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Banca y finanzas islámicas

La banca islámica , las finanzas islámicas ( árabe : مصرفية إسلامية masrifiyya 'islamia ) o las finanzas compatibles con la sharia [1] son ​​actividades bancarias o financieras que cumplen con la sharia (ley islámica) y su aplicación práctica a través del desarrollo de la economía islámica . Algunas de las modalidades de las finanzas islámicas incluyen mudarabah (participación en las ganancias y aceptación de pérdidas), wadiah (custodia), musharaka (empresa conjunta), murabahah (costo más margen) e ijarah ( arrendamiento ).

La sharia prohíbe la riba , o usura , generalmente definida como el interés pagado sobre todos los préstamos de dinero [2] [3] (aunque algunos musulmanes discuten si existe un consenso sobre si el interés es equivalente a la riba ). [4] [5] La inversión en empresas que proporcionan bienes o servicios considerados contrarios a los principios islámicos (por ejemplo, carne de cerdo o alcohol) también es haram ("pecaminosa y prohibida"). [ cita requerida ]

Estas prohibiciones se han aplicado históricamente en diversos grados en los países/comunidades musulmanas para prevenir prácticas no islámicas. A fines del siglo XX, como parte del resurgimiento de la identidad islámica, [6] [Nota 1] se formaron varios bancos islámicos para aplicar estos principios a instituciones comerciales privadas o semiprivadas dentro de la comunidad musulmana. [8] [9] Su número y tamaño ha crecido, de modo que para 2009, había más de 300 bancos y 250 fondos mutuos en todo el mundo que cumplían con los principios islámicos, [10] y alrededor de $ 2 billones cumplían con la sharia en 2014. [11] Las instituciones financieras que cumplen con la sharia representaban aproximadamente el 1% de los activos mundiales totales, [12] concentrados en los países del Consejo de Cooperación del Golfo (CCG), Bangladesh , Pakistán , Irán y Malasia . [13] Aunque la banca islámica todavía representa sólo una fracción de los activos bancarios de los musulmanes, [14] desde su inicio ha estado creciendo más rápido que los activos bancarios en su conjunto, y se proyecta que continuará haciéndolo. [11] [15] [16]

La industria [ ambigua ] ha sido elogiada [¿ por quién? ] por regresar al camino de la "guía divina" al rechazar el "dominio político y económico" de Occidente, [6] y señalada como la "marca más visible" del resurgimiento islámico, [17] sus defensores más entusiastas prometen "ninguna inflación, ningún desempleo, ninguna explotación y ninguna pobreza" una vez que se implemente completamente. [15] [16] Sin embargo, también ha sido criticada por no desarrollar la participación en las ganancias y pérdidas o modos más éticos de inversión prometidos por los primeros promotores, [18] y en su lugar simplemente vender productos bancarios [19] que "cumplen con los requisitos formales de la ley islámica", [20] pero utilizan "artificios y subterfugios para ocultar el interés", [21] y conllevan "costes más altos, mayores riesgos" [22] que los bancos convencionales ( ribawi ).

Historia

La usura en el Islam

Aunque las finanzas islámicas contienen muchas prohibiciones (como el consumo de alcohol, los juegos de azar, la incertidumbre, etc.), la idea en la que se basan es la creencia de que "todas las formas de interés son riba y, por lo tanto, están prohibidas". [21] La palabra " riba " significa literalmente "exceso o adición" y se ha traducido como "interés", "usura", "exceso", "aumento" o "adición". [23] [24]

Según los economistas islámicos Choudhury y Malik, la eliminación del interés siguió un "proceso gradual" en el Islam primitivo, "que culminó" con un "sistema económico islámico plenamente desarrollado" bajo el califa Umar (634-644 d. C.). [25]

Otras fuentes ( Enciclopedia del Islam y el Mundo Musulmán , Timur Kuran), no están de acuerdo, y afirman que la concesión y recepción de intereses continuó en la sociedad musulmana "a veces mediante el uso de artimañas legales ( ḥiyal ), a menudo de forma más o menos abierta", [26] incluso durante el Imperio Otomano. [27] [28] Otra fuente (International Business Publications) afirma que durante la "Edad de Oro Islámica" la "visión común de la riba entre los juristas clásicos" de la ley y la economía islámicas era que era ilegal aplicar intereses a las monedas de oro y plata, "pero que no es riba y, por lo tanto, es aceptable aplicar intereses al dinero fiduciario -monedas compuestas de otros materiales como papel o metales básicos- hasta cierto punto". [29] [Nota 2]

A finales del siglo XIX, los modernistas islámicos reaccionaron al ascenso del poder y la influencia europeos y su colonización de países musulmanes reconsiderando la prohibición de los intereses y si las tasas de interés y los seguros no estaban entre las "condiciones previas para la inversión productiva" en una economía moderna funcional. [30] Syed Ahmad Khan , argumentó a favor de una diferenciación entre la "usura" pecaminosa de la riba , que vieron como restringida a los cargos por préstamos para el consumo, y el "interés" legítimo no riba , para préstamos para inversión comercial. [31]

Sin embargo, en el siglo XX, los activistas/islamistas/renovadores islámicos trabajaron para definir todos los intereses como riba , para obligar a los musulmanes a prestar y tomar prestado en "bancos islámicos" que evitaban las tasas fijas. Para el siglo XXI, este movimiento bancario islámico había creado "instituciones de empresas financieras sin intereses en todo el mundo". [32] Los préstamos están permitidos en el Islam si el interés que se paga está vinculado a la ganancia o pérdida obtenida por la inversión. El concepto de ganancia actúa como un símbolo en el Islam como distribución equitativa de ganancias, pérdidas y riesgos.

El movimiento comenzó con activistas y académicos como Anwar Qureshi, [33] Naeem Siddiqui , [34] Abul A'la Maududi y Muhammad Hamidullah , a finales de los años 1940 y principios de los años 1950. [35] Creían que los bancos comerciales eran un "mal necesario" y propusieron un sistema bancario basado en el concepto de mudarabah , en el que las ganancias compartidas sobre la inversión reemplazarían a los intereses. Otros trabajos dedicados específicamente al tema de la banca sin intereses fueron escritos [36] [37] por Muhammad Uzair (1955), Abdullah al-Araby (1967), Mohammad Najatuallah Siddiqui , [38] al-Najjar (1971) y Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr . [39]

Desde 1970

La participación de instituciones, gobiernos y diversas conferencias y estudios sobre la banca islámica (la Conferencia de Ministros de Finanzas de los Países Islámicos celebrada en Karachi en 1970, el estudio egipcio en 1972, la Primera Conferencia Internacional sobre Economía Islámica en La Meca en 1976 y la Conferencia Económica Internacional en Londres en 1977) fueron fundamentales para aplicar la teoría a la práctica para los primeros bancos sin intereses. [40] [41] En la Primera Conferencia Internacional sobre Economía Islámica, "varios cientos de intelectuales musulmanes, eruditos de la Sharia y economistas declararon inequívocamente... que todas las formas de interés" eran riba . [30] [42]

En 2004, la fuerza de esta creencia (que es la base de las finanzas islámicas) [21] quedó demostrada en Pakistán, cuando un miembro minoritario (no musulmán) del parlamento paquistaní [Nota 3] la cuestionó, señalando que un académico de la Universidad Al-Azhar (una de las universidades islámicas más antiguas del mundo), había emitido un decreto que establecía que el interés bancario no era antiislámico . Su declaración provocó un "pandemonio" en el parlamento, una demanda de los miembros del principal partido político islamista [Nota 4] de responder de inmediato a estos comentarios supuestamente despectivos, seguida de una huelga cuando se les negó la respuesta. Cuando los molestos miembros del parlamento regresaron, su líder (Sahibzada Fazal Karim), declaró que dado que el Consejo de Ideología Islámica de Pakistán había decretado que el interés en todas sus formas era haram (prohibido) en una sociedad islámica, ningún miembro del parlamento tenía derecho a "negar esta cuestión resuelta". [43]

A pesar del decreto del concilio, a lo largo de los años una minoría de eruditos islámicos ( Muhammad Abduh , Rashid Rida , Mahmud Shaltut , Syed Ahmad Khan , Fazl al-Rahman, Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy y Yusuf al-Qaradawi ) han cuestionado si la riba incluye todos los pagos de intereses. [44] Otros (Muhammad Akran Khan) han cuestionado si la riba es un crimen como el asesinato y el robo, prohibido por la Sharia (ley islámica) y sujeto a castigo por seres humanos, o simplemente un pecado contra el cual se debe arremeter, dejando la reprimenda a Dios, ya que "ni el Profeta ni los primeros cuatro califas ni ningún gobierno islámico posterior jamás promulgaron ninguna ley contra la riba ". [45]

Con el aumento de la población musulmana en Europa y la actual falta de oferta, surgirán oportunidades para el importante papel que desempeñan las finanzas islámicas en la economía europea. En particular, Luxemburgo está surgiendo como líder y centro de los fondos islámicos. [46]

Bancario

Una sucursal del Banco Islámico de Jordania en Ammán

Mientras que los revivalistas como Mohammed Naveed insisten en que la banca islámica es "tan antigua como la religión misma y que sus principios se derivan principalmente del Corán", los historiadores seculares y los modernistas islámicos la ven como un fenómeno moderno o una " tradición inventada ". [47] [48]

Se argumenta que el negocio de recaudación de fondos de Zubayr ibn al-Awwam era prácticamente una banca con cero intereses. [49] Zubayr fue pionero en esta práctica al modificar técnicamente el servicio de mantenimiento de dinero para que fuera un préstamo que Zubayr estaba obligado a pagar, mientras que Zubayr también tenía el privilegio de administrar el dinero que guardaba para hacer su negocio. [50] La práctica de Zubayr de aceptar depósitos de la gente sin cobrar ningún interés a sus clientes estaba causando que Zubayr sufriera una deuda inflada de 2.000.000 de dinares [Nota 5] durante su muerte. [49] [Nota 6] Sin embargo, al-Zubayr invirtió el dinero de los depósitos de los clientes en sus propios negocios lucrativos, por lo que sus herederos lograron liquidar sus deudas, al mismo tiempo que dejaron mucho patrimonio para su familia. [51] Después de su muerte, su hijo Abdullah ibn Zubayr vendió la propiedad por 1.600.000 dinares . [52] Esta práctica estaba permitida según el consenso de los eruditos clásicos, como Ibn Taymiyyah en su Majmu Fatawa. [53]

Banca temprana

Según Timur Kuran, en el siglo X la ley islámica ya apoyaba instrumentos de crédito e inversión que eran tan avanzados como cualquier otro en el mundo no islámico, pero antes del siglo XIX no existían instituciones financieras duraderas que pudieran reconocerse como bancos en el mundo musulmán. Los primeros bancos de propiedad mayoritaria musulmana no surgieron hasta la década de 1920. [54]

Entre los siglos VIII y XII se desarrolló una economía de mercado temprana y una forma temprana de mercantilismo , a veces llamada capitalismo islámico . [55] La economía monetaria de la época se basaba en la moneda de amplia circulación, el dinar de oro , y unía regiones que anteriormente eran económicamente independientes.

