Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction (SIGAR) released on 17 August found that the US had "struggled to develop and implement a coherent strategy" for the war and that "if the goal was to rebuild and leave a country that could sustain itself and pose little threat to US national security interests, the overall picture is bleak". The report also found that the US prioritised internal political interests instead of Afghan interests, that it had demonstrated ignorance of local context, and had wasted billions of dollars on unsustainable and bureaucratic projects.[317]

Former CENTCOM commander Frank McKenzie said that ultimately the responsibility lay with "the chain of command". The initial invasion of Afghanistan, intended to disrupt Al Qaeda's networks, had ballooned into a nation building project: "an attempt to impose a form of government, a state, that would be a state the way that we recognize a state." According to McKenzie, the US "lost track of why we were there".[318]

Aftermath

Civilian exodus

Afghans fleeing aboard a US Boeing C-17 Globemaster III during the Fall of Kabul, 15 August 2021. The Taliban offensive resulted in an exodus of Afghans.
Taliban militants and civilians in front of Hamid Karzai International Airport, 17 August 2021
A US Marine escorting Afghan evacuees during the Kabul airlift, 19 August 2021
Repatriation operations from Afghanistan in August 2021

One of the consequences of the declining socio-political situation in Afghanistan was the increasing migration flow of citizens. The spillover effects of the Taliban offensive meant that thousands of civilians had started considering migrating. These migrants did not await the culmination of the war and started their move in the summer of 2021.

As the offensive was gathering pace, hundreds of Afghans in the north-east crossed across the border to Tajikistan in early July.[319] By mid-July, Tajikistan reported that 1,000 civilians had crossed into its territory. Meanwhile, the government of Pakistan, which shares a long border with Afghanistan, ruled out taking more refugees on top of the existing ones residing there.[320]

In late July, 1,500 migrants were detained along the Iranian border.[321] Many others made the 1,000 mile (1,600 km) journey across Iran to cross into eastern Turkey;[321] 200 Afghan migrants were intercepted by Turkey en route to Europe. Turkey announced the construction of a border barrier along the Iran–Turkey border, where many refugees cross into Turkey en route to Europe.[321]

The government of Tajikistan committed to accepting up to 100,000 Afghan refugees as reported on 23 July, several weeks before the fall of Kabul.[322]

On 7 August, Pakistan once again reported that it will not accept additional refugees, deploying its army along the border.[323]

When Kabul fell on 15 August, thousands of Afghans attempting to flee the country rushed to the airport. In desperation, several people clung to the side of a US military plane, falling to their deaths when the plane took off. US troops eventually had to fire warning shots to clear paths for the aircraft, which were evacuating Afghan government officials.[324]

On 17 August, India announced that it will issue an emergency e-visa to all Afghan nationals who want to come to the country, having "already received requests from Afghan Sikh and Hindu community leaders".[325][326][327] Due to the sealed India–Pakistan border however, an influx of Afghan refugees coming through Pakistan was not a concern to the Indian government.[328]

A small number of refugees entered Nepal via the India–Nepal border.[329]

Both Uzbekistan and Tajikistan reported that they will temporarily host Afghan refugees as of the end of August 2021.[330]

Resettlements in other regions

On 5 August, six European Union (EU) member states, including Germany, urged the European Commission to continue deporting rejected asylum seekers back to Afghanistan despite major advances by Taliban.[331] A few days later, Germany and the Netherlands temporarily suspended the deportation of Afghan refugees as Taliban insurgents captured more territory.[332]

In early August 2021, a crisis emerged when a group of 32 Afghans alongside many other migrants appeared on the Belarus–Poland border near the Polish village of Usnarz Górny and were denied entry to either country, resulting in lines of military personnel on each side isolating the encamped migrants. Their appearance follows an influx of thousands of mostly Iraqi Kurdish migrants that had crossed the border from Belarus into Poland and other eastern European Union (EU) members Latvia and Lithuania in the months leading up to the fall of Kabul, with the EU claiming that Belarus purposefully engineered the migration in response to union sanctions. While the Belarusian government denied this accusation, Poland called it a "hybrid attack" on the bloc and said the migrants should not be allowed entry because they are technically still in Belarus. After the migrants sought asylum assistance, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) summoned Poland and Latvia to provide them "food, water, clothing, adequate medical care and, if possible, temporary shelter" for three weeks, according to a statement from the court on 25 August, although neither country was ordered to allow the migrants past the border.[333]

