Los rollos ilustrados , emakimono (絵巻物, lit. ' rollo ilustrado ' , también emaki-mono ) o emaki (絵巻) son un sistema de narración horizontal ilustrada de rollos pintados que se remonta al período Nara (710-794 d. C.) en Japón . Inicialmente copiaban el estilo de sus contrapartes chinas mucho más antiguas, pero durante los períodos Heian (794-1185) y Kamakura (1185-1333) posteriores, los emakimono japoneses desarrollaron su propio estilo distintivo. Por lo tanto, el término se refiere solo a los rollos narrativos pintados japoneses.
Al igual que los pergaminos chinos y coreanos, los emakimono combinan caligrafía e ilustraciones y están pintados, dibujados o estampados sobre largos rollos de papel o seda que, a veces, miden varios metros. El lector desenrolla cada pergamino poco a poco, revelando la historia a su antojo. Los emakimono son, por tanto, un género narrativo cercano al libro, que desarrolla historias románticas o épicas, o bien ilustra textos religiosos y leyendas. Plenamente ancladas en el estilo yamato-e , estas obras japonesas son, ante todo, un arte cotidiano, centrado en el ser humano y en las sensaciones transmitidas por el artista.
Aunque los primeros emakimono del siglo VIII eran copias de obras chinas, los emakimono de gusto japonés aparecieron a partir del siglo X en la corte imperial Heian , especialmente entre damas aristocráticas de vida refinada y solitaria, que se dedicaban a las artes, la poesía, la pintura, la caligrafía y la literatura. Sin embargo, no quedan emakimonos del periodo Heian, y las obras maestras más antiguas datan de la "edad de oro" del emakimono en los siglos XII y XIII. Durante este periodo, las técnicas de composición se perfeccionaron mucho y los temas eran aún más variados que antes, tratando sobre historia, religión, romances y otros cuentos famosos. Los mecenas que patrocinaron la creación de estos emakimonos fueron sobre todo los aristócratas y los templos budistas. A partir del siglo XIV, el género emakimono se volvió más marginal, dando paso a nuevos movimientos nacidos principalmente del budismo zen .
Las pinturas emakimono pertenecen en su mayoría al estilo yamato-e , caracterizado por sus temas de la vida y los paisajes japoneses, la puesta en escena de lo humano y un énfasis en los colores ricos y una apariencia decorativa. El formato del emakimono , rollos largos de altura limitada, requiere la solución de todo tipo de problemas de composición: primero es necesario hacer las transiciones entre las diferentes escenas que acompañan la historia, elegir un punto de vista que refleje la narración y crear un ritmo que exprese lo mejor posible los sentimientos y emociones del momento. En general, existen así dos categorías principales de emakimono : aquellos que alternan la caligrafía y la imagen, ilustrando cada nuevo cuadro el texto precedente, y aquellos que presentan cuadros continuos, no interrumpidos por el texto, donde varias medidas técnicas permiten las transiciones fluidas entre las escenas.
En la actualidad, los emakimono ofrecen una visión histórica única de la vida y las costumbres de los japoneses, de todas las clases sociales y todas las edades, durante la primera parte de la época medieval. Pocos de los pergaminos han sobrevivido intactos y alrededor de 20 están protegidos como Tesoros Nacionales de Japón .
El término emakimono o e-makimono , a menudo abreviado como emaki , está formado por los kanji e (絵, "pintura") , maki (巻, "rollo" o "libro") y mono (物, "cosa") . [1] El término se refiere a largos rollos de papel pintado o seda, cuya longitud varía desde menos de un metro hasta varios metros; se informa que algunos miden hasta 12 metros (40 pies) de longitud. [2] Los rollos cuentan una historia o una sucesión de anécdotas (como crónicas literarias o parábolas budistas), combinando elementos pictóricos y narrativos, cuya combinación caracteriza los movimientos artísticos dominantes en Japón entre los siglos XII y XIV. [2]
El emakimono se lee, según el método tradicional, sentado sobre una estera y con el pergamino colocado sobre una mesa baja o en el suelo. El lector lo desenrolla con una mano y lo rebobina con la otra, de derecha a izquierda (según la dirección de escritura japonesa). De esta manera, solo se puede ver una parte de la historia (unos 60 centímetros), aunque se puede desenrollar más) y el artista crea una sucesión de imágenes para construir la historia. [3]
Una vez leído el emakimono , el lector debe rebobinar el pergamino en la dirección de lectura original. El emakimono se mantiene cerrado con un cordón y se guarda solo o con otros rollos en una caja destinada a este fin, que a veces está decorada con patrones elaborados. Un emakimono puede constar de varios pergaminos sucesivos según lo requiera la historia: el Hōnen Shōnin Eden estaba formado por 48 pergaminos, aunque el número estándar suele oscilar entre uno y tres. [4]
Un emakimono se compone de dos elementos: las secciones de texto caligráfico conocidas como kotoba-gaki , y las secciones de pinturas denominadas e ; [5] su tamaño, disposición y número varían mucho, dependiendo del período y del artista. En el emakimono inspirado en la literatura, el texto ocupa no menos de dos tercios del espacio, mientras que otras obras más populares, como el Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga , favorecen la imagen, a veces hasta el punto de hacer desaparecer el texto. Los pergaminos tienen una altura limitada (en promedio entre 30 cm (12 in) y 39 cm (15 in)), en comparación con su longitud (en promedio entre 9 m (30 ft) y 12 m (39 ft)), [4] lo que significa que los emakimono están, por lo tanto, limitados a ser leídos solos, históricamente por la aristocracia y los miembros del alto clero. [6]
Se cree que los rollos de mano se inventaron en la India antes del siglo IV d. C. Se utilizaban para textos religiosos y llegaron a China en el siglo I. Los rollos de mano se introdujeron en Japón siglos después a través de la difusión del budismo. El primer rollo de mano japonés que se conserva se creó en el siglo VIII y se centra en la vida de Buda. [2]
Los orígenes de los rollos de mano japoneses se pueden encontrar en China y, en menor medida, en Corea , las principales fuentes de inspiración artística japonesa hasta los tiempos modernos. Las formas de arte narrativo en China se remontan al siglo III d. C. bajo la dinastía Han y al siglo II d. C. bajo la dinastía Zhou , cuya cerámica estaba adornada con escenas de caza yuxtapuestas con movimientos. [7] El papel se inventó en China alrededor del siglo I d. C., simplificando la escritura en rollos de leyes o sutras, a veces decorados. Los primeros rollos narrativos llegaron más tarde; varios maestros mostraron interés en este medio, incluido Gu Kaizhi (345-406), que experimentó con nuevas técnicas. La pintura de género y los caracteres chinos, dominantes en los rollos hasta el siglo X d. C., siguen siendo poco conocidos hasta el día de hoy, porque fueron eclipsados por los famosos rollos de paisajes de la dinastía Song . [7]
Las relaciones con Asia oriental (principalmente China y Corea) trajeron la escritura china ( kanji ) a Japón hacia el siglo IV, y el budismo en el siglo VI, junto con el interés en la aparentemente muy eficaz burocracia del poderoso Imperio chino . En el período Nara , los japoneses se inspiraron en la dinastía Tang : [8] administración, arquitectura, costumbres de vestir o ceremonias. Los intercambios entre China y Japón también fueron fructíferos para las artes, principalmente las artes religiosas, y los artistas del archipiélago japonés estaban ansiosos por copiar y apropiarse de las técnicas continentales. En ese contexto, los expertos suponen que los primeros pergaminos pintados chinos llegaron a las islas alrededor del siglo VI d.C., y probablemente corresponden a sutras ilustrados. Así, el pergamino pintado narrativo japonés más antiguo conocido (o emakimono ) data del siglo VII al período Nara: el Sutra ilustrado de causa y efecto , que traza la vida de Gautama Buda , fundador de la religión budista, hasta su Iluminación. [9] De estilo todavía ingenuo ( Seis Dinastías y principios de la dinastía Tang), con las pinturas dispuestas en frisos sobre el texto, es muy probable que sea una copia de un modelo chino más antiguo, del que se han identificado varias versiones. [10] [11] Aunque los emakimono clásicos posteriores presentan un estilo muy diferente al de esta obra, presagian la edad de oro del movimiento que llegó cuatro siglos después, a partir del siglo XII d. C. [8]