En la banca islámica primitiva se aplicaron varios conceptos y técnicas económicas, incluidas las letras de cambio , las sociedades ( mufawada , incluidas las sociedades limitadas , o mudaraba ) y las formas de capital ( al-mal ), la acumulación de capital ( nama al-mal ), [56] cheques , pagarés , [57] fideicomisos (véase Waqf ), [58] cuentas transaccionales , préstamos , libros de contabilidad y cesiones . [59] Se sabe que los comerciantes musulmanes han utilizado el sistema de cheques o ṣakk desde la época de Harun al-Rashid (siglo IX) del califato abasí . [60] [59] Las empresas organizativas independientes del Estado también existían en el mundo islámico medieval, mientras que la institución de la agencia también se introdujo durante esa época. [61] [62] Muchos de estos conceptos capitalistas tempranos se adoptaron y avanzaron aún más en la Europa medieval a partir del siglo XIII. [56]

Siglo XX

A mediados del siglo XX, se descubrieron algunas entidades organizativas que ofrecían servicios financieros que cumplían con las leyes islámicas. El primer banco islámico local experimental se estableció a fines de la década de 1950 en una zona rural de Pakistán y no cobraba intereses por sus préstamos. [63] [64]

En 1963, el primer banco islámico moderno del que se tiene registro fue fundado en el Egipto rural por el economista Ahmad Elnaggar [65] para atraer a la gente que desconfiaba de los bancos estatales. El experimento de reparto de beneficios, en la ciudad de Mit Ghamr , en el delta del Nilo , no publicitó específicamente su naturaleza islámica por temor a ser visto como una manifestación del fundamentalismo islámico que era anatema para el régimen de Gamal Nasser . También en ese año se fundó la Corporación de Ahorro de Peregrinos en Malasia (aunque no era un banco, incorporaba conceptos básicos de la banca islámica). [65]

El experimento Mit Ghamr fue clausurado por el gobierno egipcio en 1968. No obstante, muchos lo consideraron un éxito, [66] ya que en ese momento había nueve bancos similares en el país. [67] En 1972, el proyecto Mit Ghamr Savings pasó a formar parte del Nasr Social Bank, que en 2016 todavía estaba en actividad en Egipto. [68]

Desde 1970

La afluencia de "petrodólares" y una "reislamización general" tras la Guerra del Yom Kippur y la crisis del petróleo de 1973 alentaron el desarrollo del sector bancario islámico, [70] y desde 1975 se ha extendido globalmente. [71]

En 1975 se creó el Banco Islámico de Desarrollo con la misión de proporcionar financiación a proyectos en los países miembros. [72] El primer banco islámico comercial moderno, el Dubai Islamic Bank , se estableció en 1979. [73] La primera compañía de seguros islámicos (o takaful ), la Compañía Islámica de Seguros de Sudán, se estableció en 1979. [65] El Amana Income Fund, [74] el primer fondo mutuo islámico del mundo (que invierte únicamente en acciones que cumplen con la Sharia), se creó en 1986 en Indiana. [65]

Entre 1980 y 1985, las inversiones islámicas experimentaron una "expansión espectacular" en todo el mundo musulmán, atrayendo depósitos con la promesa de "grandes ganancias" y "garantías religiosas" proporcionadas por juristas islámicos que fueron "reclutados para emitir fatwas denunciando a los bancos convencionales y recomendando a sus rivales islámicos". [75] Este crecimiento se revirtió temporalmente en 1988 en el mayor país musulmán árabe, Egipto, cuando el Estado egipcio -preocupado por que los movimientos islamistas estuvieran acumulando un "fondo de guerra" y obteniendo independencia financiera- revirtió su apoyo tácito a la industria y lanzó una campaña mediática contra los bancos islámicos. [75] El pánico financiero resultante llevó a la quiebra de algunas empresas. [76]

En 1990 , un grupo de instituciones financieras islámicas estableció en Argel una organización de contabilidad para instituciones financieras islámicas ( Organización de Contabilidad y Auditoría para Instituciones Financieras Islámicas , AAOIFI). [77] [78] También en ese año surgió el mercado de bonos islámicos cuando Shell MDS emitió en Malasia los primeros sukuk negociables (la alternativa islámica a los bonos convencionales). [65] En 2002, se estableció la Junta de Servicios Financieros Islámicos (IFSB) con sede en Malasia como organismo internacional de normalización para las instituciones financieras islámicas. [65]

En 1995, se habían establecido 144 instituciones financieras islámicas en todo el mundo, incluidos 33 bancos estatales, 40 bancos privados y 71 compañías de inversión. [79] El gran Citibank, con sede en Estados Unidos, comenzó a ofrecer servicios bancarios islámicos en 1996, cuando estableció el Citi Islamic Investment Bank en Bahréin. [65] El primer índice de referencia exitoso para el desempeño de los fondos de inversión islámicos se estableció en 1999, con el Índice Dow Jones del Mercado Islámico (DJIMI). [65]

Edificio que alberga el Instituto Islámico de Banca y Finanzas de Malasia (IBFIM) en el centro de Kuala Lumpur

También en la década de 1990, la banca islámica en el Reino Unido tuvo un comienzo en falso, cuando los banqueros declararon los rendimientos como "intereses" a efectos fiscales, mientras insistían ante los depositantes en que en realidad se trataba de "ganancias" y, por lo tanto, no de riba . Los eruditos islámicos emitieron una fatwa en la que declaraban que "no tenían objeción alguna al uso del término 'interés'" en los contratos de préstamo con fines de evasión fiscal, siempre que la transacción no implicara realmente riba , y los banqueros islámicos utilizaron el término por temor a que la falta de deducciones fiscales disponibles para los intereses (pero no para las ganancias) los pusiera en desventaja competitiva frente a los bancos convencionales. [80] Los clientes musulmanes no se convencieron, y quedó un "mal sabor" "en la boca" del mercado de productos financieros islámicos. [81] El Banco Islámico de Gran Bretaña , el primer banco comercial islámico establecido fuera del mundo musulmán, no se estableció hasta 2004. [65]

En 2008, la banca islámica crecía a un ritmo del 10 al 15% anual y se pronosticaba que seguiría creciendo. [82] Había más de 300 instituciones financieras islámicas repartidas en 51 países, así como otros 250 fondos mutuos que cumplían con los principios islámicos. Según la revista The Economist , se estimaba que aproximadamente el 0,5% de los activos financieros a nivel mundial [83] estaban bajo una gestión que cumplía con la sharia . [10]

Pero a medida que la industria creció, también recibió críticas (de MT Usmani, entre otros) por no progresar desde los "contratos basados ​​en deuda", como el murabaha , al modo "más genuino" de compartir ganancias y pérdidas , sino moverse en la dirección opuesta, "compitiendo para presentarse con todas las mismas características del mercado convencional basado en intereses". [84]

Durante la crisis financiera de 2007-2008 , los bancos islámicos no se vieron afectados inicialmente por los "activos tóxicos" acumulados en los balances de los bancos estadounidenses, ya que no cumplían con la sharia y no eran propiedad de los bancos islámicos. En 2009, el periódico oficial del Vaticano ( L'Osservatore Romano ) planteó la idea de que "los principios éticos en los que se basan las finanzas islámicas pueden acercar a los bancos a sus clientes y al verdadero espíritu que debe marcar todo servicio financiero". [85] (La Iglesia Católica prohíbe la usura, pero comenzó a relajar su prohibición sobre todos los intereses en el siglo XVI.) [86] [87] Sin embargo, la caída de la valoración de los bienes raíces y el capital privado -dos segmentos en los que invirtieron fuertemente las empresas islámicas- tras el colapso de Lehman Brothers Islamic afectó a las instituciones financieras islámicas. [88]

En 2015, 2,004 billones de dólares en activos se gestionaban de manera compatible con la sharia, según el Informe sobre el estado de la economía islámica mundial. De estos, 342.000 millones de dólares eran sukuk . El mercado de bonos sukuk islámicos en ese año estaba compuesto por 2.354 emisiones de sukuk [89] y se había vuelto lo suficientemente fuerte como para que varios estados de mayoría no musulmana (Reino Unido, Hong Kong [90] y Luxemburgo [91] ) emitieran sukuk.

Existen múltiples índices que cumplen con la Sharia, creados mediante el análisis de empresas en virtud de la Sharia. Entre estos índices se incluyen el DJIM, el S&PSI, el MSCI y los índices basados ​​en países como el KMI-Pakistán y el SCM-Malasia. [92]

Principios

Para ser coherente con los principios de la ley islámica ( Sharia ) —o al menos una interpretación ortodoxa de la ley— y guiados por la economía islámica, el movimiento contemporáneo de banca y finanzas islámicas prohíbe una variedad de actividades, algunas de las cuales no son ilegales en los estados seculares:

El dinero en el tipo más común de financiación islámica –los contratos basados ​​en deuda– “debe hacerse a partir de un activo tangible que uno posee y por lo tanto tiene derecho a vender –y en las transacciones financieras exige que el riesgo sea compartido”. El dinero no puede hacerse a partir de dinero. [101] Otra afirmación de la teoría financiera de la banca islámica es: “El dinero no tiene utilidad intrínseca; es sólo un medio de intercambio”. [102] [103] Otras restricciones incluyen:

En general, se ha dicho que la banca y las finanzas islámicas tienen el "mismo propósito" que la banca convencional, pero que operan de acuerdo con las reglas de la sharia (Instituto de Banca y Seguros Islámicos), [107] o que tienen el mismo "objetivo básico" que otras entidades privadas, es decir, la "maximización de la riqueza de los accionistas" (Mohamed Warsame). [108] En una línea similar, Mahmoud El-Gamal afirma que las finanzas islámicas "no se construyen de manera constructiva a partir de la jurisprudencia clásica". Siguen la banca convencional y se desvían de ella "solo en la medida en que algunas prácticas convencionales se consideran prohibidas por la sharia". [Nota 7]

El Instituto de Investigación y Capacitación Islámica del Banco Islámico de Desarrollo ofrece una descripción más amplia de sus principios .

La característica más importante de la banca islámica es que promueve la distribución del riesgo entre el proveedor de fondos (inversor) por un lado, y tanto el intermediario financiero (el banco) como el usuario de los fondos (el empresario) por el otro... En la banca convencional, todo este riesgo lo soporta en principio el empresario. [110] [111] [Nota 8]

Algunos defensores (Nizam Yaquby) creen que la banca islámica tiene objetivos de mayor alcance que la banca convencional y declaran que los "principios rectores" de las finanzas islámicas incluyen: "justicia, equidad, transparencia y búsqueda de la armonía social", [113] aunque otros describen estas virtudes como los beneficios naturales de seguir la Sharia. (Taqi Usmani describe las virtudes como principios rectores en una sección de su libro sobre la banca islámica y como beneficios en otra.) [114]

Nizam Yaquby, por ejemplo, declara que los "principios rectores" de las finanzas islámicas incluyen: "equidad, justicia, igualdad, transparencia y la búsqueda de la armonía social". [113] Algunos distinguen entre las finanzas compatibles con la sharia y las finanzas basadas en la sharia más holísticas, puras y exigentes . [115] [116] [117] Se ha dicho que las " finanzas éticas " son necesarias, o al menos deseables, [118] para las finanzas islámicas, al igual que una " moneda basada en el oro ". [119] Taqi Usmani declara que la banca islámica significaría menos préstamos porque no paga intereses por los préstamos. Esto no debe considerarse como un problema para los prestatarios a la hora de encontrar fondos, porque -según Usmani- es en parte para desalentar las finanzas excesivas que el Islam prohíbe los intereses. [120] Zubair Hasan sostiene que los objetivos de las finanzas islámicas tal como los concibieron sus pioneros eran “la promoción del crecimiento con equidad... el alivio de la pobreza... [y] una visión a largo plazo para mejorar la condición de las comunidades musulmanas en todo el mundo”. [121] Algunos (como el converso Umar Ibrahim Vadillo) creen que el movimiento bancario islámico hasta ahora no ha seguido los principios de la ley Sharia, o al menos no los ha seguido con suficiente rigor. [Nota 9]

Por otra parte, Usmani predicó que una economía islámica libre de los "desequilibrios" de la sociedad -como la concentración de la "riqueza en manos de unos pocos", o los monopolios que paralizan o dificultan las fuerzas del mercado- se lograría obedeciendo los "mandatos divinos" prohibiendo el interés (junto con otros esfuerzos islámicos). [124] (Más adelante en su libro Introducción a las finanzas islámicas , sostiene que los principios islámicos deberían incluir "la satisfacción de las necesidades de la sociedad" dando "preferencia a los productos que puedan ayudar a la gente común a elevar su nivel de vida", pero que pocos bancos islámicos han seguido este camino). [125] Otra fuente ( Saleh Abdullah Kamel ), [Nota 10] describió los cambios previstos para la comunidad musulmana al seguir el enfoque islámico de la economía, la banca, las finanzas, etc., como un "movimiento hacia el desarrollo económico, la creación del factor de valor añadido, el aumento de las exportaciones, la reducción de las importaciones, la creación de empleo, la rehabilitación de los incapacitados y la formación de elementos capaces". [126]

Una sucursal del Banco Islámico Saba en la ciudad de Yibuti

Base escritural

La ley Sharia que forma la base de la banca islámica se basa en el Corán (revelado al profeta islámico Mahoma ) y un hadiz (el conjunto de informes de las enseñanzas, hechos y dichos del profeta islámico Mahoma que a menudo explican versículos del Corán). [127] La ​​prohibición del gharar se basa en un hadiz que declara como gharar prohibido la venta de cosas como "los pájaros en el cielo o los peces en el agua". [128] [129] [Nota 11] Se cree que el Maisir está prohibido por los versículos 2:219, 5:90 y 91 del Corán. [129]

Sin embargo, la "evaluación islámica" de la banca moderna se centra en la definición de interés sobre préstamos [134] como riba. Doce versículos en el Corán tratan sobre la riba , la palabra aparece ocho veces en total, tres veces en los versículos 2:275 , y una vez en 2:276 , 2:278 , 3:130 , 4:161 y 30:39 . [135] La riba se menciona numerosas veces en un hadiz , incluido el Sermón de despedida de Mahoma .