On 13 August, the Canadian government announced that Canada will resettle more than 20,000 Afghan citizens from groups it considers likely targets of the Taliban. The United Kingdom said it will allow 20,000 Afghans to settle in the UK, and the US appears likely to relocate up to 30,000 Afghan SIV applicants into the United States.[334] Australia promised to resettle more than 3,000 Afghan refugees.[335] Germany said it will take in about 10,000 Afghans.[336]

More than 300,000 Afghan civilians risk Taliban retaliation because they worked for the US government.[337] As of 17 August, there were about 11,000 American citizens stranded in Taliban-held Afghanistan.[338]

On 17 August, the British government announced that it would be establishing a resettlement scheme for up to 20,000 Afghan refugees; prioritising women, children, and minorities.[339] On 19 August, the government of Finland announced it planned to double its refugee quota to take in more from Afghanistan.[340] The Philippines also expressed openness to accept refugees from Afghanistan.[341] European Parliament President David Sassoli called for EU countries to take in their fair share of refugees, stating that the EU "will have to show it cares about respecting ethics."[342] The Spanish government created a temporary refugee camp in the air base of Torrejón de Ardoz, which was later visited by officials from the European Union, including president of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen and president of the European Council Charles Michel. Von der Leyen praised Sánchez government's initiative, stating that the actions of Spain represent "a good example of the European soul at its best".[343] US President Joe Biden spoke with Sánchez to allow the use of the military bases of Rota and Morón to temporarily accommodate Afghan refugees, while praising "Spain's leadership in seeking international support for Afghan women and girls".[344][345]

However, some governments began indicating a hostile attitude towards refugees.[346][347][348] In a press conference, French president Emmanuel Macron stated that France needed to "anticipate and protect itself from a wave of migrants".[349][350] The Austrian government announced that it would not suspend deportations to Afghanistan, unlike several other EU countries.[351] Australian Minister of Defence Peter Dutton suggested in a TV interview that allowing Afghan civilians who had worked with the Australian government to claim asylum in Australia could pose a security risk and that "we don't know enough about those individuals".[352] The government of Uzbekistan has warned that it will suppress harshly any attempts to illegally cross its border. It has however opened its airport in Tashkent for refugees, who will be immediately redirected to flights to Berlin as part of its agreement with Germany.[348] In Kazakhstan, rumours regarding the Afghan migrant issues gained traction on social media in which the authorities were accused of allegedly preparing to accept as many as 70,000 refugees, with some claims that 500 Afghans had already arrived in Shymkent airport in which the Kazakh Foreign Affairs Ministry issued a response, dismissing the claims with the Kazakh government assuring that any assistance would only be provided to the UN staff.[353]

The Government of Sebastián Piñera in Chile announced it would accept about ten refugee families.[354] Meanwhile, the government of Colombia is planning to temporarily receive up to 4,000 Afghan nationals per request of the United States government.[355]

The US State Department issued a statement that relocation cases would be processed in third countries, citing Turkey as a possible venue. The US had not previously discussed this possibility with Turkey. According to Bloomberg News, Turkey responded negatively and "blasted the US for recommending that Afghans fearful of a vengeful Taliban seek asylum in America from third countries". Turkey already hosts around six million refugees of the Syrian Civil War, more than any other country, and officials said it does not have the capacity to absorb the wave of refugees from Afghanistan and that it was "irresponsible" of the US administration to make these types of plans without consultation or discussion.[356]

By 1 September 2021, the total number of evacuees numbered 124,334 people, while the total number of American service members and personnel killed in action were 2,461, with more than 20,000 Americans wounded in action. These numbers do not reflect the number of contractors and allied forces who were killed in action, nor the tens of thousands of Afghan National Security forces and civilians who lost their lives in this conflict.[357]