El período Heian aparece hoy como un auge de la civilización japonesa a través de la cultura de la corte del emperador, aunque la intriga y el desinterés en las cosas del estado dieron como resultado la Guerra Genpei . [12] Esta percepción surge de la estética y el arte de vivir codificado y refinado que se desarrolló en la corte Heian, así como de una cierta moderación y melancolía nacidas del sentimiento de la impermanencia de las cosas (un estado mental conocido como mono no awareness en japonés). [13] Además, la ruptura de relaciones con China hasta el siglo IX, debido a los desórdenes relacionados con el colapso de la gloriosa dinastía Tang , promovió lo que Miyeko Murase ha descrito como el "surgimiento del gusto nacional" como una cultura verdaderamente japonesa que se apartó por primera vez de la influencia china desde el período Kofun temprano . [14] Este desarrollo se observó por primera vez en la literatura de las mujeres Heian: a diferencia de los hombres, que estudiaban escritura china desde una edad temprana, las mujeres adoptaron un nuevo silabario , el hiragana , que era más simple y más consistente con la fonética del japonés. [15] Las novelas del período Heian ( monogatari ) y los diarios ( nikki ) registraron detalles íntimos sobre la vida, los amoríos y las intrigas en la corte a medida que se desarrollaban; el más conocido de estos es el radical Cuento de Genji de Murasaki Shikibu , dama de compañía de la Corte Imperial del siglo X. [16] [17]
Los inicios de la técnica pictórica del periodo Heian de inspiración japonesa, denominada retrospectivamente yamato-e , se pueden encontrar inicialmente en algunos aspectos de la pintura budista de las nuevas sectas esotéricas Tendai y Shingon , luego con más fuerza en el Budismo de la Tierra Pura ( Jodō ); después de una fase en la que se copiaron las técnicas chinas, el arte del archipiélago japonés se volvió progresivamente más delicado, lírico, decorativo con composiciones menos poderosas pero más coloridas. [18] Sin embargo, fue especialmente en el arte secular donde el naciente yamato-e se sintió con más fuerza; [19] sus orígenes se remontan a las particiones y biombos deslizantes del Palacio Imperial Heian , cubiertos de pinturas sobre papel o seda, cuyos temas se elegían de la poesía de la corte waka , los ritos anuales, las estaciones o las famosas vidas y paisajes del archipiélago ( meisho-e ). [20]
Este arte secular se extendió luego entre los nobles, especialmente entre las damas interesadas en la ilustración de novelas, y parece haber llegado a ser predominante a principios del siglo X. Al igual que con la pintura religiosa, los temas de la vida japonesa, apreciados por los nobles, no encajaban bien con la pintura de sensibilidad china, hasta tal punto que los artistas de la corte desarrollaron hasta cierto punto una nueva técnica nacional que pareció estar de moda en el siglo XI, [21] por ejemplo en los paisajes estacionales de las pinturas sobre tabla del Salón del Fénix (鳳凰堂, Hōō-dō ) o el Salón Amida en el templo Byōdō-in , una obra maestra del yamato-e primitivo de principios del siglo XI. [22]
Los expertos creen que las ilustraciones yamato-e de novelas y pergaminos narrativos pintados, o emakimono , se desarrollaron en la línea de este arte secular, vinculado a la literatura y la poesía. [23] La técnica de la pintura se prestaba plenamente a los gustos artísticos de la corte en el siglo XI, inclinada a una representación emocional, melancólica y refinada de las relaciones dentro del palacio, y formaba un vector pictórico muy adecuado a la narrativa. [19] Aunque se mencionan en los textos antiguos, no queda ningún emakimono del período Heian temprano (siglos IX y X) en la actualidad; [24] el emakimono más antiguo que ilustra una novela mencionado en fuentes de la época es el del Yamato Monogatari , ofrecido a la Emperatriz entre 872 y 907. [25]
Sin embargo, el dominio estilístico de obras posteriores (del siglo XII) lleva a la mayoría de los expertos a creer que el arte "clásico" del emakimono creció durante este período a partir del siglo X, apareciendo por primera vez en ilustraciones en novelas o diarios producidos por las damas de la corte. [26] Además, los temas iniciales se mantuvieron cercanos a la poesía waka (estaciones, budismo, naturaleza y otros temas). [27] Por lo tanto, la lenta maduración del movimiento del emakimono estuvo estrechamente vinculada al surgimiento de la cultura y la literatura japonesas, así como al interés de las damas al que pronto se unieron pintores profesionales de talleres de palacio ( e-dokoro ) o templos, que crearon una técnica más "profesional" y exitosa. [21] Los historiadores del arte consideran que las técnicas de composición y pintura que ven en las obras maestras del período Heian tardío (segunda mitad del siglo XII) ya eran muy maduras. [28]
Si bien casi todos los emakimono pertenecen al género yamato-e , varios subgéneros se destacan dentro de este estilo, incluyendo en el período Heian onna-e ("pintura de mujeres") y otoko-e ("pintura de hombres"). [29] Varios pergaminos clásicos de cada género representan perfectamente estos movimientos pictóricos.
En primer lugar, el Genji Monogatari Emaki (diseñado entre alrededor de 1120 y 1140), que ilustra la famosa novela homónima, narra las intrigas políticas y amorosas del príncipe Hikaru Genji ; [30] los colores ricos y opacos fijados sobre toda la superficie del papel ( método tsukuri-e ), la intimidad y melancolía de la composición y finalmente la ilustración de los picos emocionales de la novela que tienen lugar solo dentro del Palacio Imperial son características del subgénero onna-e del yamato-e , reservado para las narraciones de la corte generalmente escritas por damas aristocráticas. [31] En ese pergamino, cada pintura ilustra un episodio clave de la novela y es seguida por un extracto caligráfico en papel ricamente decorado con polvo de oro y plata. [32]
El Genji Monogatari Emaki ya presenta las técnicas de composición propias del arte del emakimono : un punto de vista oblicuo, el movimiento de los ojos guiado por largas diagonales desde la parte superior derecha a la inferior izquierda, e incluso la eliminación de los tejados para representar el interior de los edificios ( fukinuki yatai ). [25] Un segundo ejemplo notable de las pinturas onna-e en el periodo Heian es el Nezame Monogatari Emaki , que parece ser muy similar al Genji Monogatari Emaki , pero presenta pinturas más suaves y decorativas dando un lugar de honor a la representación de la naturaleza enfatizando sutilmente los sentimientos de los personajes. [25] [33]
En contraste con las pinturas de la corte inspiradas en novelas de mujeres ( onna-e ), hay otros pergaminos inspirados en temas como la vida cotidiana de las personas, crónicas históricas y biografías de monjes famosos; en definitiva, un estilo de emakimono que representa asuntos fuera del palacio y llamado otoko-e ("pintura de hombres"). [34] [29]
El Shigisan Engi Emaki (mediados del siglo XII), con líneas dinámicas y libres, colores claros y un tono decididamente popular y humorístico, ilustra perfectamente este movimiento, que no duda en representar la vida del pueblo japonés en sus detalles más insignificantes. [35] [36] Aquí, el color se aplica solo en toques ligeros que dejan el papel desnudo, ya que la línea flexible y libre domina la composición, a diferencia de las pinturas construidas de la corte. [37] Además, el texto ocupa un espacio muy limitado, pintando el artista escenas más bien largas sin límites fijos. [38]
Otras dos obras maestras salieron a la luz durante la segunda mitad del siglo XII. [39]
En primer lugar, el Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga forma un boceto monocromático en tinta que caricaturiza suavemente las costumbres de los monjes budistas, donde destaca la espontaneidad del toque. [40] En segundo lugar, el Ban Dainagon Ekotoba narra una conspiración política en el año 866 al ofrecer una sorprendente mezcla de los dos géneros onna-e y otoko-e , con líneas libres y colores a veces claros, a veces ricos y opacos; este encuentro de géneros prefigura el estilo que dominó unas décadas más tarde, durante el periodo Kamakura . [41]
Mientras que la autoridad de la corte declinaba rápidamente, el final del periodo Heian (en 1185) estuvo marcado por el advenimiento de los señores provinciales (en particular, los Taira y los Minamoto ), quienes adquirieron un gran poder en la cima del estado. [42] Explotando el malestar asociado con la Guerra Genpei , que proporcionó un terreno fértil para el proselitismo religioso, las pinturas budistas de los seis reinos (o destinos ) ( rokudō-e ) –como el Rollo del Infierno o las dos versiones del Gaki Zōshi , pinturas otoko-e– tenían como objetivo asustar a los fieles con escenas de horror. [43] [44]
Es difícil rastrear la evolución del emakimono debido a las pocas obras que han sobrevivido. Sin embargo, el evidente dominio de los rollos clásicos de finales del período Heian da testimonio de al menos un siglo de maduración e investigación pictórica. Estas bases permitieron a los artistas del emakimono del período Kamakura posterior dedicarse a una producción sostenida en todos los temas.