Varios eruditos ortodoxos señalan versículos coránicos (2:275–2:280) que declaran que la riba está "categóricamente prohibida" e "injusta" ( zulm ), y la definen como cualquier pago "por encima del capital" de un préstamo. [136] [137] (Aunque al menos una fuente afirma que "se argumenta comúnmente" que la riba está "definida por el hadiz".) [138]

Quienes se aprovechan de los intereses se presentarán en el Día del Juicio como los que han sido arrastrados a la locura por el demonio, porque dicen: «El comercio no es diferente del interés». Pero Dios ha permitido el comercio y ha prohibido el interés. Quien se abstenga, después de haber recibido una advertencia de su Señor, podrá conservar sus ganancias anteriores, y su caso quedará en manos de Dios. En cuanto a quienes persistan, serán los habitantes del Fuego, y estarán allí para siempre.
Dios ha hecho que el interés sea infructuoso y la caridad fructífera. Dios no ama a ningún malhechor desagradecido.
En verdad, quienes crean, obren bien, hagan la oración y paguen limosna recibirán su recompensa de su Señor, y no habrá temor para ellos ni se entristecerán. ¡
Oh, creyentes! Temed a Dios y renunciad a los intereses pendientes si sois creyentes.
Si no lo hacéis, tened cuidado de no entrar en guerra con Dios y Su Mensajero. Pero si os arrepentís, podréis conservar vuestro capital, sin causar ni sufrir daño.
Si a alguien le resulta difícil pagar una deuda, aplaza el pago hasta que llegue un momento de alivio. Y si renuncias a ella como acto de caridad, será mejor para ti, si tan solo lo supieras.

—  Sura Al-Baqara 2:275–280

Según la ortodoxia, un "aumento sobre la suma principal" en préstamos de efectivo es riba. Un aumento sobre la suma principal en la financiación de una compra de algún producto o mercancía es otra cuestión. Estas no son riba -según la interpretación ortodoxa- al menos en algunas circunstancias. [139] (Estas a veces se conocen como "ventas a crédito"). Según el destacado erudito islámico Taqi Usmani , esto se debe a que en el Corán aya 2:275 ("dicen, 'El tráfico (comercio) es como la usura', [pero] Dios ha permitido el tráfico y prohibido la usura") [140] "tráfico (comercio)" se refiere a las ventas a crédito como murabaha , la "usura prohibida" se refiere a cobrar extra por pago tardío ( cargos por pago tardío ), y el "ellos" se refiere a los no musulmanes que no entendían por qué si lo primero estaba permitido, ambos no. [141] [Nota 12] Por esta razón (según Usmani) no es cierto que "siempre que el precio se incrementa tomando en consideración el momento del pago, la transacción entra en el ámbito de los intereses". [143] En lugar de "capital" y "tasa de interés", el tomador del crédito está pagando "costo" y "tasa de ganancia". [139] (Otra diferencia con las finanzas convencionales es que no hay penalidad por pago tardío.) [Nota 13]

Ventas a interés y crédito

Si bien Usmani y otros pioneros de la banca islámica imaginaron que las ventas a crédito como la murâbaḥah serían una parte limitada de la industria de la banca islámica y subordinadas a la participación en las ganancias y pérdidas , se ha convertido en el modo "más común" de financiación islámica. [139] [145] [146] [147]

La distinción entre ventas a crédito e intereses también ha sido objeto de críticas por parte de críticos como Khalid Zaheer y Muhammad Akram Khan, que la critican desde puntos de vista opuestos. Zaheer considera que las ganancias por ventas a crédito son riba , lo mismo que los intereses, y señala la falta de entusiasmo de los académicos ortodoxos, como el Consejo de Ideología Islámica , por la banca islámica basada en las ventas a crédito, a la que ellos (el consejo) llaman "nada más que una segunda mejor solución desde el punto de vista de un sistema islámico ideal". [148] Khan llama a la distinción "frívola y laboriosa", una forma de cobrar intereses utilizando otro nombre, necesaria porque las empresas "no pueden sobrevivir donde los precios del efectivo y del crédito son iguales". [149] Otros señalan que en términos de prácticas contables estándar y regulaciones de veracidad en los préstamos [Nota 14] obtener un crédito de 90 días para un producto de Rs 10.000 y pagar Rs 500 adicionales cuesta casi lo mismo y se considera casi lo mismo que pagar en efectivo, utilizando un préstamo a tres meses al 20% anual.

Taqi Usmani, sin embargo, explica que se trata de un "concepto erróneo". Pagar más por un crédito al comprar un producto ("un intercambio de mercancías por dinero") [152] [153] no viola la sharia, pero el intercambio de "una unidad de dinero por otra de la misma denominación" ("un intercambio de dinero por dinero") [152] y cobrar por un crédito sí lo es. [ 143] El préstamo en efectivo es diferente porque "el dinero no tiene una utilidad intrínseca". [143]

Otros partidarios ortodoxos (como Kahf) han defendido el cumplimiento de la práctica con la Sharia diciendo que, entre otras cosas, vincular mercancías al dinero en las finanzas impide que el dinero se utilice con fines especulativos. [142] Los críticos denuncian abusos generalizados de la murabaha "sintética" , que son préstamos con intereses en todo menos en el nombre. [154] [155]

Tipos de préstamos islámicos

Uno de los pioneros de la banca islámica, Mohammad Najatuallah Siddiqui , sugirió un modelo de mudarabah de dos niveles como base de una banca libre de riba . El banco actuaría como socio capitalista en las cuentas de mudarabah con el depositante en un lado y el empresario en el otro lado. [156] (Otro pionero Taqi Uthmani llamó a la mudarabah y otra forma de participación en los beneficios de financiación musharakah , los "instrumentos reales e ideales de financiación en la Sharia".) [102] Este modelo se complementaría con una serie de modelos de rendimiento fijo: margen de beneficio ( murabaha ), arrendamiento financiero ( ijara ), anticipos de efectivo para la compra de productos agrícolas ( salam ) y anticipos de efectivo para la fabricación de activos ( istisna' ), etc. En la práctica, los modelos de rendimiento fijo, en particular el modelo murabaha , se convirtieron en los productos básicos de la industria, no en suplementos, ya que producen resultados más similares a los modelos de financiación basados ​​en intereses. Los activos gestionados bajo estos productos superan con creces los de los " modos de participación en las ganancias y pérdidas ", como mudarabah y musharakah . [103]

Valor temporal del dinero

El valor temporal del dinero [157] –la idea de que hay un mayor beneficio en recibir dinero ahora que más tarde, de modo que los ahorradores/inversores/prestamistas deberían ser compensados ​​por la gratificación retrasada– ha sido llamado uno de los argumentos "más significativos" a favor de cobrar intereses sobre los préstamos. [158] Como tal, algunos partidarios de las finanzas islámicas se han opuesto al concepto, argumentando que algún consumo –como comer– solo puede hacerse a lo largo del tiempo, y el descuento por tiempo fomenta resultados negativos como la producción insostenible como la desertificación , ya que la desertificación se produce en el futuro descontado. [159] Sin embargo, dado que la banca islámica también exige recompensar la gratificación retrasada en forma de "rendimiento de la inversión" tanto en la participación en las ganancias como en las ventas a crédito, los eruditos y economistas islámicos han tendido a insistir en que el valor temporal del dinero es un concepto válido "siempre que la tasa de descuento sea la 'tasa de rendimiento' del capital en lugar de la tasa de interés", una posición que los críticos encuentran engañosa. [158] [160] [161] [162]

Pago anticipado de deuda

El opuesto de las ventas a crédito (es decir, lo opuesto de cobrar más a cambio de darle al comprador tiempo para pagar) es la reducción de los cargos por pago anticipado. Esto es considerado haram por las cuatro escuelas sunitas de jurisprudencia ( Hanafi , Maliki , Shafi'i , Hanbali ), pero no por todos los juristas según Ridha Saadullah. Él señala que tales reducciones han sido permitidas por algunos compañeros del Profeta y algunos de sus seguidores. Esta posición ha sido defendida por Ibn Taymiyya e Ibn al-Qayyim , y ha sido adoptada, más recientemente, por la Academia Islámica de Fiqh de la OCI . La Academia decidió que "la reducción de una deuda diferida para acelerar su reembolso, ya sea a petición del deudor o del acreedor, es permisible bajo la Sharia . No constituye riba prohibida si no se acuerda de antemano y siempre que la relación acreedor-deudor siga siendo bilateral..." [163] [164]

Leyes islámicas sobre el comercio

Una sucursal del Banco Islámico de Desarrollo en Dhaka

Como se señaló anteriormente, el enfoque principal de la banca islámica es la financiación sin intereses para evitar la riba , [35] mientras que el comercio no es un problema (según la declaración coránica de que "Dios ha permitido el comercio y prohibido la riba [usura]" . [140] Sin embargo, las transacciones comerciales que involucran juegos de azar ( maisir ) o riesgo excesivo ( bayu al- gharar ) no están permitidas. Entre los instrumentos y actividades financieras comunes en las finanzas convencionales que muchos eruditos islámicos y musulmanes consideran prohibidos (o al menos islámicamente problemáticos) se encuentran:

Por otra parte, al menos un erudito islámico (Mohammed Hashim Kamali) no encuentra "nada inherentemente objetable" en la venta y el uso de opciones, que como otros tipos de comercio son mubah (permisibles) en el fiqh , y "simplemente una extensión de la libertad básica que el Corán ha concedido". [179] Y tanto los profesionales de las finanzas islámicas como los críticos encuentran beneficios en al menos algunos usos de los derivados y las ventas en corto: gestionar el riesgo en tiempos de problemas financieros, [180] mejorar la eficiencia del mercado y la productividad de los empleados. [181]

Al menos algunos en la industria financiera islámica utilizan derivados y realizan ventas en corto, y la permisibilidad de esto es un tema de "acalorado debate". [182] Las normas globales para el comercio de derivados de tasas de beneficio y swaps de divisas islámicos se establecieron en 2010 con el "Hedging Master Agreement" [183] ​​[184] [185] (véase más adelante). Algunos fondos de cobertura que cumplen con la Sharia habían creado una venta en corto "certificada por la Sharia". [175] [186] Sin embargo, ambos han sido criticados por no ser islámicos. [175] [186]

Justificación de la banca islámica

Se le ha elogiado –o al menos se le ha descrito positivamente– por

Marco de la industria

Las instituciones financieras islámicas adoptan distintas formas. Pueden ser:

  1. Instituciones financieras islámicas de pleno derecho (por ejemplo, Islami Bank Bangladesh Ltd , Meezan Bank en Pakistán); [201]
  2. "Ventanas" islámicas –es decir, unidades separadas que cumplen con la sharia [202] – en instituciones financieras convencionales (por ejemplo: HSBC – HSBC Amanah, American Express Bank , ANZ Grindlays , BNP-Paribas , Chase Manhattan , UBS , Kleinwort Benson, Commercial Bank of Saudi Arabia, Ahli United Bank Kuwait , Riyad Bank ); [201] (Los académicos debaten el cumplimiento de esta forma, según Faleel Jamaldeen, "principalmente" debido a "de dónde" provienen los fondos para estas ventanillas). [203]
  3. Filiales islámicas de instituciones financieras convencionales (por ejemplo: filial de Citibank, Citi Islamic Investment Bank (Bahrain), filial de Union Bank of Switzerland , Noriba Bank). [201]
  4. NBFC islámicas o instituciones financieras no bancarias (como las NBFC pequeñas que operan en la India)

Tamaño y ubicaciones

La banca compatible con la sharia creció a una tasa anual del 17,6% entre 2009 y 2013, más rápido que la banca convencional, [11] y se estima que tiene un tamaño de 2 billones de dólares, [11] pero representa el 1% del total mundial, [11] [12] [205] aún mucho más pequeño que el sector convencional.

