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Ocupación indonesia de Timor Oriental

La ocupación indonesia de Timor Oriental comenzó en diciembre de 1975 y duró hasta octubre de 1999. Tras siglos de dominio colonial portugués en Timor Oriental , la Revolución de los Claveles de 1974 en Portugal condujo a la descolonización de sus antiguas colonias, lo que generó inestabilidad en Timor Oriental y dejó su futuro incierto. Después de una guerra civil a pequeña escala , el partido independentista Fretilin declaró la victoria en la capital, Dili , y declaró la independencia de Timor Oriental el 28 de noviembre de 1975.

Tras la "Declaración de Balibo", firmada por representantes de Apodeti , UDT , KOTA y el Partido Trabalhista el 30 de noviembre de 1975, las fuerzas militares indonesias invadieron Timor Oriental el 7 de diciembre de 1975 y en 1979 habían destruido prácticamente la resistencia armada a la ocupación. El 17 de julio de 1976, Indonesia anexó formalmente Timor Oriental como su 27ª provincia y declaró la provincia de Timor Timur (Timor Oriental).

Inmediatamente después de la invasión, la Asamblea General y el Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas aprobaron resoluciones condenando las acciones de Indonesia en Timor Oriental y pidiendo su retirada inmediata del territorio. Australia e Indonesia fueron las únicas naciones del mundo que reconocieron a Timor Oriental como una provincia de Indonesia, y poco después iniciaron negociaciones para dividir los recursos que se encuentran en la Franja de Timor . Otros gobiernos, incluidos los de Estados Unidos , Japón , Canadá y Malasia , también apoyaron al gobierno indonesio. Sin embargo, la invasión de Timor Oriental y la supresión de su movimiento independentista causaron un gran daño a la reputación y la credibilidad internacional de Indonesia. [7] [8]

Durante veinticuatro años, el gobierno indonesio sometió al pueblo de Timor Oriental a torturas rutinarias y sistemáticas , esclavitud sexual , internamiento , desapariciones forzadas , ejecuciones extrajudiciales , masacres y hambruna deliberada . [9] La Masacre de Santa Cruz de 1991 causó indignación en todo el mundo, y los informes de otros asesinatos similares fueron numerosos. La resistencia al gobierno indonesio siguió siendo fuerte; [10] en 1996 se otorgó el Premio Nobel de la Paz a dos hombres de Timor Oriental, Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo y José Ramos-Horta , por sus continuos esfuerzos para poner fin pacíficamente a la ocupación. Una votación de 1999 para determinar el futuro de Timor Oriental resultó en una abrumadora mayoría a favor de la independencia, y en 2002 Timor Oriental se convirtió en una nación independiente. La Comisión para la Acogida, la Verdad y la Reconciliación en Timor Oriental estimó que el número de muertes durante la ocupación a causa del hambre y la violencia se situó entre 90.800 y 202.600, incluidas entre 17.600 y 19.600 muertes violentas o desapariciones, de una población de aproximadamente 823.386 habitantes en 1999. La Comisión de la Verdad consideró a las fuerzas indonesias responsables de aproximadamente el 70% de las matanzas violentas. [11] [12] [13]

Tras la votación de 1999 a favor de la independencia, grupos paramilitares que colaboraban con el ejército indonesio emprendieron una última oleada de violencia durante la cual se destruyó la mayor parte de la infraestructura del país. La Fuerza Internacional para Timor Oriental , dirigida por Australia , restableció el orden y, tras la salida de las fuerzas indonesias de Timor Oriental, la Administración de Transición de las Naciones Unidas para Timor Oriental administró el territorio durante dos años y estableció una Dependencia de Delitos Graves para investigar y enjuiciar los delitos cometidos en 1999. Su alcance limitado y el reducido número de sentencias dictadas por los tribunales indonesios han hecho que numerosos observadores pidan un tribunal internacional para Timor Oriental. [14] [15]

La Universidad de Oxford llegó a un consenso académico que calificaba la ocupación de Timor Oriental de genocidio y la Universidad de Yale lo enseña como parte de su programa de Estudios sobre el Genocidio. [16] [17]

Fondo

Mapa de Timor Oriental y sus principales ciudades

Los portugueses llegaron por primera vez a Timor en el siglo XVI, y en 1702 Timor Oriental quedó bajo administración colonial portuguesa . [18] El dominio portugués fue tenue hasta que la isla fue dividida con el Imperio holandés en 1860. [19] Timor Oriental, un campo de batalla importante durante la Guerra del Pacífico , fue ocupado por 20.000 tropas japonesas. La lucha ayudó a evitar una ocupación japonesa de Australia, pero resultó en la muerte de 60.000 timorenses orientales. [20]

Cuando Indonesia consiguió su independencia después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial bajo el liderazgo de Sukarno , no reclamó el control de Timor Oriental y, aparte de la retórica anticolonial general, no se opuso al control portugués del territorio. Una revuelta de 1959 en Timor Oriental contra los portugueses no fue apoyada por el gobierno indonesio. [21] Un documento de las Naciones Unidas de 1962 señala: "el gobierno de Indonesia ha declarado que mantiene relaciones amistosas con Portugal y no tiene ninguna reivindicación sobre el Timor portugués...". [22] Estas garantías continuaron después de que Suharto tomara el poder en 1965. Un funcionario indonesio declaró en diciembre de 1974: "Indonesia no tiene ambición territorial... Por lo tanto, no hay ninguna posibilidad de que Indonesia desee anexionarse el Timor portugués". [23]

En 1974, la Revolución de los Claveles en Portugal provocó cambios significativos en la relación de Portugal con su colonia en Timor. [24] El cambio de poder en Europa fortaleció los movimientos independentistas en colonias como Mozambique y Angola, y el nuevo gobierno portugués inició un proceso de descolonización de Timor Oriental. El primero de estos cambios fue la apertura del proceso político. [25]

Fretilin, UDT y APODETI

Cuando los partidos políticos de Timor Oriental se legalizaron por primera vez en abril de 1974, tres agrupaciones surgieron como actores importantes en el panorama poscolonial. La União Democrática Timorense ( Unión Democrática Timorense , o UDT), formada en mayo por un grupo de terratenientes ricos, inicialmente dedicada a preservar Timor Oriental como un protectorado de Portugal, en septiembre la UDT anunció su apoyo a la independencia. [26] Una semana después, apareció el Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente ( Fretilin). Inicialmente organizado como ASDT (Associacão Social Democrata Timorense), el grupo respaldaba "las doctrinas universales del socialismo", así como "el derecho a la independencia". [27] Sin embargo, a medida que el proceso político se volvió más tenso, el grupo cambió su nombre y se declaró "el único representante legítimo del pueblo". [28] A finales de mayo se creó un tercer partido, la Associacão Popular Democratica Timorense ( Asociación Democrática Popular Timorense , o APODETI). En su nombre original, APODETI, que abogaba por la integración de Timor Oriental con Indonesia, [29] defendía la integración de Timor Oriental con Indonesia. La APODETI expresó su preocupación por el hecho de que un Timor Oriental independiente sería económicamente débil y vulnerable. [30]

El Fretilin tomó el poder después de la guerra civil y declaró la independencia de Timor Oriental el 28 de noviembre de 1975.

Los nacionalistas indonesios y los militares de línea dura, en particular los líderes de la agencia de inteligencia Kopkamtib y la unidad de operaciones especiales Kopassus , vieron la revolución portuguesa como una oportunidad para la integración de Timor Oriental con Indonesia. El gobierno central y los militares temían que un Timor Oriental gobernado por izquierdistas pudiera ser utilizado como base para incursiones de potencias hostiles en Indonesia, y también que un Timor Oriental independiente dentro del archipiélago pudiera inspirar sentimientos secesionistas dentro de las provincias indonesias. El miedo a la desintegración nacional se utilizó con los líderes militares cercanos a Suharto y siguió siendo una de las justificaciones más fuertes de Indonesia para negarse a considerar la perspectiva de la independencia o incluso la autonomía de Timor Oriental hasta finales de los años 1990. [31] Las organizaciones de inteligencia militar inicialmente buscaron una estrategia de anexión no militar , con la intención de utilizar a APODETI como su vehículo de integración. [32]

En enero de 1975, la UDT y el Fretilin establecieron una coalición provisional dedicada a lograr la independencia de Timor Oriental. [33] Al mismo tiempo, el gobierno australiano informó que el ejército indonesio había llevado a cabo un ejercicio "previo a la invasión" en Lampung . [34] Durante meses, el comando de Operaciones Especiales de Indonesia, Kopassus , había estado apoyando encubiertamente a APODETI a través de la Operasi Komodo (Operación Komodo, llamada así por el lagarto ). Al difundir acusaciones de comunismo entre los líderes del Fretilin y sembrar discordia en la coalición de la UDT, el gobierno indonesio fomentó la inestabilidad en Timor Oriental y, según los observadores, creó un pretexto para invadir. [35] En mayo, las tensiones entre los dos grupos hicieron que la UDT se retirara de la coalición. [36]

En un intento de negociar una solución a la disputa sobre el futuro de Timor Oriental, la Comisión de Descolonización de Portugal convocó una conferencia en junio de 1975 en Macao . El Fretilin boicoteó la reunión en protesta por la presencia de la APODETI; los representantes de la UDT y de la APODETI se quejaron de que se trataba de un intento de obstruir el proceso de descolonización. [37] En sus memorias de 1987 Funu: The Unfinished Saga of East Timor , el líder del Fretilin, José Ramos-Horta, recuerda sus "vehementes protestas" contra la negativa de su partido a asistir a la reunión. "Éste", escribe, "fue uno de nuestros errores políticos tácticos para el que nunca pude encontrar una explicación inteligente". [38]

Golpe de Estado, guerra civil y declaración de independencia

La tensión alcanzó un punto de ebullición a mediados de 1975 cuando comenzaron a circular rumores de posibles tomas de poder por parte de ambos partidos independentistas. [39] En agosto de 1975, la UDT dio un golpe de estado en la capital Dili , y estalló una guerra civil a pequeña escala. Ramos-Horta describe la lucha como "sangrienta" y detalla la violencia cometida tanto por la UDT como por el Fretilin. Cita al Comité Internacional de la Cruz Roja , que contabilizó entre 2.000 y 3.000 muertos después de la guerra. [40] La lucha obligó al gobierno portugués a trasladarse a la cercana isla de Atauro . [41] El Fretilin derrotó a las fuerzas de la UDT después de dos semanas, para sorpresa de Portugal e Indonesia. [42] Los líderes de la UDT huyeron a Timor Occidental controlado por Indonesia. Allí firmaron una petición el 7 de septiembre pidiendo la integración de Timor Oriental con Indonesia; [43] la mayoría de los relatos indican que el apoyo de la UDT a esta posición fue forzado por Indonesia. [44]

Mapa del distrito de Bobonaro , en Timor Oriental, que se encuentra en la frontera con Timor Occidental, en Indonesia . Los combates continuaron en esta región después de la guerra civil y varias ciudades fueron capturadas por Indonesia antes de su invasión total.