La era que abarca el final del período Heian y gran parte del período Kamakura , o los siglos XII y XIII, es descrita comúnmente por los historiadores del arte como "la edad de oro" del arte del emakimono . [45] [46] Bajo el impulso de la nueva clase guerrera en el poder y las nuevas sectas budistas, la producción fue de hecho muy sostenida y los temas y técnicas más variados que antes. [47]
El estilo emakimono de la época se caracterizaba por dos vertientes: la síntesis de los géneros del yamato-e , y el realismo. Inicialmente, la evolución marcada anteriormente por el Ban Dainagon Ekotoba (muy tardía era Heian) se fue extendiendo muy ampliamente debido a la importancia dada tanto a la libertad de pinceladas y a la ligereza de los tonos ( otoko-e ), como a los colores brillantes prestados por pigmentos espesos para ciertos elementos de las escenas ( onna-e ). [48] Sin embargo, el aspecto muy refinado de las pinturas de la corte dio paso más tarde a obras más dinámicas y populares, al menos en relación con la temática, a la manera del Shigisan Engi Emaki . [49] Por ejemplo, el Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki relata la vida y muerte de Sugawara no Michizane , ministro en el siglo IX y figura trágica de la historia japonesa, venerado a la manera de un dios ( kami ). Los colores intensos, los contornos tensos, la búsqueda de movimiento y los detalles muy realistas de los rostros ilustran bien esta mezcla de estilos, [50] especialmente porque las pinturas se inspiraron tanto en el budismo como en el sintoísmo . [51]
Las tendencias realistas que estaban en boga en el arte de Kamakura, perfectamente encarnadas por la escultura , [52] se expusieron en la mayoría de los emakimono de Kamakura ; de hecho, el sistema del shogunato bakufu tenía poder sobre Japón, y el arte refinado y codificado de la corte dio paso a una mayor fluidez y dinamismo. [53] La mayor simplicidad defendida en las artes condujo a una representación más realista y humana (la ira, el dolor o el tamaño). [54] Si la actividad relacionada con la religión fue prolífica, también lo fueron las órdenes de los bushi (guerreros nobles). Varios emakimono de crónicas históricas o militares se encuentran entre los más famosos, en particular el Hōgen Monogatari Emaki (ya no existe) y el Heiji Monogatari Emaki ; [55] De este último, el pergamino conservado en el Museo de Bellas Artes de Boston sigue siendo muy apreciado por su maestría en la composición (que alcanza un crescendo en el clímax dramático del pergamino, es decir, el incendio del palacio y la sangrienta batalla entre soldados de a pie), y por su contribución a la comprensión actual de las armas y armaduras medievales japonesas. [56] Akiyama Terukazu lo describe como "una obra maestra sobre el tema militar del mundo". [55] En el mismo espíritu, un noble guerrero hizo diseñar el Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba para relatar sus hazañas militares durante las invasiones mongolas de Japón . [57] El arte Kamakura floreció particularmente en relación con el retrato realista ( nise-e ); si bien los personajes del emakimono evolucionaron hacia un mayor realismo pictórico, algunos, como el emaki Sanjūrokkasen o el Zuijin Teiki Emaki atribuido a Fujiwara no Nobuzane , presentan directamente galerías de retratos según las técnicas iconográficas de la época. [58] [59]
Un cambio similar se sintió en la religión cuando las sectas budistas esotéricas de la era Heian ( Tendai y Shingon ) dieron paso al Budismo de la Tierra Pura ( Jōdo ), que se dirigía principalmente al pueblo predicando prácticas simples de devoción al Buda Amida . Estas sectas muy activas utilizaron el emakimono intensivamente durante los siglos XIII y XIV para ilustrar y difundir sus doctrinas. [60]
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Varias prácticas religiosas influyeron en el emakimono de Kamakura : en particular, los sermones públicos y las sesiones de explicación de imágenes (絵解, e-toki ) llevaron a los artistas a utilizar pergaminos de mayor tamaño de lo habitual y a representar a los protagonistas de la historia de una manera algo desproporcionada en comparación con los emakimono de los tamaños estándar, para permitir que esos protagonistas fueran vistos desde la distancia, en una perspectiva típicamente japonesa no realista (como el Ippen Shōnin Eden ). El emakimono religioso del período Kamakura se centra en la fundación de los templos o en las vidas de monjes famosos. [46] Durante ese período, muchas de las instituciones religiosas encargaron a los talleres de pintores (a menudo monjes pintores) la creación de emakimono que contaran su fundación o la biografía del monje fundador. Entre las obras más conocidas sobre estos temas se encuentran las biografías ilustradas de Ippen , Hōnen , Shinran y Xuanzang , así como el Kegon Engi Emaki y el Taima Mandara Engi Emaki . [61] [62]
La biografía de Ippen, pintada por un monje, sigue siendo notable por sus influencias, hasta ahora raras, de la dinastía Song (a través de la técnica del lavado ) y la dinastía Tang (el estilo shan shui ), así como por sus representaciones muy precisas de fortalezas en muchos paisajes japoneses. [63] En cuanto al Saigyō Monogatari Emaki , se dirige a la aristocracia en decadencia al idealizar la figura del monje esteta Saigyō por la belleza de sus paisajes y su poesía caligráfica. [64]
Hacia mediados del periodo Kamakura, se produjo un resurgimiento del interés por la corte Heian, que ya parecía ser un punto culminante de la civilización japonesa, y su cultura refinada. [65] Así, el Murasaki Shikibu Nikki Emaki , que traza la vida y las intrigas de Murasaki Shikibu , autor de La historia de Genji (siglo X), refleja en gran medida las técnicas de pintura de la época, en particular el tsukuri-e , pero en un estilo más decorativo y extrovertido. [66] Otras obras siguieron esa tendencia, como el Ise Monogatari Emaki , el Makura no Sōshi Emaki o el Sumiyoshi Monogatari Emaki . [67]
Al final del periodo Kamakura, el arte del emakimono ya estaba perdiendo importancia. Los expertos señalan que, por un lado, el emakimono se había vuelto menos inspirado, marcado por un manierismo estético extremo (como el uso exagerado de polvo de oro y plata) con una composición más técnica que creativa; la tendencia a multiplicar las escenas en un estilo fijo se puede ver en el Hōnen Shōnin Eden (el emakimono más largo conocido , con 48 rollos, completado en 1307), el Kasuga Gongen Genki E (1309) y el Dōjō-ji Engi Emaki (siglo XVI). [68] [69] Por otra parte, las influencias innovadoras y más espirituales del arte Song chino , profundamente enraizado en la espiritualidad y el budismo zen , iniciaron el movimiento artístico dominante del lavado (tinta o pintura monocromática en agua, sumi-e o suiboku-ga en japonés) en el subsiguiente período Muromachi , guiado por artistas tan famosos como Tenshō Shūbun o Sesshū Tōyō . [70]
Sin embargo, la escuela Tosa mantuvo una corriente profesional : fue la única que todavía reivindicaba el yamato-e y produjo numerosos emakimono para la corte o los templos (esta escuela de pintores dirigió el edokoro imperial hasta el siglo XVIII). Tosa Mitsunobu produjo varias obras sobre la fundación de templos: el Kiyomizu-dera Engi Emaki (1517), un rollo del Ishiyama-dera Engi Emaki (1497), el Seikō-ji Engi Emaki (1487) o una versión del Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki (1503); prestó gran atención a los detalles y los colores, a pesar de una composición común. [71] De manera más general, la ilustración de novelas en el estilo clásico del yamato-e (como las numerosas versiones del Genji Monogatari Emaki o Los cuentos de Ise Emaki ) persistió durante la Baja Edad Media. [71]
_by_Tani_Buncho.jpg/1280px-A_picture_scroll_of_the_Ishiyama_temple's_histories_No.7(a_part)_by_Tani_Buncho.jpg)
Si bien el emakimono dejó de ser el medio artístico dominante en Japón desde finales del periodo Kamakura, fue en el movimiento de ilustración de Otogi-zōshi ( otogi significa "contar historias") donde el emakimono desarrolló un nuevo vigor popular en los siglos XV y XVI (el periodo Muromachi); el término nara-ehon (literalmente, "el libro de ilustraciones de Nara ") a veces los designaba de manera controvertida (porque eran anacrónicos y combinaban libros con pergaminos), o más precisamente como otogi-zōshi emaki o nara-emaki . [72] Se trata de cuentos pequeños, simbólicos y divertidos, destinados a pasar el tiempo centrándose en la mitología, el folclore, las leyendas, las creencias religiosas o incluso la sociedad contemporánea. [72] Esta forma particular de emakimono se remonta a la época Heian, pero fue bajo Muromachi cuando ganó verdadera popularidad. [73]
La relativa popularidad de los otogi-zōshi parece haber surgido de una creciente falta de entusiasmo por las historias frenéticas o religiosas; la gente se había vuelto más receptiva a los temas de los sueños, la risa y lo sobrenatural (varios otogi-zōshi emaki representan todo tipo de yōkai y criaturas populares), así como caricaturas sociales y novelas populares. Entre los ejemplos conservados se encuentran pinturas de género como Buncho no sasshi y Sazare-ichi , [74] o cuentos budistas sobrenaturales como el Tsuchigumo Sōshi o el Hyakki Yagyō Emaki . [a] Desde el punto de vista de los historiadores del arte, la creatividad de los pergaminos clásicos se siente aún menos en los otogi-zōshi , porque aunque la composición es similar, la falta de armonía de los colores y la apariencia sobrecargada son perjudiciales; parece que la producción es a menudo obra de aficionados. [75] Sin embargo, existe un campo de estudio del nara-ehon y del estilo pictórico nara-e que se encuentra al margen y se destaca del marco del emakimono . [72]
Varios otros artistas, en particular Tawaraya Sōtatsu y Yosa Buson , siguieron interesados en el pergamino narrativo hasta alrededor del siglo XVII. [76] La escuela Kanō utilizó pergaminos narrativos de la misma manera; Kanō Tan'yū realizó varios pergaminos sobre las batallas Tokugawa , particularmente el de Sekigahara en su Tōshō Daigongen Engi , donde se inspiró en algunos lugares en el Heiji Monogatari Emaki (siglo XIII). [77]
En esencia, un emakimono es un sistema narrativo (como un libro) que requiere la construcción de una historia, por lo que la composición debe basarse en las transiciones de escena a escena hasta el desenlace final.