En 2010, las instituciones financieras islámicas operaban en 105 países. Las estadísticas difieren sobre qué país tiene el mayor sector bancario islámico. Según el Informe de Competitividad Bancaria Islámica Mundial de 2016 (ver tabla), Arabia Saudita , Malasia , Emiratos Árabes Unidos , Kuwait , Qatar y Turquía representaban más del 87% de los activos bancarios islámicos internacionales. [206] Un informe de 2006 de ISI Analytics también enumera a Arabia Saudita en la cima e Irán como insignificante. [207] [69] En Qatar, los activos bancarios islámicos estaban valorados en $ 97 mil millones a fines de 2017, lo que representa casi el 81% de los activos financieros islámicos totales, según el director ejecutivo de QFC Authority, Yousuf Mohamed al-Jaida. [208] El país también anunció el lanzamiento de un banco islámico centrado en la energía con un capital de $ 10 mil millones en 2019, lo que lo convertiría en el mayor prestamista islámico para proyectos energéticos en el mundo. [209]

Sin embargo, según Ibrahim Warde, Irán, de mayoría chiita, domina la banca islámica con 345.000 millones de dólares en activos islámicos, Arabia Saudita con 258.000 millones, Malasia con 142.000 millones, Kuwait con 118.000 millones y los Emiratos Árabes Unidos con 112.000 millones. Los bancos islámicos de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos también ofrecen programas de inversión islámica que cumplen con la Sharia. [201] [210] Y según Reuters , los bancos iraníes representaban "más de un tercio" del total estimado mundial de activos bancarios islámicos (aunque las sanciones han dañado la industria bancaria de Irán y "su sistema financiero islámico ha evolucionado de maneras que complicarán los vínculos con los bancos extranjeros"). Según los últimos datos del banco central, los activos bancarios de Irán en marzo de 2014 totalizaban 17.344 billones de riyales o 523.000 millones de dólares al tipo de cambio del mercado libre. [211] [212] Según The Banker , en noviembre de 2015, tres de los diez principales bancos islámicos del mundo en términos de rentabilidad de los activos eran iraníes. [213]

Consejos asesores y consultores de la sharia

Una sucursal de un banco islámico en el edificio UMNO en Kota Kinabalu

Dado que el cumplimiento de la ley sharia es la razón de ser de las finanzas islámicas, los bancos islámicos y las instituciones bancarias que ofrecen productos y servicios bancarios islámicos deberían establecer un Consejo de Supervisión de la Sharia (SSB) para asesorarlos sobre si algunas transacciones o productos propuestos cumplen o no con la Sharia, y para garantizar que las operaciones y actividades de las instituciones bancarias cumplan con los principios de la Sharia. [214] [215]

Según varias organizaciones bancarias islámicas, algunos requisitos para los SSB incluyen:

Además, sus funciones deberían incluir: [220] [221]

Desde el comienzo de las finanzas islámicas modernas, el trabajo de las juntas de la Sharia se ha vuelto más estandarizado. Entre las organizaciones que han emitido directrices y estándares para el cumplimiento de la Sharia se encuentran la AAOIFI, [222] la Academia de Fiqh de la OIC y la Junta de Servicios Financieros Islámicos (IFSB) (2009). Sin embargo, las directrices y estándares no son regulaciones, y cada institución financiera islámica tiene su propia SSB, que por lo general no está obligada a seguirlas. [216]

Sin embargo, muchos de sus países de origen cuentan con una organización reguladora que deben respetar. A partir de 2013, los reguladores de Bahréin, Indonesia, Jordania, Kuwait, Líbano, Malasia y Pakistán han elaborado directrices para los SSB en sus respectivas jurisdicciones. Algunos países, como Indonesia, Kuwait, Malasia, Pakistán, Sudán y los Emiratos Árabes Unidos, han centralizado los SSB [223] (en Malasia, ese SSB se denomina Consejo Asesor Sharia y se creó en el Banco Negara de Malasia (BNM)). Ahora han surgido varias empresas de asesoramiento sharia que ofrecen servicios de asesoramiento sharia a las instituciones que ofrecen servicios financieros islámicos.

Normas de contabilidad financiera

La Organización de Contabilidad y Auditoría para Instituciones Financieras Islámicas (AAOIFI), ha estado publicando estándares y normas para instituciones financieras islámicas desde 1993. [78] Para 2010, había emitido "25 estándares de contabilidad, siete estándares de auditoría, seis estándares de gobernanza, 41 estándares de la sharia y dos códigos de ética". [78] (Para 2017 había emitido 94 estándares en las "áreas de la sharia, contabilidad, auditoría, ética y gobernanza".) [224] Aunque es un organismo independiente, sus "pronunciamientos sobre la aceptabilidad o no de las estructuras contractuales en relación con los instrumentos financieros islámicos deben verse en la misma línea que los edictos regulatorios". [225] [226] Sus estándares son obligatorios para las instituciones financieras islámicas en Bahréin, Sudán, Jordania y Arabia Saudita, y recomendados para otros países musulmanes e instituciones financieras islámicas según Muhammad Akram Khan. [78] [Nota 16] Fundada en Argel en 1990, su nombre original era Organización de Contabilidad Financiera para Bancos e Instituciones Financieras Islámicas. Posteriormente trasladó su sede a Bahréin. [78]

El Mercado Financiero Islámico Internacional –un organismo de normalización de la Junta de Servicios Financieros Islámicos para los productos y operaciones del mercado de capitales islámico– fue fundado en noviembre de 2001 mediante la cooperación de los gobiernos y bancos centrales de Brunei, Indonesia y Sudán. Su secretaría está ubicada en Manama, Bahréin. No es un organismo regulador y sus recomendaciones “no son implementadas por la mayoría de los bancos islámicos”. [228] Faleel Jamaldeen diferencia su organismo de control (la Junta de Servicios Financieros Islámicos) del otro órgano de normas financieras islámicas, la AAOIFI, diciendo:

La AAOIFI establece las mejores prácticas para gestionar los requisitos de información financiera de las instituciones financieras islámicas, y las normas de la IFSB se ocupan principalmente de la identificación, gestión y divulgación del riesgo relacionado con los productos financieros islámicos. [229]

Cada país tiene sus propias normas de contabilidad. El Instituto de Contadores Públicos de Pakistán publica las Normas Islámicas de Contabilidad Financiera (IFAS).

Instituciones de apoyo

El Mercado Monetario Interbancario Islámico fue establecido por el Banco Negara de Malasia el 3 de enero de 1994 y ha desarrollado instrumentos para gestionar las necesidades de liquidez de las instituciones financieras islámicas –“financiando y ajustando carteras en el corto plazo”. [228]

La Junta de Servicios Financieros Islámicos fue fundada el 3 de noviembre de 2002 en Kuala Lumpur por los bancos centrales de Bahréin, Irán, Kuwait, Malasia, Pakistán, Arabia Saudita y Sudán junto con el Banco Islámico de Desarrollo , la AAOIFI y el FMI . [228] A abril de 2015, los 188 miembros de la IFSB comprenden 61 autoridades reguladoras y supervisoras, ocho organizaciones intergubernamentales internacionales y 119 actores del mercado (instituciones financieras, firmas profesionales y asociaciones industriales) que operan en 45 jurisdicciones. [230] De 2002 a 2012 emitió 17 normas, principios rectores y notas. [231] Su objetivo es estandarizar y armonizar el funcionamiento y la supervisión de las instituciones financieras islámicas, las normas y la adecuación de capital, la gestión de riesgos y la gobernanza corporativa en consulta con una amplia gama de partes interesadas y después de seguir un largo proceso. Complementa la tarea del Comité de Supervisión Bancaria de Basilea . [228] Hasta 2015 había publicado 17 normas y seis notas de orientación. [232]

La Agencia Islámica de Calificación Internacional inició sus operaciones en julio de 2005 en Bahréin. Está patrocinada por 17 instituciones multilaterales de desarrollo, bancos y otras agencias de calificación. [233] [234]

El Índice Dow Jones del Mercado Islámico (DJIMI) fue creado en 1996. [235] El Índice ha sido aprobado por la Academia Fiqh de la OCI. [236] Utiliza tres niveles de selección: elimina las empresas involucradas en actividades no permitidas por la ley islámica (alcohol, carne de cerdo, juegos de azar, prostitución, pornografía, etc.); elimina las empresas cuyas deudas totales divididas por su capitalización de mercado promedio de 12 meses son el 33% o más de sus fuentes totales de fondos; elimina las empresas que tienen "ingresos o gastos impuros" (incluidos, por supuesto, los intereses) de más del 5-10 por ciento de sus ingresos o gastos (eliminar las empresas con cualquier "ingreso impuro" se considera poco práctico). [234]

En 2006, Citigroup lanzó el Dow Jones Citigroup Sukuk Index . Los sukuks que componen el índice deben tener un tamaño de al menos 250 millones de dólares, un vencimiento de al menos un año y una calificación mínima de BBB-/Baaa3. [234] En 1998, se lanzó el FTSE Global Islamic Index. Tiene 15 índices islámicos para varias regiones. [234] En 2007, se lanzó la serie MSCI Islamic Index, uno de los "índices MSCI 'basados ​​en la fe'". Se construye a partir de los índices MSCI convencionales de países y cubre 69 mercados desarrollados, emergentes y fronterizos, incluidas regiones como el Consejo de Cooperación del Golfo y los mercados árabes. [234]

Banca central

Aunque ningún país musulmán ha prohibido por completo los intereses sobre los préstamos, se han hecho sugerencias sobre cómo abordar la política monetaria cuando los bancos centrales operan en un entorno sin intereses y ya no hay tipos de interés que bajar o subir. El economista Mohammad N. Siddiqi ha propuesto que los bancos centrales ofrezcan "facilidades de refinanciación" para ampliar o contraer el crédito según sea necesario para hacer frente a la inflación o la deflación. [237] [238]

También propone que el crédito de corto plazo para el sector productivo de la economía sea estimado por los bancos centrales y provisto por ellos manipulando el “coeficiente de refinanciación” y el “coeficiente de préstamo”. [239] [240]

Según el economista y crítico de las finanzas islámicas Feisal Khan, un sistema bancario y financiero islámico "verdadero" o estricto de reparto de beneficios y pérdidas (el tipo que apoyan Taqi Usmani y el Tribunal de Apelaciones de la Sharia del Tribunal Supremo de Pakistán ) paralizaría gravemente la capacidad de los bancos centrales para luchar contra una crisis crediticia o de liquidez que conduzca a una recesión grave (como ocurrió en 2007-8). Esto se debe a que si el crédito se otorgara mediante la toma de "una participación accionaria directa en cada empresa" (el enfoque PLS), se contraería en una crisis crediticia. Pero situaciones como ésta -cuando los financieros están "cada vez menos seguros de la solvencia de sus contrapartes del sector financiero" y esencialmente dejan de prestar incluso a los prestatarios más grandes y estables o incluso a otros bancos- es exactamente el momento en que se necesita la expansión del crédito y la "inundación" de la economía con liquidez para evitar la quiebra generalizada de empresas y el desempleo. [241]

Productos, servicios y contratos

La banca constituye la mayor parte de la industria financiera islámica. Los productos bancarios suelen clasificarse en una de tres grandes categorías, [242] [243] dos de las cuales son "cuentas de inversión": [196] [244] [Nota 17]

La tercera categoría consiste en

La mayor parte de las finanzas islámicas se realizan en el sector bancario, pero las finanzas no bancarias, como el sukuk , los mercados de valores, los fondos de inversión, los seguros ( takaful ) y las microfinanzas , [254] [242] también están creciendo rápidamente, [254] [242] y en 2013 representaban aproximadamente una quinta parte de los activos totales en las finanzas islámicas. [254] [242]

Estos productos –y las finanzas islámicas en general– se basan en contratos comerciales islámicos y en el derecho contractual, [255] y muchos productos llevan el nombre de contratos particulares (por ejemplo, mudaraba ), aunque son combinaciones de más de un contrato. [Nota 18]

Participación en ganancias y pérdidas

Aunque los promotores originales de la banca islámica esperaban que la distribución de beneficios y pérdidas (PLS, por sus siglas en inglés) fuera el principal modo de financiación que reemplazara a los préstamos basados ​​en intereses, [156] la financiación a largo plazo con mecanismos de distribución de beneficios y pérdidas es "mucho más arriesgada y costosa" que los préstamos a largo o mediano plazo de los bancos convencionales -según críticos como el economista Tarik M. Yousef [259] - y ha "declinado a proporciones casi insignificantes". [260] [261] [99] [262] Los préstamos están permitidos en el Islam si el interés que se paga está vinculado a la ganancia o pérdida obtenida por la inversión. El concepto de beneficio actúa como un símbolo en el Islam de distribución equitativa de beneficios, pérdidas y riesgos. [263]

Mudarabah

Un contrato de mudarabah o mudharabah es una asociación de participación en las ganancias en una empresa comercial. Uno de los socios, rabb-ul-mal , es un socio silencioso o inactivo que aporta el dinero. El otro socio, mudarib , aporta su experiencia y gestión. [264] El acuerdo es similar al capital de riesgo en las finanzas convencionales, en el que un capitalista de riesgo financia a un empresario, que aporta la gestión y la mano de obra. [265]

Las ganancias se reparten entre las partes según una proporción acordada previamente, normalmente 50%–50%, o 60% para el mudarib y 40% para el rabb-ul-mal . Si hay una pérdida, el rabb-ul-mal pierde el capital invertido, y el mudarib pierde el tiempo y el esfuerzo invertidos. La repartición del riesgo refleja la visión de los defensores de la banca islámica de que, bajo el Islam, el usuario del capital –mano de obra y dirección– no debería soportar todo el riesgo de fracaso. La repartición del riesgo, según los defensores, da como resultado una distribución equilibrada de los ingresos y evita que los financieros dominen la economía. [266] [267] [268]

Musharakah (empresa conjunta)

Al igual que mudaraba , musharakah también es una sociedad en la que se comparten las ganancias y las pérdidas, pero en la que la inversión proviene de todos los socios, a todos los socios se les da la opción de participar en la gestión del negocio y todos los socios comparten las pérdidas de acuerdo con la proporción ( prorrata ) de su inversión. [269]

La musharakah puede ser "permanente" o "decreciente". Se utiliza a menudo en proyectos de inversión, cartas de crédito y en la compra de bienes inmuebles o propiedades. El uso de la musharaka no es muy frecuente. En Malasia, por ejemplo, [Nota 19] la proporción de financiación mediante musharaka (o al menos mediante musharaka permanente ) disminuyó del 1,4 por ciento en 2000 al 0,2 por ciento en 2006 [271] [249]