Una vez que obtuvieron el control de Timor Oriental, el Fretilin enfrentó ataques desde el oeste, por parte de las fuerzas militares indonesias —conocidas entonces como Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia (ABRI)— y de un pequeño grupo de tropas de la UDT. [45] Indonesia capturó la ciudad fronteriza de Batugadé el 8 de octubre de 1975; las cercanas Balibó y Maliana fueron tomadas ocho días después. [46] Durante la incursión de Balibó, miembros de un equipo de noticias de la televisión australiana —más tarde apodado los " Cinco de Balibo "— fueron asesinados por soldados indonesios. [47] Los funcionarios militares indonesios dicen que las muertes fueron accidentales, y los testigos timorenses orientales dicen que los periodistas fueron asesinados deliberadamente. Las muertes, y las campañas e investigaciones posteriores, atrajeron la atención internacional y reunieron apoyo para la independencia de Timor Oriental. [48]

A principios de noviembre, los ministros de Asuntos Exteriores de Indonesia y Portugal se reunieron en Roma para tratar de resolver el conflicto. Aunque no se invitó a ningún dirigente timorense a las conversaciones, el Fretilin envió un mensaje en el que expresaba su deseo de trabajar con Portugal. La reunión concluyó con el acuerdo de ambas partes de que Portugal se reuniría con los dirigentes políticos de Timor Oriental, pero las conversaciones nunca se celebraron. [49] A mediados de noviembre, las fuerzas indonesias comenzaron a bombardear la ciudad de Atabae desde el mar y la capturaron a finales de mes. [50]

Frustrados por la inacción de Portugal, los dirigentes del Fretilin creyeron que podrían defenderse más eficazmente de los avances indonesios si declaraban la independencia de Timor Oriental. El Comisionado Político Nacional, Mari Alkatiri, realizó una gira diplomática por África, reuniendo el apoyo de los gobiernos de ese continente y de otros lugares.

Según el Fretilin, este esfuerzo dio como resultado garantías de veinticinco países —entre ellos la República Popular China, la Unión Soviética , Mozambique, Suecia y Cuba— de reconocer a la nueva nación. Cuba mantiene hoy estrechas relaciones con Timor Oriental. El 28 de noviembre de 1975, el Fretilin declaró unilateralmente la independencia de la República Democrática de Timor Oriental. [51] Indonesia anunció que los líderes de la UDT y la APODETI en Balibó y sus alrededores responderían al día siguiente declarando que esa región era independiente de Timor Oriental y oficialmente parte de Indonesia. Sin embargo, esta Declaración de Balibo fue redactada por la inteligencia indonesia y firmada en Bali ; más tarde algunos la describieron como la «Declaración de Balibohong», un juego de palabras con la palabra indonesia para «mentira». [52] [53] Portugal rechazó ambas declaraciones y el gobierno indonesio aprobó la acción militar para comenzar su anexión de Timor Oriental. [54]

Invasión

Invasión indonesia

El 7 de diciembre de 1975, las fuerzas indonesias invadieron Timor Oriental. La Operación Seroja (Operación Loto) fue la mayor operación militar jamás llevada a cabo por esa nación. [54] [55] Las tropas de la organización militar Falintil del Fretilin se enfrentaron a las fuerzas de la ABRI en las calles de Dili y reportaron que 400 paracaidistas indonesios murieron mientras descendían sobre la ciudad. [56] La revista Angkasa informa que murieron 35 soldados indonesios y 122 del lado del Fretilin. [57] A finales de año, 10.000 soldados ocuparon Dili y otros 20.000 habían sido desplegados en todo Timor Oriental. [56] [58] Superadas en número, las tropas de Falintil huyeron a las montañas y continuaron las operaciones de combate de guerrilla . [59]

El Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores de Indonesia, Adam Malik, sugirió que el número de timorenses orientales asesinados en los dos primeros años de ocupación fue de "50.000 personas o quizás 80.000". [60]

Atrocidades en Indonesia

Desde el comienzo de la invasión, las fuerzas del TNI se dedicaron a masacrar a civiles timorenses. [61] Al comienzo de la ocupación, la radio Fretilin emitió la siguiente emisión: "Las fuerzas indonesias están matando indiscriminadamente. Están disparando a mujeres y niños en las calles. Todos vamos a ser asesinados... Este es un llamamiento a la ayuda internacional. Por favor, hagan algo para detener esta invasión". [62] Un refugiado timorense contó más tarde que había "violaciones y asesinatos a sangre fría de mujeres, niños y dueños de tiendas chinas ". [63] El obispo de Dili en ese momento, Martinho da Costa Lopes , dijo más tarde: "Los soldados que desembarcaron empezaron a matar a todo el que pudieron encontrar. Había muchos cadáveres en las calles; todo lo que podíamos ver era a los soldados matando, matando, matando". [64] En un incidente, un grupo de cincuenta hombres, mujeres y niños -incluido el periodista independiente australiano Roger East- fueron alineados en un acantilado a las afueras de Dili y fusilados, y sus cuerpos cayeron al mar. [65] Muchas de esas masacres tuvieron lugar en Dili, donde se ordenó a los espectadores que observaran y contaran en voz alta a cada persona que era ejecutada. [66] Se calcula que al menos 2.000 timorenses fueron masacrados en los dos primeros días de la invasión sólo en Dili. Además de los partidarios del Fretilin, también se escogió a inmigrantes chinos para ejecutarlos; quinientos fueron asesinados sólo en el primer día. [67]

Las matanzas en masa continuaron sin cesar mientras las fuerzas indonesias avanzaban sobre las regiones montañosas de Timor Oriental en poder del Fretilin. Un guía timorense de un alto oficial indonesio dijo al ex cónsul australiano en Timor Portugués, James Dunn , que durante los primeros meses de los combates las tropas del TNI "mataron a la mayoría de los timorenses que encontraron". [68] En febrero de 1976, después de capturar la aldea de Aileu -al sur de Dili- y expulsar a las fuerzas restantes del Fretilin, las tropas indonesias ametrallaron a la mayoría de la población de la ciudad, supuestamente disparando a todos los mayores de tres años. Los niños pequeños que se salvaron fueron llevados de vuelta a Dili en camiones. En el momento en que Aileu cayó en manos de las fuerzas indonesias, la población era de alrededor de 5.000 personas; cuando los trabajadores de socorro indonesios visitaron la aldea en septiembre de 1976, sólo quedaban 1.000. [69] En junio de 1976, las tropas del TNI, duramente golpeadas por un ataque del Fretilin, tomaron represalias contra un gran campo de refugiados que albergaba a entre 5.000 y 6.000 timorenses en Lamaknan, cerca de la frontera con Timor Occidental. Después de incendiar varias casas, los soldados indonesios masacraron a unos 2.000 hombres, mujeres y niños. [70]

En marzo de 1977, el ex cónsul australiano James Dunn publicó un informe en el que se detallaban las acusaciones de que, desde diciembre de 1975, las fuerzas indonesias habían matado entre 50.000 y 100.000 civiles en Timor Oriental. [71] Esto es coherente con una declaración hecha el 13 de febrero de 1976 por el líder de la UDT López da Cruz de que 60.000 timorenses habían sido asesinados durante los seis meses anteriores de guerra civil, lo que sugiere una cifra de muertos de al menos 55.000 en los dos primeros meses de la invasión. Una delegación de trabajadores humanitarios indonesios estuvo de acuerdo con esta estadística. [72] Un informe de finales de 1976 de la Iglesia Católica también estimó la cifra de muertos entre 60.000 y 100.000. [73] Estas cifras también fueron corroboradas por los miembros del propio gobierno indonesio. En una entrevista del 5 de abril de 1977 con el Sydney Morning Herald , el Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores de Indonesia, Adam Malik, dijo que el número de muertos era de "50.000 personas o quizás 80.000". [60]

El gobierno indonesio presentó su anexión de Timor Oriental como una cuestión de unidad anticolonial . Un folleto de 1977 del Departamento de Asuntos Exteriores de Indonesia, titulado Descolonización en Timor Oriental , rindió homenaje al "sagrado derecho a la libre determinación" [74] y reconoció a APODETI como los verdaderos representantes de la mayoría timorense oriental. Afirmó que la popularidad del Fretilin era el resultado de una "política de amenazas, chantaje y terror". [75] Más tarde, el Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores de Indonesia, Ali Alatas, reiteró esta posición en sus memorias de 2006 The Pebble in the Shoe: The Diplomatic Struggle for East Timor [La piedra en el zapato: la lucha diplomática por Timor Oriental ]. [76] La división original de la isla en este y oeste, sostuvo Indonesia después de la invasión, fue "el resultado de la opresión colonial" impuesta por las potencias imperiales portuguesa y holandesa. Así pues, según el Gobierno indonesio, su anexión de la 27ª provincia fue simplemente otro paso en la unificación del archipiélago que había comenzado en la década de 1940. [77]

La respuesta de la ONU y el derecho internacional

Al día siguiente de la invasión, un comité de la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas se reunió para debatir la situación. Las naciones aliadas de Indonesia, entre ellas India, Japón y Malasia, redactaron una resolución en la que culpaban a Portugal y a los partidos políticos timorenses del derramamiento de sangre; la resolución fue rechazada en favor de un borrador preparado por Argelia, Cuba, Senegal y Guyana, entre otros. Esta resolución fue adoptada como Resolución 3485 (XXX) de la Asamblea General el 12 de diciembre, en la que se instaba a Indonesia a "retirarse sin demora". [78] Diez días después, el Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas adoptó por unanimidad la Resolución 384 (1975), que se hace eco del llamamiento de la resolución de la Asamblea General a la retirada inmediata de Indonesia. [79] Un año después, el Consejo de Seguridad expresó el mismo sentimiento en la Resolución 389 (1976), y la Asamblea General aprobó resoluciones todos los años entre 1976 y 1982 en las que se pedía la libre determinación de Timor Oriental. [80] Los gobiernos de países grandes como China y los Estados Unidos se opusieron a que se tomaran más medidas; Países más pequeños como Costa Rica, Guinea-Bissau e Islandia fueron las únicas delegaciones que pidieron una aplicación enérgica de las resoluciones. [81] La resolución de 1982 pide al Secretario General de las Naciones Unidas que "inicie consultas con todas las partes directamente interesadas, con miras a explorar vías para lograr una solución global del problema". [82]

