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Relaciones exteriores del Reino Unido

Las relaciones diplomáticas exteriores del Reino Unido están a cargo del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, Commonwealth y Desarrollo , encabezado por el Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores . El primer ministro y muchos otros organismos desempeñan un papel en la formulación de políticas, y muchas instituciones y empresas tienen voz y voto.

El Reino Unido fue la principal potencia mundial durante los siglos XIX y principios del XX, sobre todo durante la llamada « Pax Britannica », un período de supremacía sin igual y paz internacional sin precedentes durante mediados y fines del siglo XIX. El país siguió siendo ampliamente considerado una superpotencia hasta que la crisis de Suez de 1956 y el desmantelamiento del Imperio británico hicieron que el papel dominante del Reino Unido en los asuntos globales se redujera gradualmente. Sin embargo, el Reino Unido sigue siendo una gran potencia y un miembro permanente del Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas , un miembro fundador de AUKUS , la Commonwealth , el Consejo de Europa , el G7 , el G20 , la OTAN , la OCDE , la OSCE y la OMC . El Reino Unido ha sido un estado miembro de la Unión Europea (y miembro de sus predecesores) desde 1973. Sin embargo, debido al resultado de un referéndum de membresía de 2016 , los procedimientos para retirarse de la UE comenzaron en 2017 y concluyeron cuando el Reino Unido abandonó formalmente la UE el 31 de enero de 2020, y el período de transición el 31 de diciembre de 2020 con un acuerdo comercial de la UE . Desde la votación y la conclusión de las conversaciones comerciales con la UE, los responsables políticos han comenzado a buscar nuevos acuerdos comerciales con otros socios globales.

Historia

La batalla de Nivelle : una batalla de la Guerra Peninsular entre los ejércitos francés y británico en Francia en 1813

Tras la formación del Reino de Gran Bretaña (que unió a Inglaterra y Escocia) en 1707, las relaciones exteriores británicas continuaron en gran medida con las del Reino de Inglaterra . La política exterior británica se centró inicialmente en lograr un equilibrio de poder dentro de Europa, sin que ningún país lograra dominar los asuntos del continente. Esta política siguió siendo una de las principales justificaciones de las guerras de Gran Bretaña contra Napoleón y de la participación británica en la Primera y la Segunda Guerra Mundial . En segundo lugar, Gran Bretaña continuó la expansión de su " Primer Imperio Británico " colonial mediante la migración y la inversión.

Francia fue el principal enemigo hasta la derrota de Napoleón en 1815. Tenía una población mucho mayor y un ejército más poderoso, pero una marina más débil. Los británicos tuvieron éxito en general en sus muchas guerras . La notable excepción, la Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos (1775-1783), vio a Gran Bretaña, sin ningún aliado importante, derrotada por los colonos estadounidenses que tenían el apoyo de Francia, los Países Bajos e (indirectamente) España. Una estrategia diplomática británica favorecida consistía en subsidiar a los ejércitos de los aliados continentales (como Prusia ), convirtiendo así el enorme poder financiero de Londres en una ventaja militar. Gran Bretaña dependía en gran medida de su Marina Real para la seguridad, tratando de mantener su flota más poderosa a flote, eventualmente con un complemento completo de bases en todo el mundo. El dominio británico de los mares fue vital para la formación y el mantenimiento del Imperio Británico, que se logró mediante el apoyo de una armada más grande que las dos siguientes armadas más grandes juntas, antes de 1920. Los británicos generalmente se mantuvieron solos hasta principios del siglo XX, cuando se hicieron amigos de los EE. UU. e hicieron alianzas con Japón, Francia y Rusia y Alemania, antiguo antagonista ahora aliado.

1814–1914

Mapa del Imperio Británico (en 1910). En su apogeo, fue el imperio más grande de la historia.

Los 100 años transcurrieron en general en paz, como una suerte de Pax Britannica impuesta por la Marina Real Británica. Hubo dos guerras importantes, ambas de alcance limitado. La Guerra de Crimea (1853-1856) vio la derrota de Rusia y su amenaza al Imperio Otomano. La Segunda Guerra de los Bóers (1899-1902) vio la derrota de las dos repúblicas bóeres en Sudáfrica y la Rebelión de los Bóxers ocurrió el mismo año. Londres se convirtió en el centro financiero del mundo y la empresa comercial se expandió por todo el planeta. El " Segundo Imperio Británico " se construyó con una base en Asia (especialmente India) y África.