Disminución de Musharaka

Musharaka al-Mutanaqisa (que literalmente significa "sociedad decreciente") es un tipo popular de financiación para compras importantes, como la compra de una vivienda. En ella, el banco y el comprador (cliente) tienen la propiedad conjunta de un activo adquirido y el cliente también lo alquila. [272] A medida que el cliente va pagando gradualmente el costo, la participación del banco en el capital social disminuye de todo, excepto el porcentaje del cliente en el pago inicial, a nada. [273] Si el cliente incumple y el activo se vende, el banco y el cliente se dividen las ganancias de acuerdo con el capital social actual de cada parte. [274]

En este punto, sería útil destacar en qué se diferencia la Musharaka al-Mutanaqisa de las hipotecas bancarias convencionales, de modo que se comprenda la diferencia más importante, tanto en términos de ley como de práctica. Para ayudar a entender esto, veamos primero cómo funcionan las hipotecas regulares en los Estados Unidos:

Una vez que un comprador desea comprar una casa, se acerca al prestamista y solicita un préstamo. El prestamista, a su vez, si el comprador califica, le prestará dinero para comprar la casa, y el banco generalmente establecerá un porcentaje fijo de interés que se le pagará al prestamista. Cada pago al prestamista incluirá entonces una devolución de la parte del capital y el interés acumulado sobre el saldo restante durante ese período. Con el tiempo, se le devuelve al prestamista todo el capital, junto con todos los intereses adeudados. En términos de propiedad de la casa, el comprador/prestatario/deudor tendrá el título legal de la casa durante el plazo de reembolso y también después. En la oficina de registros de títulos del condado, el prestatario tendrá un título de propiedad que muestre al comprador como el titular del título, y no al banco. Cualquier disminución del valor de la casa es riesgo del prestatario y no del banco. Por otro lado, cualquier apreciación también es del prestatario y el banco no puede pedir más capital debido a la apreciación. Por lo tanto, el banco y el prestatario saben desde el principio las obligaciones exactas entre sí. El banco, en un esfuerzo por asegurar su préstamo, colocará un gravamen (una carga) sobre la propiedad, de modo que si el prestatario no paga el préstamo, el banco obtiene el derecho de ejecutar la hipoteca sobre el derecho del prestatario a poseer el título y hacer que el título sea transferido al banco (o que la casa sea subastada y el banco reciba las ganancias). En los EE. UU., la mayoría de los estados tienen un proceso de ejecución hipotecaria judicial en el que el banco solicita al tribunal que venda la propiedad para recuperar el saldo de su préstamo y los intereses acumulados, más cualquier otro costo del proceso.

¿Cómo va a abordar entonces Musharaka al-Mutanaqisa la parte de los intereses del pago del prestatario al banco? El concepto de título aquí se vuelve entonces crítico, porque el banco islámico seguirá aportando el dinero para comprar la casa, pero el banco comprará la casa en sociedad con el propietario. Juntos, el banco y el prestatario se convertirán en "inquilinos en común" y la oficina de registro local mostrará tanto al banco como al comprador como copropietarios. El porcentaje de propiedad de la casa en este punto se basará en la relación monetaria entre el banco y el comprador. Supongamos que el comprador pagó el 10% y el banco pagó el 90% del precio. Sin embargo, como el banco no vivirá en la casa, el comprador aceptará un pago de alquiler por el uso del 90% de la parte de la propiedad. Además, el comprador también aceptará comprar un cierto porcentaje de la parte del banco mensualmente. Por lo tanto, el comprador paga el alquiler por el uso y también una cantidad para comprar la parte del banco. Dado que no se pagan intereses, esta forma de propiedad (en sociedad) es aceptable según la sharia. Al final del período de alquiler acordado, el comprador habrá comprado la totalidad del 90% de la sociedad y podrá pedir al banco que disuelva la sociedad. La oficina del registrador registrará una nueva escritura de propiedad, por la cual el banco deja de ser copropietario del comprador y este se convierte en el titular de la totalidad del título (ya sea solo o con su cónyuge o cualquier otra entidad elegida por el comprador).

La esencia de ambas transacciones es diferente y se basa en el principio de quién exactamente tiene el título legal de la casa en un principio. La otra diferencia es que los pagos mensuales del comprador en la banca islámica son pagos de alquiler y compra de la sociedad, y no devolución del capital e intereses como en la banca convencional. Por lo tanto, desde el punto de vista económico, el banco islámico también comparte el riesgo de que el valor de la casa caiga, mientras que en el modelo bancario convencional el banco no ha asumido ningún riesgo de que los valores se depriman. Lo opuesto también es cierto, ya que tanto el banco islámico como el comprador ganan si la casa se vende por más del valor contable de la sociedad. En la banca convencional, el banco no se beneficia del aumento de precios.

Los escépticos de la banca islámica sostienen que el resultado es el mismo: el comprador realiza pagos mensuales para ser propietario de la casa, de forma muy similar a una hipoteca convencional. Pero ¿acaso no se comparte el riesgo de ser propietario de una vivienda en la banca islámica? Si así fuera legalmente, entonces no sería lo mismo que una transacción hipotecaria convencional.

Financiación respaldada por activos

El Banco Islámico Faisal en Jartum .

Los instrumentos respaldados por activos o de tipo deuda (también llamados contratos de intercambio) son contratos de venta que permiten la transferencia de un producto por otro producto, la transferencia de un producto por dinero o la transferencia de dinero por dinero. [250] Incluyen Murabaha , Musawamah , Salam , Istisna'a y Tawarruq . [275]

Murabaha

Murabahah (o murabaha ) es un contrato islámico de compraventa en el que el comprador y el vendedor acuerdan el margen de beneficio o el precio de " costo más " [276] [277] del artículo o artículos que se venden. [278] En la banca islámica se ha convertido en un término tanto para el precio marcado como para el pago diferido, una forma de financiar un bien (casa, coche, suministros empresariales, etc.) mediante la cual el banco compra el bien y lo revende al cliente a un precio más alto (informando al cliente del aumento de precio) y ofreciendo aceptar el pago en cuotas o en una suma global. [279]

Murabahah también ha llegado a ser el tipo más común de financiación islámica. [146] [145] [278] Una estimación es que el 80% de los préstamos islámicos se realiza mediante Murabahah . [280] Esto es a pesar del hecho de que (según Uthmani) las juntas supervisoras de la Sharia de finanzas islámicas "son unánimes" en el acuerdo de que los préstamos Murabahah "no son modos ideales de financiación", y deben utilizarse sólo "cuando los medios de financiación más preferibles - " musharakah , mudarabah , salam o istisna' - no son viables por alguna razón". [102]

Murabahah se diferencia de las finanzas convencionales (como las hipotecas para viviendas o las compras a plazos para muebles o electrodomésticos) en que el rendimiento fijo con el que se compensa al banco se llama "ganancia" y no interés, [146] y en que el financista no puede reservarse ninguna penalización por demora en el pago. [276] [Nota 20]

Los economistas han cuestionado si la Murabaḥah es realmente distinta de la financiación basada en deuda e intereses. El hecho de que exista un principal y un plan de pago significa que existe una tasa de interés implícita, [280] basada en las tasas de interés bancarias convencionales como la LIBOR . Otros se quejan de que en la práctica la mayoría de las transacciones de " murabaḥah " no implican la compra o venta real de bienes o materias primas, sino que son simplemente flujos de efectivo entre bancos, corredores y prestatarios. [282] A diferencia de la LIBOR, los bancos islámicos prestan dinero basándose en su propia tasa de referencia conocida como la Tasa Interbancaria de Referencia Islámica que "utiliza los beneficios esperados del dinero a corto plazo y un rendimiento previsto de los activos del banco que recibe los fondos". [283]

Bai' muajjal

En la jurisprudencia islámica ( fiqh ), Bai-muajjal , también llamado bai'-bithaman ajil , [284] o BBA, es una venta a crédito o venta con pago diferido, es decir, la venta de bienes sobre la base de un pago diferido. En las finanzas islámicas, el producto bai' muajjal también implica el aumento de precio de un contrato murabahah , y un producto murabahah implica un pago diferido bai-muajjal . Por lo tanto, los términos y se utilizan a menudo indistintamente (según Hans Visser), [285] o "en la práctica ... se utilizan juntos" (según Faleel Jamaldeen). [256] [286]

Sin embargo, según otra fuente (bangladesí), el Bai' muajjal difiere del Murabahah en que el cliente, no el banco, está en posesión de los bienes adquiridos y asume el riesgo por ellos antes de que se complete el pago. [287] Y según una fuente malasia, la principal diferencia entre BBA (abreviatura de bai'-bithaman ajil) y murabaha –al menos tal como se practica en Malasia– es que murabaha se utiliza para financiación a mediano y corto plazo y el BBA para financiación a largo plazo. [288] [289]

El Bai' muajjal como producto financiero fue introducido en 1983 por el Banco Islam Malaysia Berhad. [285] [290]

Bai' al 'inah (contrato de venta y recompra)

Bai' al inah (literalmente, "doble venta" [291] o "préstamo en forma de venta"), [292] es un acuerdo de financiación en el que el financista/banco compra algún activo al cliente en el acto , y el pago del financista constituye el "préstamo". Luego, el activo se vende nuevamente al cliente, quien paga en cuotas a lo largo del tiempo, esencialmente "devolviendo el préstamo". Dado que el préstamo de dinero en efectivo con fines de lucro está prohibido en las finanzas islámicas, algunos académicos no creen que Bai' al 'inah sea permisible en el Islam. Según el Instituto de Banca y Seguros Islámicos, "sirve como una artimaña para prestar con intereses", [293] pero Bai' al inah se practica en Malasia y jurisdicciones similares. [294] [295]

Musawamah

Un contrato de Musawamah (que literalmente significa “negociación”) se utiliza cuando no se puede determinar o no se puede determinar el costo exacto de los artículos vendidos al banco o al financista. [146] Musawamah se diferencia de Murabahah en que “el vendedor no tiene la obligación de revelar su costo o precio de compra”. [296] Musawamah es el tipo “más común” de “negociación comercial” que se observa en el comercio islámico. [297]

Istisna y Bai Salam

Istisna (también Bia Istisna o Bai' Al-Istisna ) y Bia Salam (también Bai us salam o simplemente salam ) son " contratos a futuro " [298] - contratos personalizados donde se realiza un pago inmediato por bienes en el futuro - bienes que aún no se han fabricado, construido o cosechado. [299] [300] [301] Los contratos Istisna (literalmente, una solicitud para fabricar algo) están limitados por el fiqh islámico para su uso en fabricación, procesamiento o construcción, y pueden aplicarse en estos aspectos dentro de la esfera de la gestión de la cadena de suministro, [299] [301] [302] mientras que salam "se puede efectuar en cualquier cosa" [299] [303] - excepto oro, plata o monedas basadas en estos metales. [304] Por otra parte, un contrato salam no puede ser cancelado unilateralmente, [299] el precio total debe ser pagado por adelantado, [299] [305] y el tiempo de entrega debe ser especificado [299] [305] – restricciones que no se aplican a istisna .

En un contrato de istisna , el financista/banco puede realizar pagos en etapas, para financiar materias primas (en el caso de fabricación) o materiales de construcción (en el caso del proyecto de construcción). [306] Cuando el producto/estructura está terminado y vendido, se puede reembolsar al banco.