El experto legal Roger S. Clark señala que la invasión y ocupación de Indonesia violaron dos elementos vitales del derecho internacional : el derecho a la libre determinación y la prohibición de la agresión . Ni la petición del 7 de septiembre de 1975 en la que se pedía la integración ni la posterior resolución de la "Asamblea del Pueblo" de mayo de 1976 pueden calificarse de "procesos informados y democráticos llevados a cabo de manera imparcial y basados ​​en el sufragio universal de los adultos", como lo exige la Resolución 1541 (XV) de la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, que establece las directrices para las normas de libre determinación. Las peticiones también presentaban otras deficiencias. [83]

El uso de la fuerza militar por parte de Indonesia en Timor Oriental se cita como una violación del Capítulo I de la Carta de las Naciones Unidas , que establece: "Todos los Miembros se abstendrán, en sus relaciones internacionales, de recurrir a la amenaza o al uso de la fuerza contra la integridad territorial o la independencia política de cualquier Estado...". Algunos observadores han argumentado que Timor Oriental no era un Estado en el momento de la invasión y, por lo tanto, no está protegido por la Carta de las Naciones Unidas. Esta afirmación refleja las formuladas contra Indonesia por los holandeses durante la Revolución Nacional Indonesia . [84] Como señala la jurista Susan Marks, si Timor Oriental se consideraba una colonia portuguesa, entonces, aunque "puede haber alguna duda sobre la aplicación de esta disposición [del Capítulo I de la Carta de las Naciones Unidas] en el contexto de un conflicto armado entre una potencia colonial y su propia colonia, difícilmente puede haber dudas de que se aplica a la fuerza ejercida por un Estado soberano contra la colonia de otro Estado". [85]

Hegemonía indonesia

El 17 de diciembre, Indonesia formó el Gobierno Provisional de Timor Oriental (PSTT), encabezado por Arnaldo dos Reis Araújo, de APODETI, como presidente, y López da Cruz, de UDT. [86] La mayoría de las fuentes describen esta institución como una creación del ejército indonesio. [87] Una de las primeras actividades del PSTT fue la formación de una "Asamblea Popular" integrada por representantes electos y dirigentes "de diversos sectores de la vida timorense". [88] Al igual que el propio PSTT, la Asamblea Popular suele caracterizarse como un instrumento de propaganda creado por el ejército indonesio; aunque se invitó a periodistas internacionales a presenciar la reunión del grupo en mayo de 1976, su movimiento estuvo fuertemente restringido. [89] La Asamblea redactó una solicitud de integración formal en Indonesia, que Yakarta describió como "el acto de autodeterminación" en Timor Oriental. [90]

Indonesia mantuvo a Timor Oriental aislado del resto del mundo, salvo durante unos pocos años a finales de los años 1980 y principios de los años 1990, alegando que la gran mayoría de los timorenses orientales apoyaban la integración. Esta postura fue seguida de cerca por los medios de comunicación indonesios, de modo que la mayoría de los indonesios dieron por sentada la aceptación de su integración con Indonesia, y para ellos no fue un problema. [91] Timor Oriental llegó a ser visto como un campo de entrenamiento para el cuerpo de oficiales en tácticas de represión para Aceh e Irian Jaya y fue fundamental para asegurar el dominio del sector militar de Indonesia. [92]

Campañas indonesias contra la resistencia

El monumento a la integración en Dili fue donado por el gobierno de Indonesia para representar la emancipación del colonialismo.

Los dirigentes de los servicios de inteligencia indonesios que tenían influencia sobre Suharto habían previsto inicialmente que la invasión, la supresión de la resistencia del Fretilin y la integración con Indonesia serían rápidas y relativamente indoloras. Las campañas indonesias que siguieron hasta 1976 fueron devastadoras para los timorenses orientales, una enorme pérdida de recursos indonesios, resultaron muy perjudiciales para Indonesia a nivel internacional y, en última instancia, un fracaso. Las matanzas indiscriminadas y generalizadas cometidas por el TNI cerca de las regiones costeras durante los primeros meses de la invasión habían obligado a una gran parte de la población y a la mayor parte de los miembros restantes del Falintil a refugiarse en las regiones centrales. Esto resultó contraproducente, ya que dejó a las tropas indonesias luchando contra un enemigo que estaba bien equipado y tenía acceso a los recursos agrícolas y a la población. La población civil llegó a ver al Falintil como un amortiguador contra los excesos de las fuerzas indonesias, lo que condujo a un mayor apoyo a la resistencia. De 1975 a 1977, el Fretilin protegió al menos al 40% de la población que había huido de las regiones costeras, en condiciones inhóspitas, con el apoyo activo de las comunidades unidas. [93] Schwarz sugiere que el hecho de que la base de poder del ejército indonesio apenas se vio afectada por los errores de cálculo y los continuos fracasos de los servicios de inteligencia de mediados de los años 1970 fue una medida del dominio del ejército en los asuntos indonesios. [31]

A finales de 1976, existía un punto muerto entre el Falintil y el ejército indonesio. Incapaz de superar la resistencia masiva y agotado sus recursos, el TNI comenzó a rearmarse. La marina indonesia ordenó patrulleras lanzamisiles de los Estados Unidos, Australia, los Países Bajos , Corea del Sur y Taiwán , así como submarinos de Alemania Occidental. [94] En febrero de 1977, Indonesia también recibió trece aviones OV-10 Bronco de la Rockwell International Corporation con la ayuda de un crédito de ventas de ayuda militar extranjera oficial del gobierno de los EE. UU . El Bronco era ideal para la invasión de Timor Oriental, ya que estaba especialmente diseñado para operaciones de contrainsurgencia en terrenos escarpados. [95] A principios de febrero de 1977, al menos seis de los 13 Broncos estaban operando en Timor Oriental y ayudaron al ejército indonesio a localizar posiciones del Fretilin. [96] Los OV-10 Broncos asestaron un duro golpe a las Falintil cuando los aviones atacaron a sus fuerzas con armas convencionales y napalm suministrado por los soviéticos, conocido como "Opalm". Junto con el nuevo armamento, se enviaron 10.000 tropas adicionales para comenzar nuevas campañas que se conocerían como la "solución final". [97]

Unidad de comando Nanggala del ejército indonesio en Timor Oriental dirigida por Prabowo Subianto

Los estrategas del TNI pusieron en marcha una estrategia de desgaste contra el Falintil a partir de septiembre de 1977. Esto se logró haciendo que las regiones centrales de Timor Oriental fueran incapaces de sostener la vida humana mediante ataques con napalm, guerra química y destrucción de cultivos. Esto se hizo para obligar a la población a entregarse a la custodia de las fuerzas indonesias y privar al Falintil de alimentos y población. Los funcionarios católicos de Timor Oriental llamaron a esta estrategia una campaña de "cerco y aniquilación". [98] 35.000 tropas de ABRI rodearon las zonas de apoyo del Fretilin y mataron a hombres, mujeres y niños. Los bombardeos aéreos y navales fueron seguidos por tropas terrestres, que destruyeron aldeas e infraestructura agrícola. Miles de personas pueden haber muerto durante este período. [99] A principios de 1978, toda la población civil de la aldea de Arsaibai, cerca de la frontera con Indonesia, fue asesinada por apoyar al Fretilin después de ser bombardeada y morir de hambre. [100] El éxito de la campaña de "cerco y aniquilación" condujo a la "campaña de limpieza final", en la que se obligaba a niños y hombres a tomarse de la mano y marchar al frente de las unidades indonesias que buscaban a miembros del Fretilin. Cuando se encontraban miembros del Fretilin, se les obligaba a rendirse o a disparar contra su propia gente. [101]

Durante este período, surgieron acusaciones de uso de armas químicas por parte de Indonesia, ya que los aldeanos informaron de la aparición de gusanos en los cultivos después de los ataques con bombas. [100] La radio del Fretilin afirmó que los aviones indonesios lanzaron agentes químicos, y varios observadores, incluido el obispo de Dili, informaron haber visto napalm arrojado sobre el campo. [102] La Comisión de la ONU para la Acogida, la Verdad y la Reconciliación en Timor Oriental , basándose en entrevistas con más de 8.000 testigos, así como en documentos militares indonesios e inteligencia de fuentes internacionales, confirmó que los indonesios utilizaron armas químicas y napalm para envenenar los suministros de alimentos y agua en las zonas controladas por el Fretilin durante la campaña de "cerco y aniquilación". [9] [103]

Aunque brutal, la campaña indonesia de "cerco y aniquilación" de 1977-1978 fue eficaz porque desbarató a la principal milicia del Fretilin. El hábil presidente y comandante militar timorense, Nicolau Lobato , fue asesinado a tiros por tropas indonesias transportadas en helicóptero el 31 de diciembre de 1978. [104]

Reasentamiento y hambruna forzada

Monumento con el emblema nacional de Indonesia en Viqueque (2016)

Como consecuencia de la destrucción de los cultivos alimentarios, muchos civiles se vieron obligados a abandonar las colinas y entregarse a las TNI. A menudo, cuando los aldeanos supervivientes bajaban a las regiones más bajas para rendirse, los militares los ejecutaban. Los que no eran asesinados directamente por las tropas de las TNI eran enviados a centros de recepción para su verificación, que se habían preparado de antemano en las proximidades de las bases locales de las TNI. En esos campos de tránsito, los civiles rendidos eran registrados e interrogados. Aquellos que eran sospechosos de ser miembros de la resistencia eran asesinados. [105]