Primera Guerra Mundial

Década de 1920

Después de 1918, Gran Bretaña se convirtió en un "gigante en problemas" que no fue una fuerza diplomática dominante en la década de 1920 como antes. A menudo tuvo que ceder ante los Estados Unidos, que con frecuencia ejercieron su superioridad financiera. [1] Los principales temas de la política exterior británica incluyeron un papel destacado en la Conferencia de Paz de París de 1919-1920, donde Lloyd George trabajó arduamente para moderar las demandas francesas de venganza contra Alemania. [2] Tuvo un éxito parcial, pero Gran Bretaña pronto tuvo que moderar aún más la política francesa hacia Alemania, como en los Tratados de Locarno de 1925. [3] [4] Además, Gran Bretaña obtuvo "mandatos" que le permitieron a ella y a sus dominios gobernar la mayoría de las antiguas colonias alemanas y otomanas. [5]

Gran Bretaña se convirtió en un miembro activo de la nueva Liga de Naciones , pero su lista de logros principales fue breve. [6] [7]

El desarme ocupaba un lugar destacado en la agenda y Gran Bretaña desempeñó un papel importante, siguiendo a Estados Unidos en la Conferencia Naval de Washington de 1921, en la tarea de trabajar por el desarme naval de las principales potencias. En 1933, los acuerdos de desarme habían fracasado y la cuestión pasó a ser el rearme para una guerra contra Alemania. [8]

Gran Bretaña tuvo un éxito parcial en la negociación de mejores condiciones con Estados Unidos en relación con los grandes préstamos de guerra que Gran Bretaña estaba obligada a reembolsar. [9] Gran Bretaña apoyó la solución internacional a las reparaciones alemanas a través del Plan Dawes y el Plan Young . Después de que el Plan Dawes ayudara a estabilizar la moneda alemana y redujera sus pagos anuales, Alemania pudo pagar sus reparaciones anuales utilizando dinero prestado de los bancos de Nueva York, y Gran Bretaña utilizó el dinero recibido para pagar a Washington. [10] La Gran Depresión que comenzó en 1929 ejerció una enorme presión sobre la economía británica. Gran Bretaña revivió la Preferencia Imperial , lo que significó aranceles bajos dentro del Imperio Británico y mayores barreras al comercio con países externos. El flujo de dinero desde Nueva York se agotó y el sistema de reparaciones y pago de la deuda murió en 1931.

En la política interna británica, el Partido Laborista emergente tenía una política exterior distintiva y sospechosa basada en el pacifismo . Sus líderes creían que la paz era imposible debido al capitalismo , la diplomacia secreta y el comercio de armamentos . El Partido Laborista enfatizaba los factores materiales que ignoraban los recuerdos psicológicos de la Gran Guerra y las tensiones altamente emocionales relacionadas con el nacionalismo y las fronteras de los países. Sin embargo, el líder del partido, Ramsay MacDonald, dedicó gran parte de su atención a las políticas europeas. [11]

Década de 1930

Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler y Mussolini fotografiados antes de firmar el Acuerdo de Munich de 1938 , que entregó los Sudetes a la Alemania nazi.

Los vívidos recuerdos de los horrores y las muertes de la Primera Guerra Mundial inclinaron a muchos británicos —y a sus líderes de todos los partidos— al pacifismo en el período de entreguerras. Esto condujo directamente al apaciguamiento de los dictadores (en particular de Mussolini y de Hitler ) para evitar sus amenazas de guerra. [12]

El desafío vino de esos dictadores, primero de Benito Mussolini , Duce de Italia , luego de Adolf Hitler , Führer de una Alemania nazi mucho más poderosa . La Sociedad de Naciones resultó decepcionante para sus partidarios; no logró resolver ninguna de las amenazas planteadas por los dictadores. La política británica consistió en "apaciguarlos" con la esperanza de que se saciaran. En 1938 estaba claro que la guerra se avecinaba y que Alemania tenía el ejército más poderoso del mundo. El acto final de apaciguamiento llegó cuando Gran Bretaña y Francia sacrificaron Checoslovaquia a las demandas de Hitler en el Acuerdo de Múnich de septiembre de 1938. [13] En lugar de saciar, Hitler amenazó a Polonia, y finalmente el primer ministro Neville Chamberlain abandonó el apaciguamiento y se mantuvo firme en su promesa de defender a Polonia (31 de marzo de 1939). Sin embargo, Hitler llegó a un acuerdo con Joseph Stalin para dividir Europa del Este (23 de agosto de 1939); Cuando Alemania invadió Polonia en septiembre de 1939, Gran Bretaña y Francia declararon la guerra, y la Commonwealth británica siguió el ejemplo de Londres. [14]