Los emakimono estuvieron inicialmente fuertemente influenciados por China, al igual que las artes japonesas de la época; el Sutra ilustrado de causa y efecto incorpora muchos de los estilos ingenuos y simples de la dinastía Tang , aunque se pueden discernir disonancias, especialmente en relación con los colores. [78] A partir del período Heian, los emakimono llegaron a disociarse de China, principalmente en sus temas. Los pergaminos chinos estaban destinados principalmente a ilustrar los principios trascendentes del budismo y la serenidad de los paisajes, sugiriendo la grandeza y la espiritualidad. Los japoneses, por otro lado, habían reorientado sus pergaminos hacia la vida cotidiana y el hombre, transmitiendo drama, humor y sentimientos. Así, los emakimono comenzaron a inspirarse en la literatura, la poesía, la naturaleza y especialmente la vida cotidiana; en resumen, formaron un arte íntimo, a veces en oposición a la búsqueda de la grandeza espiritual china.
Los primeros temas japoneses del periodo Heian estaban muy vinculados a la literatura y la poesía waka : pinturas de las estaciones, del calendario anual de ceremonias, del paisaje rural y, por último, de los famosos paisajes del archipiélago japonés ( meisho-e ). [20] Posteriormente, los guerreros Kamakura y las nuevas sectas budistas de la Tierra Pura diversificaron aún más los temas. A pesar de la amplia gama de temas del emakimono , a los especialistas les gusta categorizarlos, tanto en sustancia como en forma. Un método eficaz para diferenciar el emakimono vuelve al estudio de los temas haciendo referencia a los cánones de la época. La categorización propuesta por Okudaira y Fukui distingue así entre pinturas seculares y religiosas: [79]
Una tercera categoría abarca obras más heterogéneas, que mezclan religión y narración o religión y humor popular.
En la actualidad, los autores del emakimono suelen ser desconocidos y resulta arriesgado especular sobre los nombres de los «maestros» del emakimono . Además, un pergamino puede ser fruto de la colaboración de varios artistas; algunas técnicas, como el tsukuri-e, incluso tienden naturalmente a dicha colaboración. Los historiadores del arte están más interesados en determinar el entorno social y artístico de los pintores: aficionados o profesionales, en la corte o en los templos, aristócratas o de origen modesto. [80]
En primer lugar, los pintores aficionados, quizás los iniciadores del emakimono clásico , se encuentran en la corte del emperador en Heian, entre los aristócratas versados en las diversas artes. Las fuentes de la época mencionan en particular concursos de pintura ( e-awase ) en los que los nobles competían en torno a un tema común extraído de un poema, como describe Murasaki Shikibu en La historia de Genji . Su trabajo parece centrarse más en la ilustración de novelas ( monogatari ) y diarios ( nikki ), que en la literatura femenina de la corte. Los monjes también podían producir pinturas sin ningún mecenazgo.
En segundo lugar, en el Japón medieval existían talleres de pintores profesionales (絵 所, literalmente 'oficina de pintura' ) ; durante el periodo Kamakura, la producción profesional dominaba en gran medida, y se distinguían varias categorías de talleres: los oficialmente adscritos al palacio ( kyūtei edokoro ), los adscritos a los grandes templos y santuarios ( jiin edokoro ) o, finalmente, los acogidos por unas pocas figuras superiores. [81] [82] El estudio de ciertos colofones y textos de la época permite asociar muchos emakimono a estos talleres profesionales, e incluso, a veces, comprender su funcionamiento.
When produced by the temple workshops, emakimono were intended mainly as proselytism, or to disseminate a doctrine, or even as an act of faith, because copying illustrated sutras must allow communion with the deities (a theory even accredits the idea that the Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki would have aimed to pacify evil spirits).[51] Proselytising, favoured by the emergence of the Pure Land Buddhist sects during the Kamakura era, changed the methods of emakimono production, because works of proselytism were intended to be copied and disseminated widely in many associated temples, explaining the large number of more or less similar copies on the lives of great monks and the founding of the important temples.[83]
Various historians emphasise the use of emakimono in sessions of picture explaining (絵 解, e-toki), during which a learned monk detailed the contents of the scrolls to a popular audience. Specialists thus explicate the unusually large dimensions of the different versions of the Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki or the Ippen Shōnin Eden. As for the workshops of the court, they satisfied the orders of the palace, whether for the illustration of novels or historical chronicles, such as the Heiji Monogatari Emaki. A form of exploitation of the story could also motivate the sponsor: for example, Heiji Monogatari Emaki were produced for the Minamoto clan (winner of the Genpei War), and the Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba was created to extol the deeds of a samurai in search of recognition from the shōgun.[44] These works were, it seems, intended to be read by nobles. Nevertheless, Seckel and Hasé assert that the separation between the secular and the religious remains unclear and undoubtedly does not correspond to an explicit practice: thus, the aristocrats regularly ordered emakimono to offer them to a temple, and the religious scrolls do not refrain from representing popular things. So, for example, the Hōnen Shōnin Eden presents a rich overview of medieval civilization.[81]
Colophons and comparative studies sometimes allow for the deduction of the name of the artist of an emakimono: for example, the monk En'i signed the Ippen Shōnin Eden, historians designate Tokiwa Mitsunaga as the author of the Ban Dainagon Ekotoba and the Nenjū Gyōji Emaki, or Enichibō Jōnin for part of the Kegon Engi Emaki. Nevertheless, the life of these artists remains poorly known, at most they seem to be of noble extraction.[80] Such a background is particularly implied by the always very precise depictions in emakimono of the imperial palace (interior architecture, clothing and rituals) or official bodies (notably the imperial police (検非違使, kebiishi)). The Shigisan Engi Emaki illustrates that point well, as the precision of both religious and aristocratic motifs suggests that the painter is close to those two worlds.[25]
Perhaps a more famous artist is Fujiwara no Nobuzane, aristocrat of the Fujiwara clan and author of the Zuijin Teiki Emaki, as well as various suites of realistic portraits ("likeness pictures" (似絵, nise-e), a school he founded in honour of his father Fujiwara no Takanobu). Among the temple workshops, it is known that the Kōzan-ji workshop was particularly prolific, under the leadership of the monk Myōe, a great scholar who brought in many works from Song dynasty China. Thus, the Jōnin brushstrokes on the Kegon Engi Emaki or the portrait of Myōe reveal the first Song influences in Japanese painting. However, the crucial lack of information and documents on these rare known artists leads Japanese art historians rather to identify styles, workshops, and schools of production.[80]
From the 14th century, the Imperial Court Painting Bureau (宮廷絵所, Kyūtei edokoro), and even for a time the edokoro of the shōgun, were headed by the Tosa school, which, as mentioned above, continued Yamato-e painting and the manufacture of emakimono despite the decline of the genre. The Tosa school artists are much better known; Tosa Mitsunobu, for example, produced a large number of works commissioned by temples (including the Kiyomizu-dera Engi Emaki) or nobles (including the Gonssamen kassen emaki). The competing Kanō school also offered a such few pieces, on command: art historians have shown strong similarities between the Heiji Monogatari Emaki (12th century) and the Tōshō Daigongen Engi (17th century) by Kanō Tan'yū of the Kanō school, probably to suggest a link between the Minamoto and Tokugawa clans, members of which were, respectively, the first and last shoguns who ruled all of Japan.[84]
The preferred support medium for emakimono is paper, and to a lesser extent silk; both originate from China, although Japanese paper (washi) is generally of a more solid texture and less delicate than Chinese paper, as the fibres are longer). The paper is traditionally made with the help of women of the Japanese archipelago.[85]
The most famous colors are taken from mineral pigments: for example azurite for blue, vermilion for red, realgar for yellow, malachite for green, amongst others. These thick pigments, named iwa-enogu in Japanese, are not soluble in water and require a thick binder, generally an animal glue;[86] the amount of glue required depends on how finely the pigments have been ground.[87]