Estos centros se construían a menudo con chozas de paja sin retretes. Además, el ejército indonesio impedía a la Cruz Roja distribuir ayuda humanitaria y no se proporcionaba atención médica a los detenidos. Como resultado, muchos de los timorenses –debilitados por el hambre y que sobrevivían con las pequeñas raciones que les daban sus captores– murieron de desnutrición, cólera, diarrea y tuberculosis. A finales de 1979, entre 300.000 y 370.000 timorenses habían pasado por estos campos. [106] Después de tres meses, los detenidos eran reasentados en “aldeas estratégicas” donde eran encarcelados y sometidos a una hambruna forzosa. [107] A los que estaban en los campos se les impedía viajar y cultivar tierras agrícolas y se les aplicaba un toque de queda. [108] El informe de la Comisión de la Verdad de las Naciones Unidas confirmó que el ejército indonesio había utilizado la inanición forzada como arma para exterminar a la población civil de Timor Oriental y que a un gran número de personas se les había "negado de forma categórica el acceso a los alimentos y a sus fuentes". El informe citaba testimonios de personas a las que los soldados indonesios habían negado alimentos y habían destruido detalladamente cosechas y ganado. [109] Concluía que esta política de inanición deliberada había provocado la muerte de entre 84.200 y 183.000 timorenses. [110] Un trabajador de una iglesia informó de que quinientos timorenses orientales morían de hambre cada mes en un distrito. [111]

World Vision Indonesia visitó Timor Oriental en octubre de 1978 y afirmó que 70.000 timorenses orientales estaban en riesgo de morir de hambre. [112] Un enviado del Comité Internacional de la Cruz Roja informó en 1979 que el 80% de la población de un campamento estaba desnutrida, en una situación que era "tan mala como la de Biafra ". [113] El CICR advirtió que "decenas de miles" estaban en riesgo de morir de hambre. [114] Indonesia anunció que estaba trabajando a través de la Cruz Roja Indonesia dirigida por el gobierno para aliviar la crisis, pero la ONG Acción para el Desarrollo Mundial encargó a esa organización la venta de suministros de ayuda donados. [111]

Esclavitud sexual y violencia sistemática contra las mujeres

Los abusos cometidos contra las mujeres en Timor Oriental por parte de Indonesia fueron numerosos y bien documentados, aunque es difícil determinar el verdadero alcance del problema debido al estricto control militar impuesto durante la ocupación, agravado por la vergüenza que sentían las víctimas. En un informe de 1995 sobre la violencia contra las mujeres en Indonesia y Timor Oriental, Amnistía Internacional de los Estados Unidos escribió: "Las mujeres son reacias a transmitir información a las organizaciones no gubernamentales sobre violaciones y abusos sexuales, y mucho menos a denunciar las violaciones a las autoridades militares o policiales". [115] [116]

La esclavitud sexual era tolerada y apoyada institucionalmente por las TNI y las mujeres podían ser citadas por abusos sexuales por soldados de las TNI. Según investigaciones creíbles, las TNI mantenían archivos en los que se designaba a las mujeres de Timor Oriental que debían ser puestas a disposición de soldados indonesios para que las violaran y abusaran sexualmente de ellas. Esas listas podían pasarse de un batallón militar a otro, lo que predisponía a las mujeres a ser víctimas de abusos sexuales recurrentes. [117] El matrimonio forzado también era un componente de la política de las TNI en Timor Oriental. El informe de Amnistía cita el caso de una mujer obligada a vivir con un comandante en Baucau y luego acosada diariamente por las tropas tras su liberación. [115] Esos "matrimonios" se celebraban con regularidad durante la ocupación. [118]

Las mujeres de las zonas bajo control indonesio también fueron obligadas a aceptar procedimientos de esterilización , y algunas fueron presionadas o directamente obligadas a tomar el anticonceptivo Depo Provera . [119] A menudo se instaba a los líderes de las aldeas a cooperar con la política del TNI, y se establecieron clínicas locales responsables de administrar inyecciones anticonceptivas bajo el control del TNI en el campo. En un caso específico, a un grupo de niñas de secundaria se les inyectó el anticonceptivo sin su conocimiento. Otras formas de control de la natalidad consistían en matar a los recién nacidos de mujeres sospechosas de estar asociadas con el Fretilin. [120]

Además de sufrir esclavitud sexual sistemática, esterilización forzada, matrimonio forzado, tortura y ejecución extrajudicial, las mujeres también sufrieron violación y abuso sexual durante los interrogatorios por parte de las autoridades indonesias. Estas mujeres incluían a las esposas de miembros de la resistencia, activistas de la resistencia y presuntas colaboradoras del Fretilin. A menudo, las mujeres fueron atacadas y sometidas a tortura como una forma de violencia indirecta cuando los parientes varones sospechosos de ser miembros del Fretilin no estaban presentes. [121] En 1999, la investigadora Rebecca Winters publicó el libro Buibere: Voice of East Timorese Women , que relata muchas historias personales de violencia y abuso que datan de los primeros días de la ocupación. Una mujer cuenta que fue interrogada mientras estaba semidesnuda, torturada, abusada y amenazada de muerte. [122] Otra describe que fue encadenada de manos y pies, violada repetidamente e interrogada durante semanas. [123] Una mujer que había preparado comida para los guerrilleros del Fretilin fue arrestada, quemada con cigarrillos, torturada con electricidad y obligada a caminar desnuda frente a una fila de soldados hasta un tanque lleno de orina y heces. [124]

Adopción y sustracción forzada de niños

Durante la ocupación, aproximadamente 4.000 niños fueron separados de sus familias por la fuerza por soldados indonesios y organizaciones estatales y religiosas. Aunque algunos recibieron un buen trato, otros fueron sometidos a diversas formas de abuso, incluido el abuso sexual. Algunos fueron convertidos al Islam. Varios soldados que secuestraron a estos niños todavía ocupan puestos de alto nivel dentro del ejército indonesio. [125]

Ópera Keamanan: 1981–82

En 1981, el ejército indonesio lanzó la Operasi Keamanan (Operación Seguridad), que algunos han denominado el programa de la "valla de piernas". Durante esta operación, las fuerzas indonesias reclutaron entre 50.000 y 80.000 hombres y niños timorenses para que marcharan por las montañas delante de las tropas del TNI que avanzaban como escudos humanos para impedir un contraataque del Fretilin. El objetivo era barrer a los guerrilleros hacia la parte central de la región, donde podrían ser erradicados. Muchos de los reclutados para la "valla de piernas" murieron de hambre, agotamiento o fueron fusilados por las fuerzas indonesias por permitir que los guerrilleros se colaran. A medida que la "valla" convergía sobre las aldeas, las fuerzas indonesias masacraron a un número desconocido de civiles. En septiembre de 1981, el Batallón 744 del Ejército de Indonesia masacró a por lo menos 400 habitantes de Lacluta . Un testigo presencial que testificó ante el Senado australiano afirmó que los soldados mataron deliberadamente a niños pequeños golpeándoles la cabeza contra una roca. [126] La operación no logró aplastar la resistencia y el resentimiento generalizado hacia la ocupación se hizo más fuerte que nunca. [127] Mientras las tropas del Fretilin en las montañas continuaban con sus ataques esporádicos, las fuerzas indonesias llevaron a cabo numerosas operaciones para destruirlas durante los diez años siguientes. Mientras tanto, en las ciudades y pueblos empezó a tomar forma un movimiento de resistencia no violenta. [128]

Operación Barrido Limpio: 1983

Mapa de la situación militar en Timor Oriental en enero de 1986

El fracaso de las sucesivas campañas de contrainsurgencia indonesias llevó a la élite militar indonesia a ordenar al comandante del Comando Militar Regional Subregional con base en Dili, el coronel Purwanto, que iniciara conversaciones de paz con el comandante del Fretilin, Xanana Gusmão, en una zona controlada por el Fretilin en marzo de 1983. Cuando Xanana intentó invocar a Portugal y a la ONU en las negociaciones, el comandante de la ABRI, Benny Moerdani, rompió el alto el fuego al anunciar una nueva ofensiva de contrainsurgencia llamada "Operación Barrido Limpio" en agosto de 1983, declarando: "Esta vez no hay tonterías. Esta vez vamos a atacarlos sin piedad". [129]

La ruptura del acuerdo de alto el fuego fue seguida por una nueva oleada de masacres, ejecuciones sumarias y "desapariciones" a manos de las fuerzas indonesias. En agosto de 1983, 200 personas fueron quemadas vivas en el pueblo de Creras, y otras 500 fueron asesinadas en un río cercano. [126] Entre agosto y diciembre de 1983, Amnistía Internacional documentó las detenciones y "desapariciones" de más de 600 personas sólo en la capital. Las fuerzas indonesias dijeron a los familiares que los "desaparecidos" habían sido enviados a Bali. [130]

Those suspected of opposing integration were often arrested and tortured.[131] In 1983 Amnesty International published an Indonesian manual it had received from East Timor instructing military personnel on how to inflict physical and mental anguish, and cautioning troops to "Avoid taking photographs showing torture (of someone being given electric shocks, stripped naked and so on)".[132] In his 1997 memoir East Timor's Unfinished Struggle: Inside the Timorese Resistance, Constâncio Pinto describes being tortured by Indonesian soldiers: "With each question, I would get two or three punches in the face. When someone punches you so much and so hard, it feels as if your face is broken. People hit me on my back and on my sides with their hands and then kicked me.... [In another location] they psychologically tortured me; they didn't hit me, but they made strong threats to kill me. They even put a gun on the table."[133] In Michele Turner's book Telling East Timor: Personal Testimonies 1942–1992, a woman named Fátima describes watching torture take place in a Dili prison: "They make people sit on a chair with the front of the chair on their own toes. It is mad, yes. The soldiers urinate in the food then mix it up for the person to eat. They use electric shock and they use an electric machine...."[134]

Abuses by Fretilin

The Indonesian government reported in 1977 that several mass graves containing "scores" of people killed by Fretilin had been found near Ailieu and Samé.[135] Amnesty International confirmed these reports in 1985, and also expressed concern about several extrajudicial killings for which Fretilin had claimed responsibility.[136] In 1997 Human Rights Watch condemned a series of attacks carried out by Fretilin, which led to the deaths of nine civilians.[137]

Demography and economy

Indonesian flag of East Timor (Timor Timur)
Timorese women with the Indonesian national flag