Segunda Guerra Mundial

Tras firmar la alianza militar anglo-polaca en agosto de 1939, Gran Bretaña y Francia declararon la guerra a Alemania en septiembre de 1939 en respuesta a la invasión alemana de Polonia. Esta declaración incluía las colonias de la Corona y la India , que Gran Bretaña controlaba directamente. Los dominios eran independientes en política exterior, aunque todos entraron rápidamente en la guerra contra Alemania. Después de la derrota francesa en junio de 1940, Gran Bretaña y su imperio se mantuvieron solos en el combate contra Alemania, hasta junio de 1941. Estados Unidos brindó apoyo diplomático, financiero y material, a partir de 1940, especialmente a través del Préstamo y Arriendo , que comenzó en 1941 y alcanzó su máxima fuerza durante 1943. En agosto de 1941, Churchill y Roosevelt se reunieron y acordaron la Carta del Atlántico , que proclamaba que debían respetarse "los derechos de todos los pueblos a elegir la forma de gobierno bajo la que viven". Esta redacción era ambigua y sería interpretada de manera diferente por los británicos, los estadounidenses y los movimientos nacionalistas. [15]

A partir de diciembre de 1941, Japón invadió las posesiones británicas en Asia, incluidas Hong Kong , Malasia y, especialmente, la base clave de Singapur . Luego, Japón marchó sobre Birmania , en dirección a la India. La reacción de Churchill ante la entrada de Estados Unidos en la guerra fue que Gran Bretaña ahora tenía asegurada la victoria y el futuro del imperio estaba a salvo, pero las rápidas derrotas dañaron irreversiblemente la posición y el prestigio de Gran Bretaña como potencia imperial . La comprensión de que Gran Bretaña no podía defenderlos empujó a Australia y Nueva Zelanda a estrechar vínculos permanentes con Estados Unidos. [16]

De la posguerra

Bases militares en el extranjero en 2016 (azul) e intervenciones militares desde 2000 (rojo).

En 1945, Gran Bretaña se encontraba en una situación económica desesperada (cargada de deudas y lidiando con una destrucción generalizada de su infraestructura ), por lo que redujo sistemáticamente sus compromisos en el exterior. Desempeñó un papel alternativo como participante activo en la Guerra Fría contra el comunismo , especialmente como miembro fundador de la OTAN en 1949. [17]

Los británicos habían construido un imperio mundial muy grande, que alcanzó su máximo tamaño en 1922, después de más de medio siglo de supremacía global indiscutida. Sin embargo, los costos acumulativos de luchar en dos guerras mundiales colocaron una pesada carga sobre la economía nacional, y después de 1945 el Imperio Británico comenzó a desintegrarse rápidamente, y todas las colonias principales obtuvieron la independencia. A mediados y fines de la década de 1950, el estatus del Reino Unido como superpotencia había desaparecido ante los Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética. La mayoría de las antiguas colonias se unieron a la "Comunidad de Naciones", una organización de naciones completamente independientes que ahora tienen el mismo estatus que el Reino Unido. Sin embargo, no intentó ninguna política colectiva importante. [18] [19] La última colonia importante, Hong Kong, fue entregada a China en 1997. [20] Catorce Territorios Británicos de Ultramar mantienen un vínculo constitucional con el Reino Unido, pero no son parte del país per se. [21]

Gran Bretaña redujo su participación en Oriente Medio después de la humillante Crisis de Suez de 1956. Sin embargo, Gran Bretaña forjó estrechos lazos militares con Estados Unidos, Francia y Alemania, a través de la alianza militar de la OTAN. Después de años de debate (y rechazos), Gran Bretaña se unió al Mercado Común en 1973; que se convirtió en la Unión Europea en 1993. [22] Sin embargo , no se fusionó financieramente y mantuvo la libra separada del euro , lo que lo aisló en parte de la crisis financiera de la UE de 2011. [23] En junio de 2016, el Reino Unido votó a favor de abandonar la UE . [24] [25]

Siglo XXI

El primer ministro del Reino Unido, Keir Starmer, con el presidente de Estados Unidos, Joe Biden , en la Casa Blanca , julio de 2024

Las iniciativas de política exterior de los gobiernos del Reino Unido desde la década de 1990 han incluido la intervención militar en conflictos y para el mantenimiento de la paz, programas de asistencia humanitaria y aumento del gasto en ayuda, apoyo para el establecimiento de la Corte Penal Internacional , alivio de la deuda para los países en desarrollo, priorización de iniciativas para abordar el cambio climático y promoción del libre comercio . [26] El enfoque británico ha sido descrito como "difundir las normas correctas y sostener a la OTAN". [27]

Lunn et al. (2008) argumentan: [28]

Tres de los motivos principales de los diez años de mandato de Tony Blair fueron una filosofía activista del "intervencionismo", el mantenimiento de una fuerte alianza con los EE.UU. y el compromiso de situar a Gran Bretaña en el corazón de Europa. Si bien la "relación especial" y la cuestión del papel de Gran Bretaña en Europa han sido centrales para la política exterior británica desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial... el intervencionismo fue un elemento genuinamente nuevo.