As emakimono are intended to be rolled up, the colours must be applied to them in a thin, flat layer in order to avoid any cracking in the medium term, which limits the use of patterns (reliefs) predominant in Western painting.[87] As for the ink, also invented in China around the 1st century CE, it results from a simple mixture of binder and wood smoke, the dosage of which depends on the manufacturer. Essential for calligraphy, it is also important in Asian pictorial arts where the line often takes precedence; Japanese artists apply it with a brush, varying the thickness of the line and the dilution of the ink to produce a colour from a dark black to a pale gray strongly absorbed by the paper.[88]
Scrolls of paper or tissue remain relatively fragile, in particular after the application of paint. Emakimono are therefore lined with one or more layers of strong paper, in a very similar way to kakemono (Japanese hanging scrolls): the painted paper or silk is stretched, glued onto the lining, and then dried and brushed, normally by a specialized craftsman, known as a kyōshi (literally, 'master in sutra').[89] The long format of emakimono poses specific problems: generally, sheets of painted paper or silk 2–3 metres (6 ft 7 in – 9 ft 10 in) long are lined separately, then assembled using strips of long-fibre Japanese paper, known for its strength.[90] The lining process simply requires the application of an animal glue which, as it dries, also allows the painted paper or silk to be properly stretched. Assembly of the emakimono is finalised by the selection of the wooden rod (軸, jiku), which is quite thin, and the connection of the cover (表紙, hyōshi), which protects the work once it is rolled up with a cord (紐, himo); for the most precious pieces painted with gold and silver powder, a further protective blanket (見返し, mikaeshi, literally, 'inside cover') is often made of silk and decorated on the inside.[90][91]
The currents and techniques of emakimono art are intimately linked and most often part of the yamato-e movement, readily opposed at the beginning to Chinese-style paintings, known as kara-e. Yamato-e, a colorful and decorative everyday art, strongly typifies the output of the time.[76] Initially, yamato-e mainly designated works with Japanese themes, notably court life, ceremonies or archipelago landscapes, in opposition to the hitherto dominant Chinese scholarly themes, especially during the Nara period.[92] The documents of the 9th century mention, for example, the paintings on sliding walls and screens of the then Imperial Palace, which illustrate waka poems.[20] Subsequently, the term yamato-e referred more generally to all of the Japanese style paintings created in the 9th century that expressed the sensitivity and character of the people of the archipelago, including those extending beyond the earlier themes.[92] Miyeko Murase thus speaks of "the emergence of national taste".[56]
Different currents of paintings are part of the yamato-e according to the times (about the 10th and 14th centuries), and are found in emakimono. The style, composition and technique vary greatly, but it is possible to identify major principles. Thus, in relation to style, the Heian period produced a contrast between refined court painting and dynamic painting of subjects outside the court, while the Kamakura period saw a synthesis of the two approaches and the contribution of new realistic influences of the Chinese wash paintings of the Song dynasty. In relation to composition, the artists could alternate calligraphy and painting so as to illustrate only the most striking moments of the story, or else create long painted sections where several scenes blended together and flowed smoothly. Finally, in relation to technique, the classification of emakimono, although complex, allows for two approaches to be identified: paintings favoring colour, and those favoring line for the purpose of dynamism.
The particular format of the emakimono, long strips of paintings without fixed limits, requires solving a number of compositional problems in order to maintain the ease and clarity of the narrative, and which have given rise to a coherent art form over several centuries. In summary, according to E. Saint-Marc: "We had to build a vocabulary, a syntax, solve a whole series of technical problems, invent a discipline that is both literary and plastic, an aesthetic mode which finds its conventions [...] in turn invented and modelled, frozen by use, then remodelled, to make it an instrument of refined expression."[93]
Specialists like to distinguish between two currents in the yamato-e, and thus in the emakimono, of the Heian period, namely the onna-e ("painting of woman", onna meaning "woman"), and otoko-e ("painting of man", otoko meaning "man"). In the Heian period, these two currents of yamato-e also echoed the mysteries and the seclusion of the Imperial Court: the onna-e style thus told what happened inside the court, and the otoko-e style spoke of happenings in the populace outside.[94]
Onna-e fully transcribed the lyrical and refined aesthetic of the court, which was characterized by a certain restraint, introspection and the expression of feelings, bringing together above all works inspired by "romantic" literature such as the Genji Monogatari Emaki.[95] The dominant impression of this genre is expressed in Japanese by the term mono no aware, a kind of fleeting melancholy born from the feeling of the impermanence of things. These works mainly adopted the so-called tsukuri-e (constructed painting) technique, with rich and opaque colours. In emakimono of the 13th century, in which the onna-e style was brought up-to-date, the same technique was used but in a sometimes less complete manner, the colours more directly expressing feelings and the artists using a more decorative aesthetic, such as with the very important use of gold dust in the Murasaki Shikibu Nikki Emaki.[96]
A characteristic element of the onna-e resides in the drawing of the faces, very impersonal, that specialists often compare to Noh masks. Indeed, according to the hikime kagibana technique, two or three lines were enough to represent the eyes and the nose in a stylized way;[97] E. Grilli notes the melancholy of this approach.[41] The desired effect is still uncertain, but probably reflects the great restraint of feelings and personalities in the palace, or even allows readers to identify more easily with the characters.[98] In some monogatari of the Heian period, the artists rather expressed the feelings or the passions in the positions as well as in the pleats and folds of the clothes, in harmony with the mood of the moment.[50]
![Pintura Tsukiri-e, Ise Monogatari Emaki [fr], siglo XIV](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ise_monogatari_emaki_-_Kubo_2.jpeg/1280px-Ise_monogatari_emaki_-_Kubo_2.jpeg)
The current of the otoko-e style was freer and more lively than onna-e, representing battles, historical chronicles, epics and religious legends by favouring long illustrations over calligraphy, as in the Shigisan Engi Emaki or the Heiji Monogatari Emaki.[34] The style was based on soft lines drawn freely by the artist in ink, unlike tsukuri-e constructed paintings, to favour the impression of movement.[99] The colours generally appeared more muted and left the paper bare in places.[36]
If the term onna-e is well attested in the texts of the time, and seems to come from the illustrations of novels by the ladies of the court from the 10th century, the origins of the otoko-e are more obscure: they arise a priori from the interest of the nobles in Japanese provincial life from the 11th century, as well as from local folk legends; moreover, several very detailed scenes from the Shigisan Engi Emaki clearly show that its author can only have been a palace regular, aristocrat or monk.[100] In any case, there are still several collections of these folk tales of the time, such as the Konjaku Monogatarishū.[100]
Unlike the court paintings, the more spontaneous scrolls such as the Shigisan Engi Emaki or the Ban Dainagon Ekotoba display much more realism in the drawing of the characters, and depict, amongst other themes, humour and burlesque, with people's feelings (such as anger, joy and fear) expressed more spontaneously and directly.[25]
![Escena humorística que representa el error de un médico, Yamai no Sōshi [fr], siglo XII](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Yamai_no_Soshi_-_Eye_Disease_(part_1).jpeg/1280px-Yamai_no_Soshi_-_Eye_Disease_(part_1).jpeg)
During the Kamakura period, the two currents of yamato-e (onna-e and otoko-e) mingled and gave birth to works that are both dynamic and vividly coloured, in the manner of the Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki. Furthermore, the majority of emakimono also transcribed the realistic tendencies of the time, according to the tastes of the warriors in power. The Heiji Monogatari Emaki thus shows in great detail the weapons, armour and uniforms of the soldiers, and the Ban Dainagon Ekotoba individually portrays the more than two hundred panicked figures who appear on the section depicting the fire at the door.