Equipment losses

According to a report published on the Oryx blog,[80] since June, the Taliban captured 12 tanks (seven T-54s and five T-62s), 51 armoured fighting vehicles (46 M1117 ASVs, two M1117 Command & Controls and three M113 APCs), 61 mortars and artillery pieces (35 122mm D-30 howitzers, three 76 mm divisional gun M1942 (ZiS-3)s, one 120 mm mortar, two 82 mm M69 mortars, one 60 mm mortar and 19 mortars of unknown origin), eight anti-aircraft guns (two 14.5mm KPV-1s and six 23mm ZU-23s), 16 helicopters (nine Mil Mi-17s, one Mil Mi-24V, four UH-60A Black Hawks and two MD 530Fs), six unmanned aerial vehicles (six Boeing Insitu ScanEagles), and 1,973 trucks, vehicles and jeeps from the Afghan armed forces.[78][358] The Taliban also destroyed nine M1117 ASVs, four Mi-17s and three UH-60A BlackHawks, one DJI Mavic and 104 trucks, vehicles and jeeps. Oryx only counts destroyed vehicles and equipment of which photo or videographic evidence is available.[78]

Since 2 July, US aircraft attacked military equipment captured by the insurgents, destroying D30 howitzers, tanks, MRAPs and Humvees.[71]

US airmen evacuating their final CH-47 Chinook onto a C-17 Globemaster III at Kabul Airport in August 2021.

On 25 August, Alexander Mikheev, the head of the Russian state exporter Rosoboronexporter, told Interfax news agency that the Taliban had captured more than 100 Mi-17 Hip helicopters of various types. Mikheev also said that a large part of this helicopter fleet could be grounded as the fleet require repairs, maintenance and spare parts. The Guardian newspaper reported that Mikheev's estimate for the number of Russian-made helicopters in Afghanistan is significantly more than the reported inventory.[359]

In the aftermath of the Taliban takeover, claims circulated that $85 billion worth of military equipment fell into Taliban hands. However, the estimated figure is inaccurate.[360][361] Total US equipment and transportation funding for the Afghanistan Security Forces Fund from the 20-year period from 2001 to 2021 is estimated at $18 billion[360] or $24 billion.[361] The actual value of military equipment seized by the Taliban is significantly less, because by the time of the Taliban takeover, most of the military equipment had been used up, rendered inoperable, removed from Afghanistan, decommissioned, or destroyed.[360][361] In the years and months preceding the 2021 Taliban offense, the US military had also removed a large amount of military equipment and weapons.[360] In the period immediately prior to the withdrawal, the US destroyed 70 MRAPs, 27 Humvees, and 73 aircraft, as well as CRAM systems and armored vehicles.[360][361] The total number of aircraft, vehicles, and other equipment seized by the Taliban is unknown, and possibly is not even known by the Taliban itself.[362]

It is expected that the value and utility of the equipment will decrease significantly if, as expected, the Taliban is unable to maintain the equipment or make spare parts for some of it.[360][361] The Taliban does have the capacity to maintain some equipment through cannibalization, skills learned from the internet, and mechanics who choose to work for the Taliban or are coerced into doing so. This capability is especially relevant for ground vehicles, which are more useful to the Taliban than the leftover aircraft.[362] The Taliban also lacks the technical expertise to operate some captured equipment.[360][362] For example, the Taliban lack trained pilots capable of operating Black Hawk helicopters, and likely also lack the expertise to operate some military encrypted radios and anti-IED jamming devices.[362] On the other hand, the Taliban has used US-made small arms such as M16s and M4s, and could also train pilots to operate fixed-wing C-208s, PC-12s, and A-29s.[362] Former US Army General Joseph Votel said that the majority of the captured equipment was not equipped with any sensitive US technology.[363]

The Taliban could sell captured military equipment to generate revenue for the new Taliban government, Jonathan Schroden of the CNA Corp. wrote that "it seems likely that at least some of the Taliban's newfound small arms will find their way to Kashmir, the Middle East, Africa and beyond."[362] US officials expressed concern that the weapons captured by the Taliban could be handed over to US rivals or used to target US interests in the region.[364] Ben Wallace, UK defence minister, expressed concern that Taliban could sell the military equipment to shadowy mercenaries, such as the Wagner Group.[365]

In September, images shared online on social media showed Iranian army trucks transporting US armored vehicles, which allegedly belonged to the Afghan army before the Taliban takeover, on a highway connecting the central city of Semnan to the city of Garmsar, southeast of the capital Tehran.[364] The vehicles included Humvees and heavily armored mine-resistant vehicles. A social media channel also claimed that Iran has taken possession of some US tanks.[366] Bismillah Khan Mohammadi, former Afghanistan's defense minister and one of the current leader of National Resistance Front, tweeted one of the images circulating online and called Iran a “bad neighbor.”[367]

Human rights

Female MPs have gone into hiding since the offensive.[368]