La campaña GREAT de 2012 fue uno de los esfuerzos de promoción nacional más ambiciosos jamás emprendidos por una nación importante. Se programó para aprovechar al máximo la atención mundial hacia los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano en Londres . Los objetivos eran hacer más visible la cultura británica para estimular el comercio, la inversión y el turismo. El gobierno se asoció con líderes clave en cultura, negocios, diplomacia y educación. La campaña unificó muchos temas y objetivos, incluyendo reuniones de negocios; convenciones académicas; concesionarios de vehículos recreativos; parques y campamentos; oficinas de convenciones y visitantes; hoteles; posadas con desayuno incluido; casinos; y hoteles. [29] [30]

En 2013, el gobierno de David Cameron describió su enfoque de la política exterior diciendo: [31]

En cualquier asunto de política exterior, el Reino Unido tiene potencialmente una gama de opciones para producir un impacto en nuestro interés nacional... [T]enemos una red compleja de alianzas y asociaciones a través de las cuales podemos trabajar... Estas incluyen –además de la UE– a la ONU y a los grupos dentro de ella, como los cinco miembros permanentes del Consejo de Seguridad (el “P5”); la OTAN; la Commonwealth; la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos; los grupos G8 y G20 de las principales naciones industrializadas; y así sucesivamente.

El Reino Unido comenzó a establecer instalaciones aéreas y navales en el Golfo Pérsico , ubicadas en los Emiratos Árabes Unidos , Bahréin y Omán en 2014-15. [32] [33] [34] [35] La Revisión Estratégica de Defensa y Seguridad de 2015 destacó una serie de iniciativas de política exterior del gobierno del Reino Unido. [36] [37] Edward Longinotti señala cómo la política de defensa británica actual está lidiando con la forma de acomodar dos compromisos importantes, con Europa y con una estrategia militar global " al este de Suez ", dentro de un modesto presupuesto de defensa que solo puede financiar uno. Señala que el acuerdo de Gran Bretaña de diciembre de 2014 para abrir una base naval permanente en Bahréin subraya su compromiso gradual al este de Suez. [38] Según algunas medidas, Gran Bretaña sigue siendo el segundo país más poderoso del mundo en virtud de su poder blando y su "capacidad logística para desplegar, apoyar y sostener fuerzas [militares] en el extranjero en grandes cantidades". [39] Aunque los comentaristas han cuestionado la necesidad de una proyección de poder global, [40] el concepto de “Gran Bretaña global” propuesto por el gobierno conservador en 2019 indicó una mayor actividad militar en Medio Oriente y el Pacífico, fuera de la esfera de influencia tradicional de la OTAN. [41] [42]

A fines de enero de 2020, el Reino Unido abandonó la Unión Europea , con un acuerdo comercial posterior con la UE en vigor desde el 1 de enero de 2021, que establece los términos de la relación económica entre el Reino Unido y la UE y las capacidades que el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, de la Commonwealth y de Desarrollo puede utilizar en las relaciones exteriores relacionadas con el comercio.

Poder militar

Gran Bretaña ha invadido (aunque no necesariamente controlado) el territorio dentro de los límites modernos de 172 de los 194 países del mundo en un momento u otro, [43] [44] y ella misma ha sido invadida 73 veces (según un recuento) desde 1066. [45]

Principales disputas internacionales desde 1945

Patrulla callejera británica en Adén en 1967
Un helicóptero Lynx del Cuerpo Aéreo del Ejército Británico listo para aterrizar en una carretera desértica al sur del aeropuerto de Basora , noviembre de 2003

Disputas de soberanía

Celebraciones del Día Nacional de Gibraltar en 2013

Commonwealth of Nations

Members of the Commonwealth of Nations.

The UK has varied relationships with the countries that make up the Commonwealth of Nations which originated from the British Empire. Charles III of the United Kingdom is Head of the Commonwealth and is King of 15 of its 56 member states. Those that retain the King as head of state are called Commonwealth realms. Over time several countries have been suspended from the Commonwealth for various reasons. Zimbabwe was suspended because of the authoritarian rule of its President.[60]

Diplomatic relations

British diplomatic relations date back to the 13th century.[61] The United Kingdom has established diplomatic relations with all United Nations members, aside from Bhutan, in addition to 3 Non-UN member states: the Cook Islands, Holy See, and Kosovo. The following table lists the date from which diplomatic relations were established with foreign countries:

Bilateral relations

Africa

Asia

Europe

North America

Oceania

South America

International organisations

The United Kingdom is a member of the following international organisations:[544]

See also

References

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External links