Los contratos de bia salam e istisna deben ser lo más detallados posible para evitar la incertidumbre. [307] [305] [308] [309] Los contratos de salam son anteriores a los de istisna [310] y fueron diseñados para satisfacer las necesidades de los pequeños agricultores y comerciantes. [311] [304] [312] El salam es una estructura de financiación preferida y conlleva un orden de cumplimiento de la Sharia más alto que contratos como Murabahah o Musawamah . [313]

Entre los ejemplos de uso de istisna en el mundo de las finanzas islámicas se incluyen el uso por parte de Kuwait Finance House [257] y el proyecto de gas Barzan en Qatar. [314] Entre los bancos que utilizan Salam se incluyen ADCB Islamic Banking y Dubai Islamic Bank. [305]

Ijarah

Ijarah , (literalmente "dar algo en alquiler") [315] es un contrato de arrendamiento o alquiler. [316] En la jurisprudencia islámica tradicional ( fiqh ), significa un contrato para el alquiler de personas, servicios o el " usufructo " de una propiedad, generalmente por un período y precio fijos. [317]

En las finanzas islámicas, al Ijarah suele referirse a un contrato de arrendamiento que también incluye un contrato de compraventa. Una propiedad, como una planta, un sistema de automatización de oficinas o un vehículo de motor, se arrienda a un cliente a cambio de una serie de pagos de alquiler y de compra, de modo que el final del período de arrendamiento coincida con la finalización de los pagos de la compra y la transferencia de la propiedad al arrendatario, y de acuerdo con las demás normas islámicas. [317] Existen varios tipos de ijarah en las finanzas islámicas (ijarah operativa o ijarah tashgheeliah , son arrendamientos sin venta ni financiación):

Ijarah thumma al bai' e Ijarah wa-iqtina

La ijarah thumma al bai' (compra a plazos) [318] y la ijarah wa-iqtina [319] ("arrendamiento y propiedad") [320] implican el arrendamiento/alquiler/alquiler de un bien, pagado en cuotas y que finaliza con su compra (u opción de compra) por/para el cliente. [319] Ambos implican dos contratos –un arrendamiento y una transferencia de propiedad del activo o la propiedad– que deben registrarse en documentos separados. [321]

Los dos modos difieren en que en Ijarah wa-iqtina (o ijara muntahia bittamleek ) la venta/transferencia de propiedad es "una opción dada al arrendatario" y no puede ser una condición previa. [321] En ijara thumma bay' la venta es parte del contrato. [322]

ijara mawsoofa bi al dhimma

En un contrato islámico de “ijarah a futuro” o ijara mawsoofa bi al dhimma , se define el servicio o beneficio que se arrienda, en lugar de la unidad particular que proporciona ese servicio o beneficio. En las finanzas islámicas contemporáneas, se utiliza para financiar la construcción (de una casa, oficina, fábrica, etc.) combinada con un contrato de Istisna . [257] La ​​parte comienza a arrendar el activo después de “recibirlo”. [323]

Los desafíos de Ijarah

Entre las quejas formuladas contra ijara se encuentran que en la práctica se pasan por alto algunas normas que protegen al cliente, [324] que sus normas proporcionan una posición jurídica y una protección al consumidor más débiles [325] y menos flexibilidad [326] [327] que los préstamos hipotecarios convencionales o la financiación de automóviles , así como unos costes más elevados. [328]

Tawarruq

Un contrato/producto Tawarruq (que literalmente significa "se convierte en plata", [329] o "monetización") [330] en el que el cliente puede obtener efectivo para pagarlo más tarde comprando y vendiendo algún activo que se pueda vender fácilmente. Un ejemplo de esto sería un cliente que desea pedir prestados 1000 dólares en efectivo y que su banco le compra a un proveedor un producto básico por valor de 1100 dólares, como hierro, y compra el hierro al banco a crédito con un plazo de 12 meses para devolver los 1100 dólares. Luego, vende inmediatamente el metal al banco por 1000 dólares en efectivo que se pagarán en el acto. El banco revende el hierro al proveedor (esto equivaldría a pedir prestados 1000 dólares por un año a una tasa de interés del 11 por ciento). [329]

Like Bai' al inah mentioned above, the greater complexity of this transaction means more fees and higher costs than a conventional bank loan, but (in theory) compliance with shariah law because of the tangible assets that underlie the transactions . However, critics complain that "billions of dollars" of putative commodity-based tawarruq transactions have evaded the required commodity trades;[331] and Islamic scholars both contemporary[332][Note 21] and classical[334] have forbidden the practice. Nonetheless, as of 2012 Islamic banks using Tawarruq include the United Arab Bank, QNB Al Islamic, Standard Chartered of United Arab Emirates, and Bank Muamalat Malaysia.[335]

Charitable lending

Qardh-ul Hasan

Taqi Usmani insists that "role of loans" (as opposed to investment or finance) in a truly Islamic society is "very limited", and that Shariah law permits loans not as an ordinary occurrence, "but only in cases of dire need".[120]A shariah-compliant loan is known as Qardh-ul Hasan, (also Qard Hasan, literally: "benevolent loan" or "beneficence loan"). It is often described as an interest-free loan extended to needy people.[336][337][338] Such loans are often made by social service agencies, or by a firm as a benefit to its employees,[339] rather than by Islamic banks. They are analogous to the microcredit of conventional finance, when it does not provide for an interest.

Quoting the Islamic prophet Muhammad, some sources insist that lenders may not gain "any advantage or benefits" from the loan, let alone interest.[340] However, some Islamic banks offer products called qardh-ul hasan which charge lenders a management fee,[341]and others have savings account products called qardh-ul hasan, (the "loan" being a deposit to a bank account) where the debtor (the bank) may pay an extra amount beyond the principal amount of the loan (known as a hibah, literally gift) if the extra is not an obligation of the account/loan agreement.[342]

Contracts of safety, security, service

These contracts are intended to help individual and business customers keep their funds safe.[65]

Hawala

Hawala (also Hiwala, Hewala, or Hundi; literally "transfer" or "trust") is a widely used, informal "value transfer system" for transferring funds from one geographical area to another, based not on wire transfers but on a huge network of money brokers (known as "Hawaladars") throughout the Muslim world.[343] Hawala was not started as an halal alternative to conventional banking transfers, since electronic wire transfers have not been found in violation of sharia. However, hawala has the advantage of being available in places wire transfer is not,[344] and predates conventional banking remittance systems by many centuries.

In the first half of the 20th century it lost ground to instruments of the conventional banking system, but regained it starting in the late 20th century with the economic migration of Muslim workers to wealthier countries in the West and the Gulf and their need to send money home.[345] Dubai has traditionally served as a hub.[343]

Hawala is based on a short term, discountable, negotiable, promissory note (or bill of exchange) called "Hundi",[344] transferred from one debtor to another. After the debt is transferred to the second debtor, the first debtor is free from his/her obligation.[65] Recipient of the funds often identify themselves with passwords given to them by the sender.[346] Hawaladars are often small traders who work at hawala as a sideline or moonlighting operation.[344] Hawaladars networks are usually family or clan-based,[344] and enforcement of the contracts is based on these networks rather than the power of the state.[344]

Kafala

Kafala (literally "guarantee),[347] is called "surety" or "guaranty" in conventional finance. A third party accepts an existing obligation and becomes responsible for fulfilling someone's liability.[65]

Rahn

Rahn (collateral or pledge contract) is property pledged against an obligation.[348] A rahn contract is made in order to secure a financial liability.[65] According to Mecelle, rahn is "to make a property a security in respect of a right of claim, the payment in full of which from the property is permitted." Hadith tradition states that the Islamic prophet Muhammad purchased food grains on credit pledging his armor as rahn.[349]

Wakalah

In a Wakalah contract, a person (the principal or muwakkel) appoints a representative (the agent or wakil) to undertake transactions on his/her behalf, that the principal does not have the time, knowledge or expertise to perform themselves – similar to a power of attorney agreement in conventional legal terms. Wakalah should be a non-binding contract for a fixed fee. The agent's services may include selling and buying, lending and borrowing, debt assignment, guarantee, gifting, litigation and making payments, and are involved in numerous Islamic products like Musharakah, Mudarabah, Murabaha, Salam and Ijarah.[350]

An example of wakalah is found in a mudarabah profit and loss sharing contract (above) where the mudarib (the party that receives the capital and manages the enterprise) serves as a wakil for the rabb-ul-mal (the silent party that provides the capital) [Note 22]

Deposit side of Islamic banking

From the point of view of depositors, "Investment accounts" of Islamic banks – based on profit and loss sharing and asset-backed finance – play a similar role to the "time deposits" of conventional banks. (For example, one Islamic bank – Al Rayan Bank in the United Kingdom – talks about "Fixed Term" deposits or savings accounts).[352] In both, the depositor agrees to hold the deposit at the bank for a fixed amount of time.[353] In Islamic banking return is measured as "expected profit rate" rather than interest.[354][355]

"Demand deposits" of Islamic financial institutions, which provide no return, are structured with qard al-hasana (also known as qard, see above in Charitable lending) contracts, or less commonly as wadiah or amanah contracts, according to Mohammad O. Farooq.[356]

Restricted and unrestricted investment accounts

At least in one Muslim country with a strong Islamic banking sector (Malaysia), there are two main types of investment accounts offered by Islamic banks for those investing specifically in profit and loss sharing modes[357][358] – restricted or unrestricted.

Some have complained that UIA accounts lack transparency, fail to follow Islamic banking standards, lack of customer representation on the board of governors,[360] and have sometimes hidden poor performance from investors.[361]

Demand deposits

Islamic banks also offer "demand deposits", i.e. accounts which promise the convenience of returning funds to depositors on demand, but in return usually pay little if any return on investment and/or charge more fees.[362][Note 23]

Qard

Because demand deposits pay little if any return and Qard al-hasana (mentioned above) loans are forbidden to pay any "stipulated benefit", the Qard mode is a popular Islamic finance structure for demand deposits. In this design, customer deposits constitute "loans" and the Islamic bank a "borrower" who guarantees full return of the "lenders" deposits.[363][356]

However, critics (M.O. Farooq,[356] Mohammad Hashim Kamali)[364] see conflicts between qard's role in demand deposits and the dictates of traditional Islamic jurisprudence. Qard al-hasana loans are intended to be acts of charity to the needy who are allowed lenient repayment.[365] Islamic banks, on the other hand, are multi-million or billion dollar profit-making institutions, and their depositor/lenders typically expect to be able to withdraw their deposits on demand rather than be asked to be lenient with the bank.[365][356]

A further issue is that at least some conventional banks do pay a modest interest on their demand/savings deposits,[342] and Islamic banks often feel a need to compete with them, finding an (at least putative) shariah compliant technique to do so. The means that has been used is Hibah (literally "gift"),[253] in the form of prizes, exemptions, etc.,[356] which officially differ from the conventional banks' interest/riba in not being legally stipulated or time bound.[366] Its use has nonetheless has been attacked by at least one scholar as "entry of riba through the back door".[364]

Wadiah and Amanah

Two other contracts sometimes used by Islamic finance institutions for pay-back-on-demand accounts instead of qard al-hasanah,[342][Note 24] are Wadi'ah (literally "safekeeping")[368] and Amanah (literally "trust"). Sources disagree over the definition of these two contracts. "Often the same words are used by different banks and have different meanings."[369] Sometimes wadiah and amanah are used interchangeably.[370]

Sources differ over whether Wadiah deposits are simply guaranteed by the bank[371][372] or must be kept unused with 100% reserve,[373] with another contract – called Wadia yadd ad daman – allowing "rights of disposal" to invest but guaranteeing "repayment of the whole or part" of "current account deposit".[373][374][342] Sources also differ over whether banks can use Amanah accounts for its operations – if it "obtains" the "authority" of depositor[368] – or not.[342][368] Sources do agree that the trustee of amanah is not liable for "unforeseen mishap" (Abdullah and Chee),[374] "resulting from circumstances beyond its control",(financialislam.com),[253] or if there has not been a "breach of duty" (Reuters).[375][376]

According to at least one report, in practice no examples of 100 percent reserve banking are known to exist.[377]

Other Sharia-compliant financial instruments

Sukuk (Islamic bonds)

Sukuk, (plural of صك Sakk) – often called "Islamic" or "sharia compliant" bonds – are financial certificates developed as an alternative to conventional bonds. Different types of sukuk are based on different structures of Islamic contracts mentioned above (murabaha, ijara, wakala, istisna, musharaka, istithmar, etc.), depending on the project the sukuk are financing.[378]

Like conventional bonds, sukuk have expiration dates. But instead of receiving interest payments on money lent as bonds do, sukuk holders are given "(nominal) part-ownership of an asset" from which they receive income "either from profits generated by that asset or from rental payments made by the issuer".[90]The part ownership element and (at least in theory) the lack of a guaranteed repayment of initial investment resembles equity instruments.[379] However, in practice, most sukuk are "asset-based" rather than "asset-backed"—their assets are not truly owned by their Special Purpose Vehicle, and (like conventional bonds), their holders have recourse to the originator if there is a shortfall in payments.[380]

The sukuk market began to take off around 2000 and as of 2013, sukuk represent 0.25 percent of global bond markets.[381] The value of the total outstanding sukuk as of the end of 2014 was $294 billion, with $188 billion from Asia, and $95.5 billion from the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council.[Note 25] Demand for sukuk should able to support further growth.[383]

Takaful (Islamic insurance)

Takaful, sometimes called "Islamic insurance", differs from conventional insurance in that it is based on mutuality so that the risk is borne by all the insured rather than by the insurance company.[384] Rather than paying premiums to a company, the insured contribute to a pooled fund overseen by a manager, and they receive any profits from the fund's investments.[90]Any surplus in the common pool of accumulated premiums should be redistributed to the insured. (As with all Islamic finance, funds must not be invested in haram activities like interest-bearing instruments, enterprises involved in alcohol or pork.)[384]

Like other Islamic finance operations, the takaful industry has been praised by some for providing "superior alternatives" to conventional equivalents;[385] and criticized by others for not being significantly different from them in its use of the "law of large numbers" to spread risk,[386] or its use of conventional corporate (not mutual) management practices.[387][388]

The industry is projected to reach $25 billion in size by the end of 2017.[389]

Islamic credit cards

While a number of scholars (Manzur Ahmad, Hossein Askari, Zamir Iqbal and Abbas Mirakhor) have cast doubt on the shariah compliance of any kind of credit card – or at least cards that "can offer the same service as the conventional credit card"[390][391][392] – there are credit cards claiming to be shariah-compliant (particularly in Malaysia, where as of about 2012 they were offered by Bank Islam Malaysia Berhad, CIMB Islamic Bank Berhad, HSBC Amanah Malaysia Berhad, Maybank Islamic Berhad, RHB Islamic Bank Berhad, Standard Chartered Berhad, Am Islamic Bank Berhad.[393]),[394]These generally following one of a number of arrangements:

  1. ujra (The client simply pays an annual service fee for using the card);[395]
  2. ijara (Card is used as a leased asset. Ownership of whatever is purchased to card user after installments payments are complete.);[395]
  3. kafala (The bank acts as a kafil (guarantor) for the transactions of the card holder. For its services, the card holder is obligated to pay kafala bi ujra (fee));[395]
  4. qard ( The client acts as the borrower and the bank as a lender.);[395]
  5. bai al-ina/wadiah (The bank sells the customer some item/commodity at a certain price and then shortly thereafter repurchases from the client at a lower price. The difference between the two prices is the income of the bank for its trouble administering the card. The customer's initial payment to the bank serves as the account balance for the credit card and ceiling limit of what can be spent. The bank's repayment to the customer constitutes whatever balance is left over after purchases.)[395]
  6. cards that act much like debit cards, with any transaction "directly debited" from the holder's bank account.[396]

Islamic funds

Islamic funds are professionally managed investment funds that pool money from many investors to purchase securities that have been screened for sharia compliance. They include mutual funds holding equity and/or sukuk securities,[397][398] but also Islamic "alternative" funds deal in "anything from private equity and real estate to infrastructure and commodity asset classes."[399] They began growing fairly rapidly in about 2004,[400] and as of 2014 there were 943 Islamic mutual funds worldwide and as of May 2015, they held $53.2 billion of assets under management,[401] with "latent demand" for considerable growth.[401]

For equity mutual funds, companies whose shares are being considered for purchase must be screened

  1. to exclude those that are involved in alcohol, tobacco, pork, adult entertainment industry, gambling, weapons, etc., but also
  2. those that are "engaged in prohibited speculative transactions (involving uncertainty or gambling), which are likely leveraged with debt", by examining the company's "financial ratios" to meet "certain financial benchmarks".[402]

Creators of benchmarks to gauge the (equity) funds' performance include the Dow Jones Islamic market index series[403] and the FTSE Global Islamic Index Series.[404]

At least from 2000 to 2009, Islamic equity funds under-performed both Islamic and conventional equity benchmarks, particularly as the 2007–08 financial crisis set in (according to a study by Raphie Hayat and Roman Kraeuss).[405]

Islamic derivatives

As mentioned above (see Islamic laws on trading), "almost all conservative Sharia scholars" believe derivatives (i.e. securities whose price is dependent upon one or more underlying assets) are in violation of Islamic prohibitions on gharar.[174][175][165] This, however, has not stopped the Islamic finance industry from using some of these instruments, and derivative permissibility in Islam is a subject of "heated debate".[182]

As of 2013 the Islamic derivatives market was "in its infancy" and its size was not known. Contracts or combinations of contracts for derivatives[178] include swaps and options:

Swaps

Faleel Jamaldeen describes the Islamic swap market as being of two kinds of swaps:

Put and call options

The Islamic finance equivalent of a conventional call option[Note 26] is known as an urbun (lit. "down payment"), the equivalent of a put option is known as a "reverse urbun".[411] In each the seller has the right but not the obligation to either buy (in the case of a call or urbun) or sell (in the case of a put or "reverse urbun") at a pre-determined price by some point in the future. These two Islamic options also have a different name for a "premium", (called a "down-payment") and for the "strike price" ("preset price").[412][413] The options' Islamic distinctiveness has been questioned by analysts,[414][415] and its use has been criticized by conservative scholars.[415]

Microfinance

Microfinance seeks to help the poor and spur economic development by providing small loans to entrepreneurs too small and poor to interest non-microfinance banks. Its strategy meshes with the "guiding principles" or objectives of Islamic finance, and with the needs of Muslim-majority countries where a large fraction of the world's poor live,[Note 27] many of them small entrepreneurs in need of capital, and most unwilling or unable to use formal financial services.[417]

According to the Islamic Microfinance Network website (as of c. 2013),[418][419] there are more than 300 Islamic microfinance institutions in 32 countries,[420] The products used in Islamic microfinance may include some of those mentioned above – qard al hassan, musharaka, mudaraba, salam, and others.[421]

A number of studies[422][423][419] have found "very few examples" of microfinance institutions "operating in the field of Islamic finance" and few Islamic banks "involved in microfinance".[424] One 2012 report[423] found that Islamic microfinance made up less than 1 per cent of the global microfinance outreach, "despite the fact that almost half of the clients of microfinance live in Muslim countries and the demand for Islamic microfinance is very strong."[419]

Compliance with Islamic goals and sharia

Bank Islam Brunei Darussalam in Brunei.

These are the emic (from within) issues discussed within the Islamic community for the compliance of Islamic banking and finance with sharia and the desired Islamic objectives.

Challenges, criticism – industry view

On the other hand, the industry also has challenges —"key" among them, as of 2016 (according to the State of the Global Islamic Economy Report, 2015/16 and the IMF), include:

Another challenge in Islamic banking has been exploitation of poor gullible people in the name of religion.

Challenges, criticism – scholars and critics

Critics have complained of Islamic banking and finance closely resembling the conventional sort but having "higher costs, bigger risks",[22] – a situation that has not been remedied by "learning" over the decades.[200]Other issues/complaints include a lack of policies to uplift small traders and the poor;[125] the challenge of inflation,[428] late payments,[429] the lack of hedging of currencies and rates,[430] or of sharia-compliant places to park short term funds for liquidity; the non-Muslim ownership of much of Islamic banking,[431] and the concentration of what ownership is in Muslim hands.[432]

Hegemony of hand-picked highly paid Shariah experts

Some Islamic Banking observers believe the industry suffers from handpicked, highly paid Shariah experts who have been approving financial products using ḥiyal (legal stratagem) to follow sharia law,[433] "shunning controversial issues", and/or "rubber stamping" bank management decisions after perfunctory reviews,[434][435] and that the banking practices approved by this small number of Islamic jurists have moved closer and closer to the practices of conventional non-Islamic banking.[330]

"Fatwa shopping", independence

Journalist John Foster quotes an "investment banker based in Dubai":

"We create the same type of products that we do for the conventional markets. We then phone up a Sharia scholar for a Fatwa ... If he doesn't give it to us, we phone up another scholar, offer him a sum of money for his services and ask him for a Fatwa. We do this until we get Sharia compliance. Then we are free to distribute the product as Islamic."[187]

According to Foster, this practice of "shopping" for an Islamic scholar who will issue a fatwa testifying that a banking product obeys Shari'ah law has led to "top scholars" earning "six-figure sums" for each fatwa, and to Islamic financing mechanisms that appear to outsiders to be mortgages "dressed up in Arabic terminology"—such as Mudarabah, or Ijarah (lease agreements).[187]

Mahmoud El-Gamal believes that from the 1970s to the 2000s there has been an evolution of the industry towards "progressively closer approximations" of the practices of conventional banking, approved by "progressively smaller" numbers of jurists (with only a small group for example approving "unsecured lending" to retail and corporate customers through the tawarruq mode in the early 2000s).[330] The scarcity of qualified shariah supervisors – who need to be trained in both Islamic commercial law and contemporary financial practices – has been noted. One study found the 20 most popular shariah scholars holding 621 sharia board positions,[436] – creating potential conflicts of interest.[437]

This scarcity also increases fees. Two researchers noted the small group of Shariah experts "earn as much as US$88,5000 per year per bank" and can "charge up to US$500,000 for advice on large capital market transactions."[438][439]Income far in excess of what has been customary for Islamic scholars – luxury air travel and five star hotel – as well as being eagerly asked for their legal opinion by wealthy, high status people,[440][441] may lead to what one writer (Muhammad O. Farooq) calls a "certain changes in viewpoint" resulting in "over-stretching the rules of Shariah".[433][442]

A study of the practice of boards of financial institutions setting the pay and employment of SSB members found this arrangement "compromise(s) the independence of the SSB".[443]Another study found Islamic financial institutions do "not have practices which ensure transparency in the role and functions of the SSBs".[444]

Imitation of conventional finance

A number of scholarly supporters (such as Taqi Usmani, D.M. Qureshi, Saleh Abdullah Kamel, Harris Irfan) and skeptics of Islamic banking (Muhammad Akram Khan, Muhammad O. Farooq, Feisal Khan, Mahmoud El-Gama, Timur Kuran) have complained of its similarity to conventional banking.

Taqi Usmani argues that the industry has "totally" neglected the "basic philosophy", undermining its own raison d'être;[445] so that non-Muslims and the Muslim "masses" have now gotten the impression that Islamic banking is "nothing but a matter of twisting documents ...."[445]

This has happened first by the sidelining risk-sharing finance in favor of murabaha and other fixed-markup financing of purchases,[18] and further by distorting the rules of that fixed-markup murabaha (see also Ignoring required commodities below)[21] to effectively provide conventional cash interest loans with "profit rates" that follow conventional interest rates,[446][19][20][21][22] the "net result" being "not materially different from interest based transactions".[447] (Another violation is the use of ijarah (leasing) without the "lessor either assuming "the liability for his ownership" or offering "any usufruct to the lessee".)[324]

In March 2009, Usmani,[187] (as chairman of the board of scholars of the Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions, or AAOIFI), declared that 85% of Sukuk, or Islamic bonds, were "un-Islamic".[448] Others (Hassan Heikal) have also criticized the authenticity of sukuk.[449]

Explanations

Explanations for the similarity between Islamic and conventional banking include:

Social responsibility and emphasis

Following Islamic principles, "Islamic banks were supposed to adopt new financing policies and to explore new channels of investments" to encourage development and raise the standard of living of "small scale traders", but Taqi Usmani complains "very few Islamic banks and financial institutions have paid attention to this aspect".[125] Islamic scholar Mohammad Hashim Kamali, laments the focus on short-term financing by Islamic banks. This financing being "largely concerned with the financing of goods already produced, and not with the creation or increase of production capital or with facilities like factories and plants, infrastructure etc."[463][464] Islamic bonds, also known as sukuk, have emerged as a new financial instrument to fund ethical transactions such as the project for the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunisation. To support the growth is Islamic financing, governments must establish measures to create a level playing field with regards to liquid secondary markets and equal regulation and taxes that match conventional banking.[465]

Others

Profit and loss sharing and its problems

While profit-loss-sharing modes (or at least mudarabah), were originally envisioned as "the basis of a riba-free banking"[156] – with fixed-return financial models only filling in as supplements – a number of studies, (of banks in Saudi Arabia and Egypt,[Note 32] Malaysia,[Note 33] and of large Islamic banks in general)[Note 34] have shown fixed-return products now far exceed profit-loss-sharing modes in assets under management.[103]

Explanations (offered by two authors, Humayon A. Dar and J.R. Presley), for why PLS instruments – namely mudaraba and musharaka financing – have declined to almost negligible proportions include:

  1. There is an inherent disincentive for the bank's client to report profit, because the more it declares, the more of the client's money will go to the financing bank, and the less it will get to keep.[475]
  2. Property rights in most Muslim countries are not properly defined, creating more difficulties for profit-loss sharing financing than for the fixed payment kind.[475]
  3. The competitors of Islamic banks – conventional banks – are firmly established and have centuries of experience. Islamic banks are not yet sure of their policies and practices and feel restrained in taking unforeseen risks.[475]
  4. PLS is not suitable or feasible in many cases such as short-term resource requirement, working capital needs, non-profit-generating projects such as in the education and health sectors.[475]
  5. Conventional finance has tax advantages over the sharia compliant sort in some countries were interest is considered a business expenditure and given tax exemption, while profit (the return of PLS investment) is taxed as income.[475]
  6. There were no secondary markets for Islamic financial products based on PLS (at least as of 2001).[475]
  7. Mudaraba, one of the forms of PLS, provides limited control rights to shareholders of the bank and "creates an imbalance in the governance structure" of PLS. "Shareholders like to have consistent and complementary control system, which is missing in the case of mudaraba financing."[475][476]
  8. Depositors/investors of banks have proven highly resistant to accepting periodic losses (the L in PLS) that inevitably arise in investment.[427] (The sharing of banking losses with bank customer/investors had been advanced as a reason why Islamic financial institutions would be more stable than conventional banks.)[197][194] As of at least 2004, no bad debt has translated into losses for depositors in an Islamic bank, and "no Islamic bank has ever written-down the value of its depositor's accounts when it has written-down the value of its non-performing assets"[477] for fear of losing depositors.