Realistic painting is best displayed in the portraits known as nise-e, a movement initiated by Fujiwara no Takanobu and his son Fujiwara no Nobuzane. These two artists and their descendants produced a number of emakimono of a particular genre: they were suites of portraits of famous people made in a rather similar style, with almost geometric simplicity of clothing, and extreme realism of the face.[101] The essence of the nise-e was really to capture the intimate personality of the subject with great economy.[102]
Among the most famous nise-e scrolls are the Tennō Sekkan Daijin Eizukan, composed of 131 portraits of emperors, governors, ministers and senior courtiers (by Fujiwara no Tamenobu and Fujiwara no Gōshin, 14th century), and the Zuijin Teiki Emaki by Nobuzane, whose ink painting (hakubyō) enhanced with very discreet colour illustrates perfectly the nise-e lines.[59] Additionally, there is the Sanjūrokkasen Emaki, a work of a more idealized than realistic style, which forms a portrait gallery of the Thirty-Six Immortals of Poetry.[103] More generally, humans are one of the elementary subjects of emakimono, and many works of the Kamakura period incorporate nise-e techniques, such as the Heiji Monogatari Emaki or the Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba.[54]
The yamato-e style therefore characterised almost all emakimono, and Chinese painting no longer provided the themes and techniques. However, influences were still noticeable in certain works of the Kamakura period, in particular the art, so famous today, of the Song dynasty wash paintings, which was fully demonstrated in the grandiose and deep landscapes sketched in ink, by Ienaga. Borrowings also remained visible in religious scrolls such as the Kegon Engi Emaki or the Ippen Shōnin Eden.[104] This last work presents many landscapes typical of Japan according to a perspective and a rigorous realism, with a great economy of colors; various Song pictorial techniques are used to suggest depth, such as birds' flights disappearing on the horizon or the background gradually fading.[105]
The classic emakimono painting technique is called tsukuri-e (作り絵, lit. 'constructed painting'), used especially in most of the works of the onna-e style. A sketch of the outlines was first made in ink before applying the colours flat over the entire surface of the paper using vivid and opaque pigments. The outlines, partly masked by the paint, were finally revived in ink and the small details (such as the hair of the ladies) were enhanced.[106] However, the first sketch was often modified, in particular when the mineral pigments were insoluble in water and therefore required the use of thick glue.[88] Colour appears to be a very important element in Japanese painting, much more so than in China, because it gives meaning to the feelings expressed; in the Genji Monogatari Emaki, the dominant tone of each scene illustrating a key moment of the original novel reveals the deep feelings of the characters.[107]
During the Kamakura period, the different stages of tsukuri-e were still widely observed, despite variations (lighter colours, lines more similar to Song dynasty wash paintings, etc.).[108]
Even though coloured emakimono often occupy a preponderant place, one finds in contrast monochrome paintings in India ink (hakubyō or shira-e), according to two approaches. First, ink lines can be extremely free, with the artist laying on paper unconstrained soft gestures that are especially dynamic, as it is mainly the sense of movement that emerges in these works.[41] The painter also plays on the thickness of the brush to accentuate the dynamism, as well as on the dilution of the ink to exploit a wider palette of grey.[88] Among such scrolls, the Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga, formerly probably wrongly attributed to Toba Sōjō, remains the best known; Grilli describes the trait as a "continual outpouring".[76]
The second approach to monochrome paintings is more constructed, with fine, regular strokes sketching a complete and coherent scene, very similar to the first sketch in the tsukuri-e works before the application of the colours; according to some art historians, it is also possible that these emakimono are simply unfinished.[41] The Makura no Sōshi Emaki fits perfectly with this approach, accepting only a few fine touches of red, as do the Takafusa-kyō Tsuyakotoba Emaki and the Toyo no Akari Ezōshi.[67] Several somewhat amateurish hakubyō illustrations of classic novels remain from late medieval times and the decline of the emakimono.[71]
By contrast with Western painting, lines and contours in ink play an essential role in emakimono, monochrome or not.[76][37] Sometimes, however, contours are not drawn as usual: thus, in the Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki, the absence of contours is used by the artist to evoke the Shinto spirit in Japanese landscapes. Originally from China, this pictorial technique is now called mokkotsu ('boneless painting').[109]
![Very constructed ink painting, similar to tsukuri-e without colour; the line is fine and uniform. Makura no Sōshi Emaki [fr], 13th century](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Pillow_Book_Illustrated2.JPG/1280px-Pillow_Book_Illustrated2.JPG)
The juxtaposition of the text and the painting constitutes a key point of the narrative aspect of emakimono. Originally, in the illustrated sutras, the image was organized in a long, continuous frieze at the top of the scroll, above the texts. That approach, however, was quickly abandoned for a more open layout, of which there are three types:[110]
The balance between texts and images thus varied greatly from one work to another. The author had a broad "syntax of movement and time" which allowed him to adapt the form to the story and to the feelings conveyed.[110] The scrolls with continuous illustrations (rusōgata-shiki) naturally made the transitions more ambiguous, because each reader can reveal a larger or smaller portion of the paintings, more or less quickly. In the absence of clear separation between scenes, the mode of reading must be suggested in the paintings in order to maintain a certain coherence.
Two kinds of links between scenes were used by the artists. First, there were links by separation using elements of the scenery (traditionally, river, countryside, mist, buildings) were very common. Secondly, the artists used a palette of transitional elements suggested by the figures or the arrangement of objects. Thus, it was not uncommon for characters to point the finger at the following painting or for them to be represented travelling to create the link between two cities, or for the buildings to be oriented to the left to suggest departure and to the right to suggest the arrival. More generally, Bauer identifies the notion of off-screen (the part of painting not yet visible) that the painter must bring without losing coherence.[111]
The space in the composition of an emakimono constitutes a second important instance of the narration over time. As the scroll is usually read from right to left and top to bottom, the authors mainly adopt plunging points of view (chōkan, 'bird's-eye perspective'). However, the low height of the emakimono forces the artist to set up tricks such as the use of long diagonal vanishing lines or sinuous curves suggesting depth.[110] Indoors, it is the architectural elements (beams, partitions, doors) that are used to set up these diagonals; outdoors, the diagonals are set up by the roofs, walls, roads and rivers, arranged on several planes. In emakimono painting there is no real perspective in the Western sense – one that faithfully represents what the eye perceives – but, rather, a parallel or oblique projection.[105]
The arrangement of the elements in an emakimono scene is based on the point of view, including the technique known as fukinuki yatai. As mentioned above, scenes are most commonly painted when viewed from above (bird's eye view) in order to maximize the space available for painting, despite the reduced height of the scrolls, while leaving part of the background visible.[112]
In the interior scenes, the simplest technique was developed by from the Chinese Tang artists: only three walls of the room are drawn, in parallel perspective; the point of view is located in the place of the fourth wall, a little higher up. When the need to draw several planes – for example the back of the room or a door open to the next one – arose, the artists proceeded by reducing the size (of the scale).[113] The more general scenes in which the story evolves, such as landscapes, can be rendered from a very distant point of view (as in the Ippen Shōnin Eden or the Sumiyoshi Monogatari Emaki).[114] In the Eshi no Soshi Emaki and the Kokawa-dera Engi Emaki, the painter opted mainly for a side view, and the development of the story depends on a succession of communicating planes.[67]
However, the Japanese artists imagined a new arrangement for emakimono which quickly became the norm for portraying interiors. It was called fukinuki yatai (literally, 'roof removed'), and involves not representing the roofs of buildings, and possibly the walls in the foreground if necessary, to enable a depiction of the interior.[115] Unlike the previous arrangement, the point of view located outside the buildings, still high up, because the primary purpose of fukinuki yatai is to represent two separate narrative spaces – for example two adjoining rooms, or else inside and outside.[113] The genesis of this technique is still little known (it already appears in the biography on wooden panel of Prince Shōtoku),[115] but it already appeared with great mastery on the Court style paintings (onna-e) in the 12th century.