The Portuguese language was banned in East Timor and Indonesian was made the language of government, education and public commerce, and the Indonesian school curriculum was implemented. The official Indonesian national ideology, Pancasila, was applied to East Timor and government jobs were restricted to those holding certification in Pancasila training. East Timorese animist belief systems did not fit with Indonesia's constitutional monotheism, resulting in mass conversions to Christianity. Portuguese clergy were replaced with Indonesian priests, and Latin and Portuguese mass were replaced by Indonesian mass.[138] Before the invasion, only 20% of East Timorese were Roman Catholics, and by the 1980s, 95% were registered as Catholics.[138][139] With over 90% Catholic population, East Timor is currently one of the most densely Catholic countries in the world.[140]

East Timor was a particular focus for the Indonesian government's transmigration program, which aimed to resettle Indonesians from densely to less populated regions. Media censorship under the "New Order" meant that the state of conflict in East Timor was unknown to the transmigrants, predominantly poor Javanese and Balinese wet-rice farmers. On arrival, they found themselves under the ongoing threat of attack by East Timorese resistance fighters, and became the object of local resentment, since large tracts of land belonging to East Timorese had been compulsorily appropriated by the Indonesian government for transmigrant settlement. Although many gave up and returned to their island of origin, those migrants that stayed in East Timor contributed to the "Indonesianisation" of East Timor's integration.[141] 662 transmigrant families (2,208 people) settled in East Timor in 1993,[142] whereas an estimated 150,000 free Indonesian settlers lived in East Timor by the mid-1990s, including those offered jobs in education and administration.[143] Migration increased resentment amongst Timorese who were overtaken by more business savvy immigrants.[144]

Following the invasion, Portuguese commercial interests were taken over by Indonesians.[145] The border with West Timor was opened resulting in an influx of West Timorese farmers, and in January 1989 the territory was open to private investment. Economic life in the towns was subsequently brought under the control of entrepreneurial Bugis, Makassarese, and Butonese immigrants from South Sulawesi, while East Timor products were exported under partnerships between army officials and Indonesian businessmen.[146] Denok, a military-controlled firm, monopolised some of East Timor's most lucrative commercial activities, including sandal wood export, hotels, and the import of consumer products.[147] The group's most profitable business, however, was its monopoly on the export of coffee, which was the territory's most valuable cash crop.[148] Indonesian entrepreneurs came to dominate non-Denok/military enterprises, and local manufactures from the Portuguese period made way for Indonesian imports.[147]

The Indonesian government's primary response to criticism of its policies was to highlight its funding of development in East Timor's health, education, communications, transportation, and agriculture.[149] East Timor, however, remained poor following centuries of Portuguese colonial neglect and Indonesian critic George Aditjondro points out that conflict in the early years of occupation leads to sharp drops in rice and coffee production and livestock populations.[150] Other critics argue that infrastructure development, such as road construction, is often designed to facilitate Indonesian military and corporate interests.[151] While the military controlled key businesses, private investors, both Indonesian and international, avoided the territory. Despite improvements since 1976, a 1993 Indonesian government report estimated that in three-quarters of East Timor's 61 districts, more than half lived in poverty.[152]

1990s

Changing resistance and integration campaigns

Major investment by the Indonesian government to improve East Timor's infrastructure, health and education facilities since 1975 did not end East Timorese resistance to Indonesian rule.[153] Although by the 1980s Fretilin forces had dropped to a few hundred armed men, Fretilin increased its contacts with young Timorese especially in Dili, and an unarmed civil resistance seeking self-determination took shape. Many of those in the protest movements were young children at the time of the invasion and had been educated under the Indonesian system. They resented the repression and replacement of Timorese cultural and political life, were ambivalent of Indonesian economic development, and spoke Portuguese amongst themselves, stressing their Portuguese heritage. Seeking help from Portugal for self-determination, they considered Indonesia an occupying force.[154] Abroad, Fretilin's members—most notably former journalist José Ramos-Horta (later to be prime minister and president)—pushed their cause in diplomatic forums.[155]

The reduced armed resistance prompted the Indonesian government in 1988 to open up East Timor to improve its commercial prospects, including a lifting of the travel ban on journalists. The new policy came from foreign minister Ali Alatas. Alatas and other diplomats swayed Suharto in favor of the policy as a response to international concerns despite concerns among the military leadership that it would lead to a loss of control. In late 1989, hardline military commander Brigadier General Mulyadi was replaced by Brigadier General Rudolph Warouw who promised a more "persuasive" approach to anti-integrationists. Restrictions on travel within the territory were reduced, groups of political prisoners were released, and the use of torture in interrogation became less frequent. Warouw attempted to increase military discipline; in February 1990 an Indonesian soldier was prosecuted for unlawful conduct in East Timor, the first such action since the invasion.[156]

The reduced fear of persecution encouraged the resistance movements; anti-integration protests accompanied high-profile visits to East Timor, including that of Pope John Paul II in 1989.[157] Additionally, the end of the Cold War removed much of the justification for western support of Indonesia's occupation. The resulting increase in international attention to self-determination and human rights put further pressure on Indonesia.[158] Subsequent events within East Timor in the 1990s helped to dramatically raise the international profile of East Timor, which in turn significantly boosted the momentum of the resistance groups.[159]

Santa Cruz massacre

The Santa Cruz massacre took place during a 1991 funeral procession to the grave of Sebastião Gomes.

During a memorial mass on 12 November 1991 for a pro-independence youth shot by Indonesian troops, demonstrators among the 2,500-strong crowd unfurled the Fretilin flag and banners with pro-independence slogans and chanted boisterously but peacefully.[160] Following a brief confrontation between Indonesian troops and protesters,[161] 200 Indonesian soldiers opened fire on the crowd killing at least 250 Timorese.[162]

A re-enactment of the Santa Cruz massacre

The testimonies of foreigners at the cemetery were quickly reported to international news organisations, and video footage of the massacre was widely broadcast internationally,[163] causing outrage.[164] In response to the massacre, activists around the world organised in solidarity with the East Timorese, and a new urgency was brought to calls for self-determination.[165] TAPOL, a British organisation formed in 1973 to advocate for democracy in Indonesia, increased its work around East Timor. In the United States, the East Timor Action Network (now the East Timor and Indonesia Action Network) was founded and soon had chapters in ten cities around the country.[166] Other solidarity groups appeared in Portugal, Australia, Japan, Germany, Malaysia, Ireland, and Brazil. Coverage of the massacre was a vivid example of how the growth of new media in Indonesia was making it increasingly difficult for the "New Order" to control information flow in and out of Indonesia, and that in the post-Cold War 1990s, the government was coming under increasing international scrutiny.[167] Several pro-democracy student groups and their magazines began to openly and critically discuss not just East Timor, but also the "New Order" and the broader history and future of Indonesia.[165][167][168]

Sharp condemnation of the military came not just from the international community, but from within parts of the Indonesian elite. The massacre ended the governments 1989 opening of the territory and a new period of repression began.[92] Warouw was removed from his position and his more accommodating approach to Timorese resistance rebuked by his superiors. Suspected Fretilin sympathisers were arrested, human rights abuses rose, and the ban on foreign journalists was reimposed. Hatred intensified amongst Timorese of the Indonesian military presence.[169] Major General Prabowo's, Kopassus Group 3 trained militias gangs dressed in black hoods to crush the remaining resistance.[92]

Arrest of Xanana Gusmão

On 20 November 1992, Fretilin leader Xanana Gusmão was arrested by Indonesian troops.[170] In May 1993 he was sentenced to life imprisonment for "rebellion",[171] but his sentence was later commuted to 20 years.[172] The arrest of the universally acknowledged leader of the resistance was a major frustration to the anti-integration movement in East Timor, but Gusmão continued to serve as a symbol of hope from inside the Cipinang prison.[159][170] Nonviolent resistance by East Timorese, meanwhile, continued to show itself. When President Bill Clinton visited Jakarta in 1994, twenty-nine East Timorese students occupied the US embassy to protest US support for Indonesia.[173]

At the same time, human rights observers called attention to continued violations by Indonesian troops and police. A 1995 report by Human Rights Watch noted that "abuses in the territory continue to mount", including torture, disappearances, and limitations on fundamental rights.[174] After a series of riots in September and October 1995, Amnesty International criticised Indonesian authorities for a wave of arbitrary arrests and torture. The report indicates detainees were beaten with iron bars, kicked, lacerated, and threatened with death.[175]

Nobel Peace Prize

In 1996 East Timor was suddenly brought to world attention when the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo and José Ramos-Horta "for their work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor".[176] The Nobel Committee indicated in its press release that it hoped the award would "spur efforts to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict in East Timor based on the people's right to self-determination".[176] As Nobel scholar Irwin Abrams notes:

For Indonesia the prize was a great embarrassment.... In public statements the government tried to put distance between the two laureates, grudgingly recognising the prize for Bishop Belo, over whom it thought it could exercise some control, but accusing Ramos-Horta of responsibility for atrocities during the civil strife in East Timor and declaring that he was a political opportunist. At the award ceremony Chairman Sejersted answered these charges, pointing out that during the civil conflict Ramos-Horta was not even in the country and on his return he tried to reconcile the two parties.[177]

Diplomats from Indonesia and Portugal, meanwhile, continued the consultations required by the 1982 General Assembly resolution, in a series of meetings intended to resolve the problem of what Foreign Minister Ali Alatas called the "pebble in the Indonesian shoe".[178][179]

End of Indonesian control

Renewed United Nations-brokered mediation efforts between Indonesia and Portugal began in early 1997.[180]

Transition in Indonesia

Indonesian president BJ Habibie takes the presidential oath of office on 21 May 1998.