Protests and resistance

Protest in Rotterdam, Netherlands, against the Taliban's take over, 21 August 2021

After the fall of Kabul, former Northern Alliance members and anti-Taliban figures formed a military alliance called the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan, under the leadership of Ahmad Massoud and former Vice President Amrullah Saleh.[369][370] They have based themselves in the Panjshir Valley, which was a major base of operations for the original Northern Alliance.[17][371] On 17 August 2021, Afghan Vice President Amrullah Saleh declared himself caretaker President of Afghanistan in Panjshir Valley.[372]With the fall of Kabul, former Northern Alliance members and other anti-Taliban forces based in Panjshir, led by Ahmad Massoud and former Vice President Amrullah Saleh, became the primary organized resistance to the Taliban in Afghanistan.[123][27][373] The Afghan embassy in Tajikistan replaced their presidential portrait of Ghani with one of Saleh, and submitted a request to Interpol to have arrest warrants issued for Ghani, along with his chief advisor Fazel Mahmood and National Security Advisor Hamdullah Mohib, on charges of having stolen from the Afghan treasury.[374] On 1 September, talks broke down and fighting resumed as the Taliban attacked resistance positions.[375] On 6 September, the Taliban took full control of the Panjshir province, with resistance fighters retreating to the mountains to continue fighting within the province.[376][377]

As of 3 September 2021, in addition to the opposition in the Panjshir, there are also districts in the centre of Afghanistan that are still in resistance against the Taliban, supported by ethnic and religious minorities.[378]

Protests

The Taliban immediately replaced the previous flag (left) with the traditional black-red-green colors, with their own white flag (right). The traditional flag became a symbol for resistance during anti-Taliban protests.[379]

On 17 August, a small protest was held by several women in Kabul demanding equal rights for women, the first reported women's protest against the new regime.[380]On 18 August, larger protests also attended by men emerged in three eastern Pashtun-dominated cities: Jalalabad, Khost, and Asadabad, with protestors waving the flag of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, and taking down the Taliban flag.[381][382][383] In Jalalabad, the Taliban opened fire, killing three and wounding over a dozen.[384] On 19 August, demonstrations spread to various parts of Kabul, including one large protest near Kabul Airport where cars and people waved the flag of the republic, and another with over 200 people gathered near the presidential palace in Kabul before it was violently dispersed by the Taliban.[379][385][386] Protests continued in Khost and Asadabad as well, with the Taliban using violence to disperse protests in both. In Asadabad, protests were reported as swelling to the hundreds.[384]

Creation of new state

More than three weeks after the fall of Kabul, the new Taliban rulers announced the creation of a government cabinet for the new state named Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The cabinet is all male, and is heavily dominated by ethnic Pashtuns, with only three members being of other ethnicity.[387] Hasan Akhund was named acting prime minister.[388] As of January 2024, the cabinet officially remains in an interim state over two years after its formation.[389]

As of 13 March 2022, there is no other country that has officially recognized the Taliban's new state.[390][391] However, Turkish foreign minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu has expressed the intention to internationally recognize the Islamic Emirate.[392] The Chinese government has accepted credentials of the Islamic Emirate's ambassador to Beijing.[393]

Security situation

Conflict-related deaths in Afghanistan from 2020 to 2023

Violence in the country sharply declined in the year after the Taliban takeover of Kabul, with conflict-related deaths falling by 91% for the year 2022 compared to 2021.[394] Taliban officials as well as civilians have come under attack by terror attacks committed by the Islamic State – Khorasan Province[395] - which have also caused increasing attacks in border regions of neighboring Pakistan[396] - as well as the hit-and-run guerilla campaign by the National Resistance Front targeting Taliban.[397]

Tourist numbers in post-war Afghanistan have increased by 120% in the year 2023 compared to 2022.[398]

Economic situation

The Service sector, making up almost half of the country's economy, fell by 30% in 2021. Within two years of the Taliban's victory, the overall economy of Afghanistan had contracted by 25%.[399] According to Gallup polls, the number of Afghans struggling to afford commodities or struggling to find work has increased after the events of 2021.[400]

Opium cultivation has dropped by 95% between 2022 and 2023 following an enforced ban by the new Taliban administration.[401]

International and local reactions

Some Afghan politicians closely associated with the US-backed Afghan government, including Gul Agha Sherzai, the former governor of Nangahar province, congratulated Taliban on their victory.[402]