In the Genji Monogatari Emaki, the composition is closely linked to the text and indirectly suggests the mood of the scene. When Kaoru visits Ukifune, while their love is emerging, the artist shows the reader two narrative spaces thanks to the fukinuki yatai: on the veranda, Kaoru is calm, posed in a peaceful space; inside the building, by contrast, Ukifune and her ladies-in-waiting, are painted on a smaller surface, in turmoil, in a confused composition which reinforces their agitation.[113] More generally, an unrealistic composition (for example from two points of view) makes it possible to suggest strong or sad feelings.[116]
The fukinuki yatai technique was also used in a variety of other ways, for example with a very high point of view to reinforce the partitioning of spaces, even in a single room, or by giving the landscape a more important place. Ultimately, the primary goal remained to render two narrative stages, and therefore two distinct spaces, in the same painting.[113] Fukinuki yatai was therefore used extensively, sometimes even as a simple stylistic instance unrelated to feelings or text, unlike in the Genji Monogatari Emaki.[113]
Finally, the scale of an emakimono also makes it possible to suggest depth and guide the arrangement of the elements. In Japanese painting, the scale depends not only on the depth of the scene, but also often on the importance of the elements in the composition or in the story, unlike the realistic renderings in Chinese landscape scrolls. Thus, the main character can be enlarged compared with the others, depending on what the artist wants to express: in the Ippen Shōnin Eden, Ippen is sometimes depicted in the background in a landscape the same size as trees or buildings, so that the reader can clearly identify it. Changes in scale can also convey the mood of the moment, such as the strength of will and distress of Sugawara no Michizane in the Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki. For Saint-Marc, "each element takes [more generally] the importance it has in itself in the painter's mind", freeing itself from the rules of realistic composition.[105]
![Interior view of Taima-dera, where the spaces are set aside to show several stages of the story, thanks to the fukinuki yatai. Taima Mandala Engi [fr], 13th century](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Taima_mandala_engi_-_weaving.png/1280px-Taima_mandala_engi_-_weaving.png)
The narrative rhythm of emakimono arises mainly from the arrangement between texts and images, which constitutes an essential marker of the evolution of the story. In Court style paintings (onna-e), the artist could suggest calm and melancholy via successions of fixed and contemplative shots, as, for example, in the Genji Monogatari Emaki, in which the scenes seem to be out of time, punctuating moments of extreme sensibilities.[32] By contrast, more dynamic stories play on the alternation between close-ups and wide panoramas, elisions, transitions and exaggeration.[3] In such stories, the narrative rhythm is devoted entirely to the construction of the scroll leading to the dramatic or epic summit, with continuously painted scrolls allowing the action to be revealed as it goes by intensifying the rhythm, and therefore the suspense.[117] The burning of Sanjō Palace in the Heiji Monogatari Emaki illustrates this aspect well, as the artist, by using a very opaque red spreading over almost the entire height of the paper, depicts a gradual intensification of the bloody battles and the pursuit of Emperor Go-Shirakawa until the palace catches fire.[56] Another famous fire, the Ōtenmon Incident in the Ban Dainagon Ekotoba, adopts the same approach, by portraying the movements of the crowd, more and more dense and disorderly, until the revelation of the drama.[118][39]
Japanese artists also use other composition techniques to energize a story and set the rhythm: the same characters are represented in a series of varied sets (typically outdoors), a technique known as repetition (hampuku byōsha).[119] In the Gosannen Kassen Ekotoba, a composition centered on Kanazawa Castle gradually shows the capture of the castle by the troops of Minamoto no Yoshiie, creating a gradual and dramatic effect.[120] In the Kibi Daijin Nittō Emaki, the tower to which Kibi no Makibi (or Kibi Daijin) is assigned is painted to depict each challenge won by the protagonist.[121]
Another narrative technique characteristic of emakimono is called iji-dō-zu: it consists of representing the same character several times in a single scene, in order to suggest a sequence of actions (fights, discussions, trips) with great space savings.[105] The movement of the eye is then most often circular, and the scenes portray different moments. Iji-dō-zu can equally suggest either a long moment in one scene, such as the nun in the Shigisan Engi Emaki who remains in retreat in Tōdai-ji for several hours, or a series of brief but intense actions, such as the fights in the Ban Dainagon Ekotoba and the Ippen Shōnin Eden.[119][105] In the Kegon Engi Emaki, the artist offers a succession of almost "cinematographic" shots alternately showing the distress of Zenmyō, a young Chinese girl, and the boat carrying her beloved away on the horizon.[122]
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As noted in the history section above, the emergence of the kana syllabary contributed to the development of women's court literature and, by extension, the illustration of novels on scrolls. Kana were therefore used on emakimono, although the Chinese characters remained very much also in use. In some particular scrolls, other alphabets can be found, notably Sanskrit on the Hakubyō Ise Monogatari Emaki.[113]
In East Asia, calligraphy is a predominant art that aristocrats learn to master from childhood, and styles and arrangements of characters are widely codified, although varied. In the context of emakimono, calligraphic texts can have several purposes: to introduce the story, to describe the painted scenes, to convey religious teachings or to be presented in the form of poems (waka poetry remains the most representative of ancient Japan). For the richly decorated court-style paintings (onna-e), like the Genji Monogatari Emaki, the papers were carefully prepared and decorated with gold and silver dust.[123]
The text of an emakimono had more than merely a function of decoration and narration; it could also influence the composition of the paintings. The Genji Monogatari Emaki have been widely studied on this point: art historians have shown a link between the feeling conveyed by a text and the dominant colour of the accompanying paint, a colour which is also used for the decorated paper.[31][124] In addition, the composition of the paintings may make it possible to understand them in accordance with the text: for example, the characters in the story may have been painted on a scene in a palace in the order of their appearance in the text. Other specialists in turn have insisted on the importance of the text in the positioning of the paintings, an important point in the Buddhist emakimono, in which the transmission of dogmas and religious teachings remained an essential goal of the artist.
According to Peter C. Swann, the production of emakimono was Japan's first truly original artistic movement since the arrival of foreign influences.[125] China's influence in emakimono and pictorial techniques remained tangible at the beginning, so much so that historians have worked to formalise what really constitutes emakimono art as Japanese art. In addition to the yamato-e style, specialists often put forward several elements of answers: the very typical diagonal composition, the perspective depending on the subject, the process of izi-dō-zu, the sensitivity of colours (essential in yamato-e), the stereotypical faces of the characters (impersonal, realistic or caricatured), and finally the hazy atmosphere.[93] K. Chino and K. Nishi also noted the technique of fukinuki yatai (literally, 'roof removed'), unprecedented in all Asian art.[112] Saint-Marc commented that some of these elements actually existed previously in Chinese painting, and that the originality of emakimono was in the overall approach and themes established by the Japanese artists.[126]
The originality of art is also to be sought in its spirit, "the life of an era translated into formal language".[127] The court style paintings (onna-e) are part of the aesthetic of mono no aware (literally 'the pathos of things'), a state of mind that is difficult to express, but which can be regarded as a penchant for sad beauty, the melancholy born of the feeling that everything beautiful is impermanent. D. and V. Elisseeff define this aspect of emakimono as the oko, the feeling of inadequacy, often materialized by a properly Japanese humour. But outside the court, the popular style emakimono (otoko-e), the art of everyday life, come closer to the human and universal state of mind.[127]
Sustained production of emakimono through the Heian, Kamakura and Muromachi periods (about 12th–14th centuries) created an invaluable source of information on the then-contemporary Japanese civilization. Emakimono have been greatly studied in that respect by historians;[128] no other form of Japanese art has been so intimately linked to the life and culture of the Japanese people.[129]
A large project of the Kanagawa University made a very exhaustive study of the most interesting paintings across fifteen major categories of elements, including dwellings, elements of domestic life and elements of life outside the home, according to ages (children, workers, old people) and social class.[b][130][131] Although the main characters are most often nobles, famous monks or warriors, the presence of ordinary people is more or less tangible in an immense majority of works, allowing a study of a very wide variety of daily activities: peasants, craftsmen, merchants, beggars, women, old people and children can appear in turn.[132][133] In the Shigisan Engi Emaki, the activity of women is particularly interesting, the artist showing them preparing meals, washing clothes or breastfeeding.[130] The Sanjūni-ban Shokunin Uta-awase Emaki presents 142 artisans from the Muromachi period, ranging from a blacksmith to a sake maker.[128]
The clothing of the characters in emakimono are typically true-to-life and accurately depict contemporary clothing and its relationship to the social categories of the time.[134] In military-themed scrolls, the weapons and armour of the warriors are also depicted with accuracy; the Heiji Monogatari Emaki, for instance, depicts many details, in particular the armour and harnesses of horses,[135] whilst the Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba depicts the fighting styles of the Japanese during the Mongol invasions of Japan, whose tactics were still dominated by the use of the bow.[136][133] Finally, the Ban Dainagon Ekotoba offers a unique insight into certain details of the uniforms of police officers (known as kebiishi).
The aesthetics, alongside the rendering of people's emotions and expressions of feelings, also show a distinct cleavage between the common people and the aristocracy. For emakimono depicting commoners, emotions such as fear, anguish, excitement and joy are rendered directly and with clarity, whereas aristocratic emakimono instead emphasise refined, but less direct, themes such as classical romance, the holding of ceremonies, and nostalgia for the Heian period.