Independence for East Timor, or even limited regional autonomy, was never going to be allowed under Suharto's New Order. Notwithstanding Indonesian public opinion in the 1990s occasionally showing begrudging appreciation of the Timorese position, it was widely feared that an independent East Timor would destabilise Indonesian unity.[181] The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, however, caused tremendous upheaval in Indonesia and led to Suharto's resignation in May 1998, ending his thirty-year presidency.[182] Prabowo, by then in command of the powerful Indonesian Strategic Reserve, went into exile in Jordan and military operations in East Timor were costing the bankrupt Indonesian government a million dollars a day.[92] The subsequent "reformasi" period of relative political openness and transition, included an unprecedented debate about Indonesia's relationship with East Timor. For the remainder of 1998, discussion forums took place throughout Dili working towards a referendum.[92] Foreign Minister Alatas, described plans for phased autonomy leading to possible independence as "all pain, no gain" for Indonesia.[183] On 8 June 1998, three weeks after taking office, Suharto's successor B. J. Habibie announced that Indonesia would soon offer East Timor a special plan for autonomy.[182]

In late 1998, the Australian government of John Howard drafted a letter to Indonesia advising of a change in Australian policy and advocating for the staging of a referendum on independence within a decade. President Habibie saw such an arrangement as implying "colonial rule" by Indonesia, and he decided to call a snap referendum on the issue.[184]

Indonesia and Portugal announced on 5 May 1999 that it had agreed to hold a vote allowing the people of East Timor to choose between the autonomy plan or independence. The vote, to be administered by the United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET), was initially scheduled for 8 August but later postponed until 30 August. Indonesia also took responsibility for security; this arrangement caused worry in East Timor, but many observers believe that Indonesia would have refused to allow foreign peacekeepers during the vote.[185]

1999 referendum

As groups supporting autonomy and independence began campaigning, a series of pro-integration paramilitary groups of East Timorese began threatening violence—and indeed committing violence—around the country. Alleging pro-independence bias on the part of UNAMET, the groups were seen working with and receiving training from Indonesian soldiers. Before the May agreement was announced, an April paramilitary attack in Liquiça left dozens of East Timorese dead. On 16 May 1999, a gang accompanied by Indonesian troops attacked suspected independence activists in the village of Atara; in June another group attacked a UNAMET office in Maliana. Indonesian authorities claimed to be helpless to stop the violence between rival factions among the East Timorese, but Ramos-Horta joined many others in scoffing at such notions.[186] In February 1999 he said: "Before [Indonesia] withdraws it wants to wreak major havoc and destabilization, as it has always promised. We have consistently heard that over the years from the Indonesian military in Timor."[187]

As militia leaders warned of a "bloodbath", Indonesian "roving ambassador" Francisco Lopes da Cruz declared: "If people reject autonomy there is the possibility blood will flow in East Timor."[188] One paramilitary announced that a vote for independence would result in a "sea of fire", an expression referring to the Bandung Sea of Fire during Indonesia's own war of independence from the Dutch.[189] As the date of the vote drew near, reports of anti-independence violence continued to accumulate.[190]

The day of the vote, 30 August 1999, was generally calm and orderly. 98.6% of registered voters cast ballots, and on 4 September UN secretary-general Kofi Annan announced that 78.5% of the votes had been cast for independence.[191] Brought up on the "New Order"'s insistence that the East Timorese supported integration, Indonesians were either shocked by or disbelieved that the East Timorese had voted against being part of Indonesia. Many people accepted media stories blaming the supervising United Nations and Australia who had pressured Habibie for a resolution.[192]

Within hours of the results, paramilitary groups had begun attacking people and setting fires around the capital Dili. Foreign journalists and election observers fled, and tens of thousands of East Timorese took to the mountains. Islamic gangs attacked Dili's Catholic diocese building, killing two dozen people; the next day, the headquarters of the ICRC was attacked and burned to the ground. Almost one hundred people were killed later in Suai, and reports of similar massacres poured in from around East Timor.[193] The UN withdrew most of its personnel, but the Dili compound had been flooded with refugees. Four UN workers refused to evacuate unless the refugees were withdrawn as well, insisting they would rather die at the hands of the paramilitary groups.[191] At the same time, Indonesian troops and paramilitary gangs forced over 200,000 people into West Timor, into camps described by Human Rights Watch as "deplorable conditions".[194]

When a UN delegation arrived in Jakarta on 8 September, they were told by Indonesian president Habibie that reports of bloodshed in East Timor were "fantasies" and "lies".[195] General Wiranto of the Indonesian military insisted that his soldiers had the situation under control, and later expressed his emotion for East Timor by singing the 1975 hit song "Feelings" at an event for military wives.[196][197]

Indonesian withdrawal and peacekeeping force

INTERFET troops entered Dili on 20 September, two weeks after pro-Indonesian paramilitary groups began a final wave of violence.[198]

The violence was met with widespread public anger in Australia, Portugal and elsewhere and activists in Portugal, Australia, the United States and other nations pressured their governments to take action. Australian prime minister John Howard consulted United Nations secretary-general Kofi Annan and lobbied US president Bill Clinton to support an Australian led international peacekeeper force to enter East Timor to end the violence. The United States offered crucial logistical and intelligence resources and an "over-horizon" deterrent presence but did not commit forces to the operation. Finally, on 11 September, Clinton announced:[199]

I have made clear that my willingness to support future economic assistance from the international community will depend upon how Indonesia handles the situation from today.

Indonesia, in dire economic straits, relented. President BJ Habibie announced on 12 September that Indonesia would withdraw Indonesian soldiers and allow an Australian-led international peacekeeping force to enter East Timor.[200]

On 15 September 1999, the United Nations Security Council expressed concern at the deteriorating situation in East Timor and issued UNSC Resolution 1264 calling for a multinational force to restore peace and security to East Timor, to protect and support the United Nations mission there, and to facilitate humanitarian assistance operations until such time as a United Nations peacekeeping force could be approved and deployed in the area.[201]

The International Force for East Timor, or INTERFET, under the command of Australian Major General Peter Cosgrove, entered Dili on 20 September and by 31 October the last Indonesian troops had left East Timor.[198] The arrival of thousands of international troops in East Timor caused the militia to flee across the border into Indonesia, whence sporadic cross-border raids by the militia against INTERFET forces were conducted.

The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) was established at the end of October and administered the region for two years. Control of the nation was turned over to the government of East Timor, and independence was declared on 20 May 2002.[202] On 27 September of the same year, East Timor joined the United Nations as its 191st member state.[203]

The bulk of the military forces of INTERFET were Australian—more than 5,500 troops at its peak, including an infantry brigade, with armoured and aviation support—while eventually, 22 nations contributed to the force which at its height numbered over 11,000 troops.[204] The United States provided crucial logistic and diplomatic support throughout the crisis. At the same time, the cruiser USS Mobile Bay protected the INTERFET naval fleet and a US Marine infantry battalion of 1,000 men—plus organic armour and artillery—was also stationed off the coast aboard the USS Belleau Wood to provide a strategic reserve in the event of significant armed opposition.[205]

International response

Indonesia used fear of communism to garner varying degrees of support among western countries, including the United States and Australia, for its East Timor invasion and occupation.[206] The invasion and suppression of East Timor's independence movement caused great harm to Indonesia's reputation and international credibility.[10] Criticism from the developing world undermined efforts in the 1980s to secure the Non-Aligned Movement chair which Suharto strongly desired for Indonesia and condemnation of Indonesia continued through the 1990s.[207]

Australia

In September 1974, Australian prime minister Gough Whitlam met with Suharto and indicated that he would support Indonesia if it annexed East Timor.[208] On 11 November 1975, the Whitlam government was dismissed. This placed restrictions on the caretaker government of Fraser. Until the results of the 13 December election were known, any action required approval from both political parties and the governor-general.[209] On 4 December 1975 Australia unsuccessfully sought a UN resolution to determine the independence of East Timor, and the Australian government evacuated Australians and other foreign nationals from Dili.[210]José Ramos-Horta arrived in Darwin on 5 December saying that aid agencies the Australian Red Cross and Australian Society for Intercountry Aid Timor (ASIAT) had been banned from East Timor. In the same news conference, Horta said that the Fretilin government in East Timor would not accept any UN assistance that included Australia.[211]

After winning the December elections, the Fraser government took the approach that trade with Southeast Asia and political ties with Southeast Asia were too important to be put at risk for what was seen as a lost cause.[212] Australia abstained from the 1976 and 1977 UN General Assembly Resolutions, and by 1978 became the only country to recognise East Timor officially as a province of Indonesia.[213]

Soon after recognising the annexation of East Timor in 1978, Australia began negotiations with Indonesia to divide resources found in the Timor Gap.

One year later, Australia and Indonesia began drafting a treaty to share resources in the Timor Gap. The treaty was signed in December 1989, with estimates ranging from one to seven billion barrels of oil to be secured.[214] This agreement, along with general economic partnership with Indonesia, is frequently cited as a crucial factor for the Australian government's position.[215] However, given that nearly 60,000 East Timorese had died during the fighting between Australian and Japanese forces that followed the invasion of Timor by the Japanese during the Pacific War,[20] some Australians believed their government owed a special debt to the former Portuguese colony. James Dunn, a senior Foreign Affairs adviser to the Australian Parliament before and during the occupation, condemned the government's position, saying later: "What had been of vital strategic value in 1941 was, in 1974, irrelevant and dispensable."[216] Some Australian World War II veterans protested the occupation for similar reasons.[217]

Successive Australian governments saw good relations and stability in Indonesia (Australia's largest neighbour) as providing an important security buffer to Australia's north, but the East Timor issue complicated co-operation between the two nations.[218] Australia provided important sanctuary to East Timorese independence advocates like José Ramos-Horta, who based himself in Australia during his exile. Australia's trade with Indonesia grew through the 1980s, and the Keating Labor government signed a security pact with Indonesia in 1995 and gave relations with Jakarta a high priority.[219][220] The fall of Indonesian president Suharto and a shift in Australian policy by the Howard government in 1998 helped precipitate a proposal for a referendum on the question of independence for East Timor.[199] In late 1998, Prime Minister John Howard and Foreign Minister Alexander Downer drafted a letter to Indonesia setting out a change in Australian policy, suggesting that East Timor be given a chance to vote on independence within a decade. The letter upset Indonesian president B. J. Habibie, who saw it as implying Indonesia was a "colonial power," and he decided to announce a snap referendum.[199] A UN-sponsored referendum held in 1999 showed overwhelming approval for independence but was followed by violent clashes and a security crisis instigated by the anti-independence militia. Australia then led a United Nations-backed International Force for East Timor to end the violence, and order was restored. While the intervention was ultimately successful, Australian-Indonesian relations would take several years to recover.[199][221]

The Australian Labor Party altered its East Timor policy in 1999 and adopted a policy of support for East Timorese independence and opposition to the Indonesian presence there through its Foreign Affairs spokesperson Laurie Brereton.[222] Breretons' credibility was attacked by the governing Liberal-National Coalition government and its Foreign Affairs Minister Alexander Downer, and Prime Minister Howard. They were assisted in their campaign by the then-Labor-backbencher Kevin Rudd[222] (who would later lead the Labor Party to victory in the 2007 Australian federal election).