Iran's president, Ebrahim Raisi, said that the 'defeat' of United States in Afghanistan should offer an opportunity to “revive life, security and lasting peace” in Afghanistan.[403] Raisi also said that Iran wanted good relations with Afghanistan and that Iran is closely monitoring the situation in Afghanistan.[404]

Pakistan's National Security Committee (NSC) reiterated that Pakistan wants an inclusive form of political settlement in Afghanistan which represents all Afghan ethnic groups. The committee also reaffirmed that Pakistan would continue to work with the international community and all Afghan stakeholders to facilitate an inclusive political settlement in Afghanistan.[405][406] The Pakistani foreign minister stated "concern over the deteriorating situation in Afghanistan" but said that Pakistan has no intention to close its embassy in Kabul.[407] While launching Pakistan's Single National Curriculum, Pakistan's Prime Minister Imran Khan contrasted Pakistan with Afghanistan: he argued that while Pakistan's education system imposed "mental slavery" on its students (by teaching them that foreign cultures were superior), the Afghans had recently broken the "shackles of slavery".[408][409] His remarks were criticized (with critics pointing out that Khan himself was foreign educated[410]) and Khan said his remarks were taken out of context.[411] Pakistan Intelligence Agency's (ISI) chief Faiz Hameed visited Kabul and met with Taliban leadership as well as other Afghan leaders including former prime minister Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. The meeting was seen as an unconventional means of contact between the two countries in the absence of a government in Afghanistan.[412] The visit was purportedly to get berths for the Haqqanis in the new Government, demonstrating their, "clout" over the Taliban.[413] According to the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, the Inter-Services Intelligence Directorate shares an undeniable link with the Taliban, especially the Haqqani group.[414]

United States president Joe Biden stated that he either had to stick to the deal his predecessor made with the Taliban and continue to pull out or send in more troops and risk their lives.[415]

The Chinese state-run tabloid Global Times blamed the United States and its allies for what they called "the disaster in Afghanistan". The Communist Party's People's Daily flatteringly credited the Taliban's victory to its supposed adoption of Mao Zedong's "people's war" tactic: rallying the support of the rural population, while drawing the enemy deep into the countryside.[416]

Russia's UN representative stated that it is time for national reconciliation, with law and order returning to the streets and of "the ending of many years of bloodshed". Russian President, Vladimir Putin said, "It's important not to allow terrorists to spill into neighbouring countries". Zamir Kabulov, President Putin's special envoy to Afghanistan, said the Taliban were easier to negotiate with than the old "puppet government" of exiled President Ashraf Ghani.[417]

On 14 September, the European Parliament passed a resolution deploring the Taliban for taking over Afghanistan via force of arms, failure to uphold promises for an inclusive government, not respecting human rights and freedoms of the Afghan people, and for fighting the NRF.[418]

Potential al-Qaeda resurgence

According to a US defense official, the security vacuum left by the withdrawal of US military forces could create an opening for al-Qaeda and other terrorist groups to reorganize. The official added that, while the US would still maintain authority to strike al-Qaeda targets in Afghanistan, the lack of a robust US presence on the ground would hamper the ability to identify potential targets. The CENTCOM commander Kenneth F. McKenzie Jr. said that he has not seen anything that would make him believe the Taliban would stop al-Qaeda from using Afghanistan to strengthen and rebuild.[419]

British Defence Secretary Ben Wallace said that the vacuum could give terrorist groups like al-Qaeda another chance for a safe haven.[420]

On 8 August, the head of extremist monitoring group SITE, Rita Katz, said that the Taliban advance resembled the earlier days of the Syrian civil war amid al-Nusra Front's victories, "except now on a completely different scale, given the Taliban's horrifying momentum".[421]

Kazakh political scientist Dosym Satpaev warned that a Taliban takeover could possibly pave a way for other fundamental Islamist forces in an attempt to form a merger state of Central Asia and Afghanistan.[422]

Potential Jaish-e-Mohammed resurgence

After the Taliban seizure of Afghanistan, The Hindu claimed that many Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) cadres were released, the JeM and Taliban have held meetings and the JeM has been assured of all support in carrying out its terrorist activities in India.[423] However, Taliban spokesman Zabiullah Mujahid, in an interview with India Today denied any meeting taking place between Taliban and JeM leadership. The spokesman also said that Taliban will not allow Afghanistan to be used against India or any other countries.[424]

See also

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