Depending on the subjects addressed, emakimono also form an important historiographical source of information about more than just everyday life, including historical events, culture and religion. Among these kinds of emakimono, the Nenjū Gyōji Emaki comes in the form of a calendar of several annual ceremonies and rites celebrated at court. By their symbolic importance and the complexity of their codes, these events, as well as some more popular festivals, absorbed much of the energy of the Heian period aristocracy. During the subsequent Kamakura period, the forty-eight scrolls of the Hōnen Shōnin Eden formed an unpublished catalogue of the culture and the society of the time, while recounting, in a proselytising way, the establishment of the first Pure Land school in Japan.[137]
The architecture of the places used as a setting for an emakimono can present a great level of visual detail in relation to period structures. The Murasaki Shikibu Nikki Emaki thus offers an insight into the shinden-zukuri architectural style, marked by a mixture of influence from Tang China and traditional Japan, such as bark roofs.[138] More interesting still, the Ippen Shōnin Eden details a wide variety of buildings (temples, shrines, palaces, dwellings) taken from life with an unprecedented realism by the painter monk En'i, so that the buildings preserved today are easily recognizable.[139] Emakimono can also include various elements of life in the city or in the country, such as the market in the shopping district of Osaka.[140] Another notable example, the Shigisan Engi Emaki gives a unique sketch of the great Buddha original of Tōdai-ji, which burned in 1180.[141]
Emakimono very often take historical or religious events as a source of inspiration: the narrative value of the story (the true story) informs contemporary historians as much about the story as about the way of perceiving this story at the time (there is sometimes a gap of several centuries between the time of the story and the time of the painter). Amongst the most interesting information in an emakimono may be details of the construction of ancient temples, of religious practices[142] and finally of the unfolding of battles and major historical events, such as the Mongol invasions, the Genpei War or even the Ōtenmon political conspiracy.
Art historians, in their writings, have repeatedly emphasized the specific techniques of emakimono art through some characteristic scrolls.
The Genji Monogatari Emaki, dated approximately between the years 1120 and 1140, illustrate The Tale of Genji in the refined and intimate style of the court (onna-e), but only a few fragments of four scrolls remain today.[143] The scene shown here depicts Prince Genji's final visit to his dying beloved, Lady Murasaki. In the composition, the diagonals reveal the emotion of the characters. First, Lady Murasaki appears at the top right, then the lines guide the eye to the prince in the lower centre, who appears to be crushed by sorrow. Then, the reading continues, and, at left, several months have passed, showing the garden of lovers devastated by time, echoing the loved one lost.[106] The colors are darker than usual. In this scene, all of the classic pictorial elements of the emakimono of the onna-e genre are visible: the diagonals that guide the eye, the fukinuki yatai, the hikime kagibana, and the colours affixed evenly over the entire surface, with the tsukuri-e technique.[143]
The Shigisan Engi Emaki provides a popular and humorous narrative of three episodes from the life of the Buddhist monk Myōren (founder of Chōgosonshi-ji), emphasizing the line and light colors of the otoko-e. The most precise estimates place it between 1157 and 1180, and the quality of the descriptions of the temples and the palace suggests that the artist is familiar with both ecclesiastical and aristocratic circles.[130] Myōren, who lived as a hermit in the mountains of Kyoto, used to send a magic bowl by air to the nearby village, in order to receive his offering of rice. One day, a rich merchant became tired of this ritual and locked the bowl in his attic. To punish him, Myōren blew up the whole granary containing the village harvest, as painted in the scene shown here;[144] in that scene, known as the flying granary, the artist fully represents the popular feelings, fear and panic at seeing the harvest disappear. The movements of the crowd and the expressive, almost burlesque faces of the landscapes contrast with the tangible restraint in the Genji Monogatari Emaki.[145] So, this emakimono fits into the otoko-e genre, marked by dynamic ink lines, light colors revealing the paper, and themes of everyday life.
The Heiji Monogatari Emaki recounts the historical events of the Heiji rebellion, an episode in the civil war between the Taira and Minamoto clans at the end of the Heian era. Of the numerous original scrolls, formed in the second half of the 13th century, probably over several decades, only three remain, together with various fragments.[146] The first scroll, which depicts the Siege of Sanjō Palace, is one of the most renowned in the art of emakimono, due to its mastery of movement and setting up of the narrative to the climax: the fire, which spreads over almost the entire height of the scroll in the scene shown here. At the seat of the fire, extremely realistically represented soldiers, equipped with weapons and armor, fight violently, while the aristocrats who try to flee are savagely massacred (here, one is slaughtered by a shaggy soldier).[147] The palace fire echoes that in another, older, scroll, the Ban Dainagon Ekotoba, which is renowned for its mix of colorful and refined scenes.[96]
The twelve scrolls of the Ippen Shōnin Eden narrate the biography of the holy monk Ippen, founder of the Ji-shū school of Pure Land Buddhism. They were painted in 1299 by the monk-painter En'i, disciple of Ippen, on silk, probably because of the importance of the character. Ippen, cantor of salvation for all souls and dancing prayers (nenbutsu odori), travelled throughout Japan to transmit his doctrine to men, peasants, townspeople and nobles. The emakimono is renowned for its many strong scenes of landscapes typical of Japan, so realistic that they can still be recognised perfectly today.[148] The scene shown here, in which Ippen and his disciples arrive at Kyoto by the bridge over the Kamo River, illustrates the unique emakimono style, which draws its inspiration from both the classic yamato-e realism of Kamakura art and the wash painting of the Song dynasty. The result, so admired by specialists, appears very close to deep and spiritual Chinese landscapes with rough ink strokes, while retaining a Japanese iconography through the freedom taken with perspective (the characters in particular are disproportionate) and the elements of daily life.[105]
The Kegon Engi Emaki, painted around 1218–1230, illustrates the legend of two Korean monks who founded the Kegon sect in their country in the 12th century.[149] One of them, Gishō, made a pilgrimage to China in his youth to complete his Buddhist education. There, he met a young Chinese girl, Zenmyō, who fell in love with him. Alas, on the day he was due to depart, the latter arrived late at the port and, in despair, rushed into the water, swearing to protect her beloved forever. She then transformed into a dragon and became a protective deity of the Kegon school, according to legend. The well-known scene shown here, in which Zenmyō, transformed into a dragon, carries Gishō's ship on her back, features supple and fine lines as well as discreet colors that do not mask the brushstrokes; this style also seems inspired by the wash painting of the Song dynasty to which the very Japanese sensitivity for colors has been added. In fact, the sponsor of the roll, the monk Myōe of Kōzan-ji, appreciated the art of the Asian continent and brought to Japan several contemporary Chinese works, which probably inspired the artists of his painting workshop.[122]
The original scrolls of the Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki, reporting the facts about the life and death of Sugawara no Michizane, scholarly minister to the Emperor during his lifetime, and deified according to legend as a kami of studies and letters, demonstrate a sensitivity in mixing Buddhism and, above all, Shinto. The scrolls were actually intended for the Shinto shrine of Kitano Tenmangū in Kyoto; the last two of eight scrolls narrate the foundation and miracles.[51] However, the thematic division of the work appears unfinished, the sketch of a ninth scroll having been brought to light. In the scene shown here, Michizane, unjustly condemned to exile, calls out to the gods in his misfortune. The composition of the painting testifies to a very Japanese sensitivity; Michizane is disproportionately depicted to underline his grandeur and determination in the face of dishonour, while the vividly colored and almost contourless (mokkotsu) landscape is imbued with Shinto animism.[150] The mists resembling long opaque ribbons are further features of emakimono, although also present in a different form in Chinese art.[105]
_4.jpg/1280px-Murasaki_Shikibu_Diary_Emakimono_(Gotoh_Museum)_4.jpg)
![Steep mountain landscape and hermitage, Kiyomizu-dera Engi Emaki [fr], 1517](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Kiyomizudera_engi_emaki_-_Scroll1_Pic3.jpg/1280px-Kiyomizudera_engi_emaki_-_Scroll1_Pic3.jpg)
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![Free ink painting, Shōgun-zuka Emaki [fr], 13th century](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Sh%C5%8Dgun-zuka_emaki,_detail_A.jpg/1280px-Sh%C5%8Dgun-zuka_emaki,_detail_A.jpg)
![Landscape in wash. Monochrome version of Saigyō Monogatari Emaki [fr], 15th century](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Habukyo_Saigyo_Monogatari_Emaki_-_travel.jpg/1280px-Habukyo_Saigyo_Monogatari_Emaki_-_travel.jpg)
![Painting in frieze above the text, a form of Chinese origin that was quickly abandoned, Illustrated Sutra of Cause and Effect [fr], 8th century](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/E_innga_kyo.jpg/1280px-E_innga_kyo.jpg)
![Text before the painting, Obusuma Saburo Emaki [fr], 8th century](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Obusuma_Saburo_emaki_-_part_13.jpg/1280px-Obusuma_Saburo_emaki_-_part_13.jpg)
![Text located in a box at the top of the scroll, Kegon Gojūgo-sho Emaki [fr], 12th century](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Kegon_Goj%C5%ABgo-sho_Emaki_(Todaiji).jpg/1280px-Kegon_Goj%C5%ABgo-sho_Emaki_(Todaiji).jpg)
![Scene using the iji-dō-zu technique: the group of demons is first depicted burning below, then listening to the sermons of the historical Buddha in the middle, and finally drinking and reaching the heavens above. Gaki Zōshi [fr], 12th century](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Hungry_Ghosts_Scroll_Kyoto_5.jpg/1280px-Hungry_Ghosts_Scroll_Kyoto_5.jpg)
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