Philippines

Owing to its strong relations with Indonesia, the Philippines initially was cold on the issue. In fact, not only did it deny José Ramos-Horta entry in 1997 when he was supposed to give a lecture at the University of the Philippines Diliman, then President Fidel V. Ramos even included him in the immigration blacklist.[223]

However, with widespread support from various countries, the Philippines finally changed its policy. After Timorese independence, the Philippines contributed medical and logistics personnel to Interfet, rather than ground troops. In 2000, the UN named a Filipino, Lieutenant General Jaime de los Santos, to command the full-fledged UN Interfet.

Sharing the same Roman Catholic heritage, the Philippines became a natural ally and has maintained a good relationship with East Timor since. It has also removed José Ramos-Horta from the blacklist; he frequently gives lectures at various universities in the Philippines, most notably at the University of the Philippines Diliman, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, De La Salle University and Ateneo de Davao University.

Portugal

The day after the invasion, Portugal cut diplomatic ties with Indonesia and went on to support UN resolutions condemning the invasion. However, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Portuguese government appeared reluctant to push the issue; American Indonesia specialist, Benedict Anderson suggests this stemmed from uncertainty at the time over its application to the European Community.[212] Portugal's criticism mounted sharply from the mid-1980s, and due to public pressure, the country became one of the highest-profile campaigners in international forums for East Timorese self-determination.[224] Throughout the 1990s, Portugal took part in UN-brokered mediations with Indonesia.[225]

United States

In 1975, the United States was completing a retreat from Vietnam. A staunchly anti-communist Indonesia was considered by the United States to be an essential counterweight, and friendly relations with the Indonesian government were considered more important than a decolonisation process in East Timor.[212][226] The United States also wanted to maintain its access to deep water straits running through Indonesia for undetectable submarine passage between the Indian and Pacific oceans.[212]

US secretary of state Henry Kissinger and President Gerald Ford discussed East Timor with President Suharto one day before the invasion.[227]

On the day before the invasion, US president Gerald R. Ford and US secretary of state Henry A. Kissinger met with Indonesian president Suharto and reportedly gave their approval for the invasion.[227][228] In response to Suharto saying "We want your understanding if it was deemed necessary to take rapid or drastic action [in East Timor]." Ford replied, "We will understand and will not press you on the issue. We understand the problem and the intentions you have." Kissinger similarly agreed, though he had fears that the use of U.S.-made arms in the invasion would be exposed to public scrutiny, talking of their desire to "influence the reaction in America" so that "there would be less chance of people talking in an unauthorised way."[229] The US also hoped the invasion would be swift and not involve protracted resistance. "It is important that whatever you do succeeds quickly," Kissinger said to Suharto.[229]

The U.S. supplied weapons to Indonesia during the invasion and the subsequent occupation.[230] A week after the invasion of East Timor, the National Security Council prepared an analysis which found widespread use of US-supplied military equipment.[231] Although the US government said they would delay new arms sales from December 1975 to June 1976 pending a review by the State Department to determine whether Indonesia had violated a bilateral agreement stipulating that Indonesia could only use U.S.-supplied arms for defensive purposes, military aid continued to flow, and Kissinger chastised members of his State Department staff for suggesting arms sales be cut.[229] Kissinger was worried about reactions to his policies from the U.S. public, including the Congress, deploring that "Everything on paper will be used against me".[232] Between 1975 and 1980, when the violence in East Timor was at its climax, the United States furnished approximately $340 million in weaponry to the Indonesian government. US military aid and arms sales to Indonesia increased from 1974 and continued through to the Bush and Clinton years until it was stopped in 1999.[229] US arms provisions to Indonesia between 1975 and 1995 amounted to approximately $1.1 billion.[230] The Clinton administration, under the Pentagon's JCET program, trained the Indonesian Kopassus special forces in urban guerrilla warfare, surveillance, counter-intelligence, sniper tactics and 'psychological operations'.[233]

The UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) stated in the "Responsibility" chapter of its final report that US "political and military support were fundamental to the Indonesian invasion and occupation" of East Timor between 1975 and 1999. The report (p. 92) also stated that "U.S. supplied weaponry was crucial to Indonesia's capacity to intensify military operations from 1977 in its massive campaigns to destroy the Resistance in which aircraft supplied by the United States played a crucial role."[234][235]

Fretilin has claimed that the degree of US support for the Indonesian government's efforts in East Timor may have extended beyond that of diplomatic support and material assistance. A UPI report from Sydney, Australia dated 19 June 1978, quoted a Fretilin press release, which stated: "American military advisers and mercenaries fought alongside Indonesian soldiers against FRETILIN in two battles ... In the meantime, American pilots are flying OV-10 Bronco aircraft for the Indonesian Air Force in bombing raids against the liberated areas under FRETILIN control."[236][237]

The United States abstained from most of the UN resolutions censuring the Indonesian invasion.[212] Daniel Patrick Moynihan, the US Ambassador to the UN at the time, wrote later in his memoirs: "The Department of State desired that the United Nations prove utterly ineffective in whatever measures it undertook. This task was given to me, and I carried it forward with no inconsiderable success."[238]

Britain sold dozens of BAE Hawk jets to Indonesia during the occupation, some of which were used in the "encirclement and annihilation" campaign.

Other countries

Britain, Canada, Japan, and other nations supported Indonesia during the occupation of East Timor. Britain abstained from all of the UN General Assembly resolutions relating to East Timor and sold arms throughout the occupation. In 1978 Indonesia purchased eight BAE Hawk jet trainers, which were used during the "encirclement and annihilation" campaign. Britain sold dozens of additional jets to Indonesia in the 1990s.[239] Canada abstained from early General Assembly resolutions about East Timor and opposed three. The Canadian government regularly sold weapons to Indonesia during the occupation, and in the 1990s approved over C$400 million in exports for spare weapons parts.[240] Japan voted against all eight General Assembly resolutions regarding East Timor.[241]

The Indian government also supported Indonesia, likening the occupation to its own seizure of Goa in 1961.[242] Some analysts remarked that Indonesia's delayed action also prevented a peaceful transfer of East Timor to it, similar to how the French transferred Pondicherry to India in 1962.[243]

Member nations of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), consistently voted against the General Assembly resolutions calling for self-determination in East Timor.[244]

Consequences

Number of deaths

Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/- 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/-1,000) were either killed or disappeared and that approximately 84,000 (+/-11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound. However, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000.[245] The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings.[12]

Researcher Ben Kiernan says that "a toll of 150,000 is likely close to the truth," although one can throw out an estimate of 200,000 or higher.[246] The Center for Defense Information also estimated a total close to 150,000.[247] A 1974 Catholic church estimate of the population of East Timor was 688,711 people; in 1982 the church reported only 425,000. This led to an estimate of 200,000 people killed during the occupation, which was widely reported around the world.[248] Other sources such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch also support an estimate of over 200,000 killed.[249]

According to specialist Gabriel Defert based on statistical data available from the Portuguese and Indonesian authorities, and from the Catholic Church, between December 1975 and December 1981, approximately 308,000 Timorese lost their lives; this constituted about 44% of the pre-invasion population.[250] Similarly, Indonesian Professor George Aditjondro, formerly of Salatiga University in Java, concluded from his study of Indonesian Army data that in fact 300,000 Timorese had been killed in the early years of the occupation.[251]

Robert Cribb of the Australian National University argues that the toll was significantly exaggerated. He argues that the 1980 census that counted 555,350 Timorese, although "the most reliable source of all," was probably a minimum rather than a maximum estimate for the total population. "It is worth recalling that hundreds of thousands of East Timorese disappeared during the violence of September 1999, only to reappear later," he writes. The 1980 census becomes more improbable in the face of the 1987 census that counted 657,411 Timorese – this would require a growth rate of 2.5% per year, nearly identical to the very high growth rate in East Timor from 1970 to 1975, and a highly unlikely one given the conditions of the brutal occupation, including Indonesian efforts to discourage reproduction. Noting the relative lack of personal accounts of atrocities or of traumatised Indonesian soldiers, he further adds that East Timor "does not appear—on the basis of news reports and academic accounts—to be a society traumatized by mass death...the circumstance leading up to the Dili massacre of 1991...indicate a society which retained its vigour and indignation in a way which would probably not have been possible if it had been treated as Cambodia was treated under Pol Pot." Even Indonesian military strategy was based on winning the "hearts and minds" of the population, a fact that does not support charges of mass killing.[221]

Kiernan, starting from a base population of 700,000 Timorese in 1975 (based on the 1974 Catholic Church census), calculated an expected 1980 population of 735,000 Timorese (assuming a growth rate of only 1% per year as a result of the occupation). Accepting the 1980 count that Cribb regards as at least 10% (55,000) too low, Kiernan concluded that as many as 180,000 might have died in the war.[252] Cribb argued that the 3% growth rate suggested by the 1974 census was too high, citing the fact that the church had previously postulated a growth rate of 1.8%, which would have produced a figure in line with the Portuguese population estimate of 635,000 for 1974.

Although Cribb maintained that the Portuguese census was almost certainly an underestimate,[252] he believed it to be more likely correct than the church census, since any church attempt to extrapolate the size of the total population "must be seen in light of its incomplete access to society" (less than half of Timorese were Catholic). Assuming a growth rate in line with the other nations of South East Asia, then, would yield a more accurate figure of 680,000 for 1975, and an expected 1980 population of slightly over 775,000 (without accounting for the decline in the birth rate resulting from the Indonesian occupation).[252] The deficit remaining would be almost exactly 200,000. According to Cribb, Indonesian policies restricted the birth rate by up to 50% or more. Thus, around 45,000 of these were not born rather than killed; another 55,000 were "missing" as a result of the Timorese evading the Indonesian authorities who conducted the 1980 census.[221] A variety of factors—the exodus of tens of thousands from their homes to escape FRETILIN in 1974–5; the deaths of thousands in the civil war; the deaths of combatants during the occupation; killings by FRETILIN; and natural disasters—diminish further still the civilian toll attributable to Indonesian forces during this time.[221] Considering all this data, Cribb argues for a much lower toll of 100,000 or less, with an absolute minimum of 60,000, and a mere tenth of the civilian population dying unnaturally, for the years 1975–80.[221]

Kiernan responded, however, by asserting that the influx of migrant workers during the occupation and the increase in the population growth rate typical of a mortality crisis justifies accepting the 1980 census as valid despite the 1987 estimate and that the 1974 church census—though a "possible maximum"—cannot be discounted because the church's lack of access to society might well have resulted in an undercount.[252] He concluded that at least 116,000 combatants and civilians were killed by all sides or died "unnatural" deaths from 1975 to 1980 (if true, this would yield the result that about 15% of the civilian population of East Timor was killed from 1975 to 1980).[252] F. Hiorth separately estimated that 13% (95,000 out of an expected 730,000 when accounting for the reduction in birth rates) of the civilian population died during this period.[221] Kiernan believes that the deficit was most probably around 145,000 when accounting for the reduction in birth rates, or 20% of East Timor's population.[252] The mid-value of the UN report is 146,000 deaths; R.J. Rummel, an analyst of political killings, estimates 150,000.[253]

Many observers have called the Indonesian military action in East Timor an example of genocide.[254] Oxford held an academic consensus calling the event genocide and Yale university teaches it as part of their "Genocide Studies" program.[16][17] In a study of the word's legal meaning and applicability to the occupation of East Timor, legal scholar Ben Saul concludes that because no group recognized under international law was targeted by the Indonesian authorities, a charge of genocide cannot be applied. However, he also notes: "The conflict in East Timor most accurately qualifies as genocide against a ‘political group’, or alternatively as ‘cultural genocide’, yet neither of these concepts is explicitly recognised in international law."[255] The occupation has been compared to the killings of the Khmer Rouge, the Yugoslav wars, and the Rwandan genocide.[256]

Accurate numbers of Indonesian casualties are well-documented. The complete names of around 2,300 Indonesian soldiers and pro-Indonesian militias who died in action as well as from illness and accidents during the entire occupation are engraved into the Seroja Monument located in Armed Forces Headquarters in Cilangkap, East Jakarta.[257]

Justice

Saul goes on to discuss prosecutions of responsible parties for "crimes against humanity, war crimes, and other gross violations of human rights".[255] In the years after the end of the occupation, several proceedings have been carried out to such an end. The 1999 UN Security Council resolution authorising UNTAET described the history of "systematic, widespread and flagrant violations of international and human rights law" and demanded "that those responsible for such violence be brought to justice".[258] To achieve these ends, UNTAET established a Serious Crimes Unit (SCU), which has attempted to investigate and prosecute individuals responsible for such violence. However, the SCU has been criticised for accomplishing relatively little, presumably because it is funded inadequately, limited in mandate to crimes committed only in 1999, and for other reasons.[259] Indonesian trials purporting to punish those responsible for the violence were described as "manifestly inadequate" by a UN commission.[14]

Deficiencies in these processes have led some organisations to call for an international tribunal to prosecute individuals responsible for killings in East Timor, similar to those established in Yugoslavia and Rwanda.[14][15] A 2001 editorial by the East Timor NGO La'o Hamutuk said:

An uncountable number of Crimes Against Humanity were committed during the 1975–1999 period in East Timor. Although an international court could not pursue all of them, it ... [would] confirm that the invasion, occupation and destruction of East Timor by Indonesia was a long-standing, systematic, criminal conspiracy, planned and ordered at the highest levels of government. Many of the perpetrators continue to wield authority and influence in East Timor’s nearest neighbour. The future of peace, justice and democracy in both East Timor and Indonesia depends on holding the highest-level perpetrators accountable.[260]

In 2005, the Indonesia-Timor Leste Commission of Truth and Friendship was set up with the goal of establishing the truth relating to crimes under the occupation, and healing divisions between the countries. It has received criticism from NGOs and was rejected by the United Nations for offering impunity.[citation needed]

Indonesian governors of East Timor

Depictions in fiction

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Indonesia (1977), p. 31.
  2. ^ Rei, Naldo (16 March 2011). Resistance: A Childhood Fighting for East Timor. ReadHowYouWant.com. ISBN 9781458767615.
  3. ^ De Almeida, Ursula (20 August 2023). "Reintegration of Falintil, Timor-Leste's Ex-Combatants, then and Now". Journal of Peacebuilding & Development. 12 (1): 91–96. JSTOR 48602939.
  4. ^ "East Timor distinguishes 15 "leading figures" of the liberation".
  5. ^ Van Klinken, Gerry (2005). "Indonesian Casualties in East Timor, 1975–1999: Analysis of an Official List". Indonesia (80): 109–122. JSTOR 3351321.
  6. ^ "East Timor distinguishes 15 "leading figures" of the liberation".
  7. ^ ClassicDoc (20 January 2016), Manufacturing Consent – Noam Chomsky and the Media – 1992, archived from the original on 4 March 2020, retrieved 10 February 2017
  8. ^ Schwarz (1994), p. 195.
  9. ^ a b Powell, Sian (19 January 2006). "UN verdict on East Timor" (PDF). The Australian. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2015. Retrieved 2013-12-03.
  10. ^ a b Schwarz (1994), p. 195
  11. ^ East Timor population Archived 28 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine World Bank
  12. ^ a b "Chega! The CAVR Report". Archived from the original on 13 May 2012.
  13. ^ Conflict-Related Deaths In Timor-Leste: 1974–1999 Archived 25 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine CAVR
  14. ^ a b c "East Timor: U.N. Security Council Must Ensure Justice" Archived 28 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Human Rights Watch. 29 June 2005. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
  15. ^ a b In 2002 over 125 women from 14 countries signed a statement Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine calling for an international tribunal. Other such demands have been issued by ETAN/US Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, TAPOL, and—with qualifications—Human Rights Watch Archived 7 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine and Amnesty International .
  16. ^ a b Payaslian, Simon. "20th Century Genocides". Oxford bibliographies. Archived from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
  17. ^ a b "Genocide Studies Program: East Timor". Yale.edu. Archived from the original on 23 March 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
  18. ^ "East Timor Country Profile". Foreign and Commonwealth Office of the United Kingdom. 2008. Archived from the original on 6 January 2008. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
  19. ^ Jolliffee, pp. 23–41.
  20. ^ a b Dunn (1996), pp. 19–22; Wesley-Smith, p. 85; Jardine, p. 22.
  21. ^ Budiardjo and Liong (1984), pp. 3–5; Dunn (1996), pp. 28–29; Taylor (1991), p. 20.
  22. ^ Quoted in Taylor (1991), p. 20; similar assurances from Indonesian officials are quoted in Ramos-Horta, pp. 63–64.
  23. ^ Quoted in Kohen and Taylor, p. 3.
  24. ^ Hainsworth and McCloskey, p. 23
  25. ^ Jolliffee, pp. 58–62.
  26. ^ Dunn (1996), p. 53–54.
  27. ^ Quoted in Dunn, p. 56.
  28. ^ Quoted in Dunn, p. 60.
  29. ^ Dunn, p. 62; Indonesia (1977), p. 19.
  30. ^ Dunn, p. 62.
  31. ^ a b Schwarz (1994), p. 208.
  32. ^ Schwarz (1994), p. 201.
  33. ^ Dunn, p. 69; Indonesia (1977), p. 21.
  34. ^ Dunn, p. 79.
  35. ^ Dunn, p. 78; Budiadjo and Liong, p. 5; Jolliffe, pp. 197–198; Taylor (1991), p. 58. Taylor cites a September CIA report describing Indonesian attempts to "provoke incidents that would provide the Indonesians with an excuse to invade should they decide to do so".
  36. ^ Dunn, p. 84; Budiardjo and Liong (1984), p. 6.
  37. ^ Indonesia (1977), p. 23.
  38. ^ Ramos-Horta, p. 53–54; Jolliffe confirms Ramos-Horta's protests, p. 116.
  39. ^ Dunn, pp. 149–150.
  40. ^ Ramos-Horta, p. 55; Turner, p. 82. Turner gives a number of 1,500–2,300 dead.
  41. ^ Krieger, p. xix; Budiardjo and Liong (1984), p. 6.
  42. ^ Dunn, p. 159.
  43. ^ Indonesia (1977), p. 31.
  44. ^ Budiardjo and Liong (1984), p. 6; Taylor (1991), p. 53; Jolliffe, p. 150; Dunn, p. 160; Jardine, p. 29. Dunn says it was "a condition of their being allowed to enter Indonesian Timor", and Jolliffe and Jardine confirm this characterization.
  45. ^ Jolliffe, pp. 167–179 and 201–207; Indonesia (1977), p. 32; Taylor (1991), pp. 59–61. Indonesia describes the soldiers as "the combined forces of the four aligned parties", referring to APODETI, UDT, and two other smaller parties; most other accounts, however, indicate that APODETI never had many troops to begin with, and UDT's forces were tiny and shattered after the fighting with Fretilin. Taylor describes one assault carried out by "Indonesian soldiers disguised as UDT troops".
  46. ^ Jolliffe, p. 164 and 201.
  47. ^ Jolliffe, pp. 167–177. Jolliffe includes testimony from numerous eyewitnesses.
  48. ^ Vickers (2005), p. 166
  49. ^ Indonesia (1977), p. 35; Jolliffe, pp. 179–183; Taylor (1991), pp. 62–63.
  50. ^ Jolliffe, pp. 201–207; Taylor (1991), p. 63.
  51. ^ Jolliffe, pp. 208–216; Indonesia (1977), p. 37.
  52. ^ History Archived 29 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine. East Timor Government.
  53. ^ The Polynational War Memorial: EAST TIMORESE GUERILLA VS INDONESIOAN GOVT Archived 2 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine. War-memorial.net.
  54. ^ a b Indonesia (1977), p. 39.
  55. ^ Budiardjo and Liong (1984), p. 22.
  56. ^ a b Ramos-Horta, pp. 107–108.
  57. ^ "Angkasa Online". Archived from the original on 20 February 2008.
  58. ^ Budiardjo and Liong (1984), p. 23.
  59. ^ Dunn (1996), pp. 257–260.
  60. ^ a b Quoted in Turner, p. 207.
  61. ^ Hill, p. 210.
  62. ^ Quoted in Budiardjo and Liong (1984), p. 15.
  63. ^ Quoted in Ramos-Horta, p. 108.
  64. ^ Quoted in Taylor (1991), p. 68.
  65. ^ Ramos-Horta, pp. 101–02.
  66. ^ Taylor (1991), p. 68.
  67. ^ Taylor (1991), p. 69; Dunn (1996), p. 253.
  68. ^ Timor: A People Betrayed, James Dunn, 1983 p. 293, 303
  69. ^ Taylor (1991), p. 80-81
  70. ^ Dunn, p. 303
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Bibliography

External links