Aside from disadvantages to lenders, one critic of Islamic banking, Feisal Khan, argues that widespread use of PLS could have severe harm to economies by preventing central banks from expanding credit – buying bonds, commercial paper, etc. – to prevent liquidity crisises that arise from time to time in modern economies.[241]

Murabaha and ignoring required commodities

In addition to ignoring profit and loss sharing in favor of murâbaḥah, the industry has been accused of not properly following shariah regulations of murabahah (mentioned above), by not buying and selling the commodities/inventory that are "a key condition"[154] of shariah-compliance (done when the bank wants to borrow cash rather than to finance a purchase, and though they are an added cost and serve no other function). In 2008 Arabianbusiness.com complained that there are[145] sometimes "no commodities at all, merely cash-flows between banks, brokers and borrowers". Often the commodity is completely irrelevant to the borrower's business and not even enough of the relevant commodities "in existence" in the world "to account for all the transactions taking place".[282] Two other researchers report that for many years multibillion-dollar 'synthetic' murabaha transactions in London took place, where "many doubt the banks truly assume possession, even constructively, of inventory".[154][478]

Fund mingling

The original Islamic banking proponents called for "keeping distinct accounts for various types of deposits so that return can be assigned to each type". "In practice", according to critic Muhammad Akram Khan, "Islamic financial institutions pool all types of deposits".[479]

Falsification

Critics complain that the compliance with sharia regulations by banks often is nothing more than the taking of the word of the bank or borrower that they have followed compliance rules, with no effective auditing to see if this is true.[480] One observer (L. Al Nasser) complains that "Shariah authorities demonstrate excessive confidence in their subjects when it comes to dealing with parities in the industry", and Shariah audits are needed "to bring about transparency and ensure" that the institutions "deliver what they have committed to their customers". Furthermore, when external Shariah audits are carried out, "many of these auditors frequently complain about the amount of violations that they witness and cannot discuss" because the records they have examined "have been tampered with".[481][482]

Following conventional (haram) returns

Although Islamic banking forbids interest, its "profit rates" often are benchmarked to interest rates. Islamic banker Harris Irfan states "there is no question" that benchmarks such as LIBOR "continue to be a necessary metric" for Islamic banks, and that the "overwhelming majority of scholars have come to accept this, however imperfect a solution this may seem",[483] but Muhammad Akram Khan writes that following the conventional banking benchmark LIBOR "defeats the very purpose for which the Islamic financial products were designed and offered" in the first place,[484]

In addition skeptics have complained that the rates of return on accounts in Islamic banks are suspiciously close to those of conventional banks, when (in theory) their different mechanisms should lead to different numbers. A 2014 study in Turkey found the long-term relationship between term-deposit rates at three of four "participation banks" (i.e. Islamic Banks) "significantly cointegrated" with those of the conventional banks.[485]According to skeptics this nearness suggests a manipulation of returns by Islamic banks, to reassure customers of their financial competitiveness and stability.

Liquidity

Islamic banking and finance has lacked a way to earn a return on funds "parked" for the short term, waiting to be invested, which puts those banks a disadvantage to conventional banks.[486]

Banks/financial institutions must balance liquidity – the ability to convert assets into cash or a cash equivalent quickly in an emergency when their depositors need them without incurring large losses[487] – with a competitive rate of return on funds. Conventional banks are able to borrow and lend by using the interbank lending market – borrowing to meet liquidity requirements and investing for any duration including very short periods, and thereby optimize their earnings.[486] Calculating the return for any period of time is straightforward[486] – multiplying the loans length by the interest rate.

While Muslim countries such as Bahrain, Iran, Malaysia[488][489] and Sudan have started to develop an Islamic money market, and have been "issuing securitized papers on the basis of musharaka, mudaraba and ijara", at least as of 2013, the "lack of an appropriate and efficient secondary market" has meant the relative volume of these securities is "much smaller" than on the conventional capital market.[486]

Regarding non-PLS, "debt-based contracts", one study found that "the business model of Islamic banking is changing over the time and moving in a direction where it is acquiring more liquidity risk."[487]

To deal with the problem of earning no return on funds held for the sake of liquidity or because of a lack of investment opportunity, many Islamic financial institutions (such as Islamic Development Bank and the Faisal Islamic Bank of Egypt)[490] have "been explicitly and openly earning interest on their excess funds, often invested in safer, debt-like or debt instruments overseas".[491] Rather than forbidding this, "Shariah-experts have provided the necessary fatwa of Shari'ah-compliance based on the rules of necessities (darurah)".[491]

Scholars in Islamic finance and banking have invoked necessity to permit exceptional relaxations of rules. They have issued fatwas(opinions) allowing Islamic banks to deposit funds in interest-bearing accounts.[492][491]

though they require the interest be used for "religiously meritorious purposes".

Other challenges and issues

Most Islamic banks have their own Shariah boards ruling on their bank's policies.

Management and Islamic banking

Recently, scholars have engaged with questions around leading and managing Islamic banks. This field conceptualizes Islamic banks as hybrid organizations that combine business and religious pursuits with distinct challenges for leadership to bring together diverse beliefs, values, and views.[493]

Behavioural Islamic Finance[494]

Behavioural economists typically argue that stock prices can be substantially influenced by the mood of investors. For instance, researchers have found stocks prices to be positively affected by positive events such as sunshine and upcoming holidays (Kim and Park, 1994). Ramadan is one of the five pillars of Islam, which is the religious practice of fasting from dawn to sunset during the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. Several studies, such as (Białkowski et al. (2012), Al-Hajieh et al. (2011) and Al-Khazali (2014), have found stocks in Muslim countries to yield higher returns during Ramadan compared to the rest of the year. Their results were explained by the fact that Ramadan encourages Muslims optimism which has a positive effect on stock price.

Lack of Sharia uniformity

The four schools (Madhhab) of Sunni fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) apply "Islamic teachings to business and finance in different ways", and have not come closer to agreement. Furthermore, shari'a boards sometimes change their minds, reversing earlier decisions."[495][457]

Differences between boards as to what constitutes Sharia-compliance may raise "doubts in the minds of clients" over whether a given bank is truly Sharia-compliant, and should be given their business.[496]

Late payments/defaults

While in conventional finance late payments/delinquent loans are discouraged by interest continuing to accumulate,[429] according to Ibrahim Warde,

Islamic banks face a serious problem with late payments, not to speak of outright defaults, since some people take advantage of every dilatory legal and religious device ... In most Islamic countries, various forms of penalties and late fees have been established, only to be outlawed or considered unenforceable. Late fees in particular have been assimilated to riba. As a result, 'debtors know that they can pay Islamic banks last since doing so involves no cost'[497][429]

A number of suggestions have been made to deal with the problem.[Note 35]

Inflation

Inflation is also a problem for financing where Islamic banks have not imitated conventional banking and are truly lending without interest or any other charges. Whether and how to compensate lenders for the erosion of the value of the funds from inflation, has also been called a problem "vexing" Islamic scholars,[428] since finance for businesses will not be forthcoming if a lender loses money by lending. Suggestions include indexing loans (opposed by many scholars as a type of riba and encouraging inflation),[499] denominating loans "in terms of a commodity" such as gold, and further research to find an answer.[500][501]

Non-Muslim influence

Islamic banking and finance customers, are almost all, if not entirely, Muslims. But the majority of financial institutions that offer Islamic banking services are Western financial institutions, not owned by Muslims. Supporters of Islamic banking have cited this interest of western banks in Islamic banking as evidence of the strong demand for Islamic banking and thus an "achievement of the movement".[Note 36]

However, critics complain these banks lack a deep faith-based commitment to Islamic banking which means

  1. That Muslims employed within these organizations have little input into the actual management, resulting in sometimes well-founded suspicion among the Muslim populace as to the diligence of sharia compliance at these institutions.[43]
  2. That rather than a reflection of the growing strength of Islamic banking, the interest of conventional banks reflects how similar Islamic banking has become to the conventional sort,[503] so that the later can enter Islamic banking without making substantive changes to its practices.[503]
  3. And that these banks will be more likely to withdrawing from the industry when the market takes a downturn.[431] Harris Irfan argues that the lack of ideological commitment to Islamic banking by non-Muslim banks such as Deutsche Bank, will lead to their withdrawing from the industry when the market takes a downturn. In early 2011 during the housing bubble collapse, "not a single dedicated Islamic structurer or salesperson remained at Deutsche. Islamic finance had become 'a luxury the bank can't afford'"[431]

Stability/risk

Sources differ over whether Islamic banking is more stable and less risky than conventional banking.

Proponents (such as Zeti Akhtar Aziz, the head of the central bank of Malaysia) have argued that Islamic financial institutions are more stable than conventional banks because they forbid speculation[194] and the two main types (in theory) of Islamic banking accounts – "current account" and mudarabah accounts – carry less risk to the bank.[197]

  1. In a current account the customer earns no return and (in theory) there is no risk of loss because the bank does not invest the account funds.
  2. In a mudarabah account the Islamic bank carries less risk of loan defaults because it shares that risk with the depositor since if the borrower cannot pay back part or all of the money lent to them by the bank, the amount going to the depositor is cut by an equivalent amount, whereas in a conventional bank the depositor is given fixed interest payments whether or not the bank's earnings decline from loan defaults.[197]

This of course means that while the bank may be more stable, the depositors/"partners" of Islamic profit and loss sharing accounts (Islamic banks often use the term "partner" instead of "customer" or "depositor") are exposed to risks they would not be subject to in conventional banks. Furthermore,

In these institutions, investment-account holders neither have the protection of being creditors of the Islamic financial institution, nor do they have the protection of being equity holders with representation on those institutions' boards of directors. This introduces a host of other well-documented risk factors for the institution ...[504]

On the other hand, Habib Ahmed —writing in 2009 shortly after the financial crisis – argues that the practices of Islamic finance have gradually moved closer to conventional finance exposing them to the same dangers of instability.[505]

When the practice of Islamic finance and the environment under which it operates are examined, one can identify trends that are similar to the ones that caused the current crisis.... In the recent past, the Gulf region has witnessed its own episodes of speculation in their stock and real estate markets. Finally, the Islamic financial industry has witnessed rapid growth with innovations of complex Shari'ah compliant financial products. Risks in these new Islamic financial products are complex, as the instruments have multiple types of risks ...[506]

In any event, a few Islamic banks have failed over the decades. In 1988 the Islamic investment house, Ar-Ryan collapsed causing thousands of small investors to lose their savings (they were later reimbursed for their losses by an anonymous Gulf state donor)[507] and dealing a blow to Islamic finance at the time. In 1998 the management of Bank al Taqwa's failed. with its annual report reporting a "loss of over 23 per cent of principal to both mudaraba depositors and shareholders". (It was later revealed that management had violated banking rules "invested in one single project more than 60 per cent bank's assets.")[458][459]

The Ihlas Finance House in Turkey closed in 2001 due to "liquidity problems and financial distress".[508] Faisal Islamic Bank had difficulties and closed its operations in the UK for regulatory reasons.[509][510][76]According to the Economist magazine, "Dubai's debt crisis in 2009 showed that sukuk [Islamic bonds] can help to inflate debt to unsustainable levels."[194]

Recessions

During the Great Recession, Islamic banks "on average, showed stronger resilience" than conventional banks, but "faced larger losses" when the crisis hit "the real economy," according to a 2010 IMF survey.[511]

At the beginning of the Great Recession, Islamic banks were "unscathed", leading to one Islamic banking supporter to write that the collapse of leading Wall Street institutions, particularly Lehman Brothers, "should encourage economists world-wide to focus on Islamic banking and finance as an alternative model."[512] However gradually the effect of the financial downturn moved to the real sector, affecting Islamic banking. According to Ibrahim Warde, 'this showed that Islamic finance was not all a panaceas, and that a faith-based system is not automatically immune to the vagaries of the Financial system.'[513][197]

Concentration of ownership

Concentrated ownership is another danger to the stability of Islamic banking and finance. Munawar Iqbal and Philip Molyneux write that only

"three or four families own a large percentage of the industry. ... This concentration of ownership could result in substantial financial instability and possible collapse of the industry if anything happens to those families, or the next generation of these families change their priorities. Similarly, the experience of country-wide experiments has also been mostly on the initiatives of rulers not elected through popular votes."[432]

Macroeconomic exposures

Harris Irafan warns that the "macroeconomic exposures" of Islamic banks constitute a "ticking time bomb" of a "billions of dollars" in "unhedged currencies and rates". The difficulty, complexity and expense of hedging these in the correct Islamic manner is such that as of 2015, the Islamic Development Bank "was hemorrhaging cash as if it were funding a war. It simply couldn't swap dollars for euros or vice versa on an ongoing basis without resorting to the conventional markets." Regional Islamic banks in the Middle East and Malaysia did not have "specialized personnel trained to understand and negotiate Sharia-compliant treasury swaps" and were not willing to hire the consultants who did.[430]

Customers and the industry

The majority of Islamic banking clients are found in the Gulf states and in developed countries.[502]Studies of Islamic banking customer in Malaysia[citation needed] and Pakistan[citation needed] found customer satisfaction was connected to service quality. A study of Islamic banking customers in Bangladesh found "most customers" between 25 and 35 years, "highly educated" and having a "durable relationship" with the bank, more knowledgeable about account than financing products.[514]

In series of interviews conducted in 2008 and 2010 with Pakistani banking professionals (conventional and Islamic bankers, Shariah banking advisors, finance-using businessmen, and management consultants), economist Feisal Khan noted many Islamic bankers expressed "cynicism" over the difference or lack thereof between conventional and Islamic bank products,[515] the lack of requirements for external Shariah-compliance audits of Islamic banks in Pakistan,[516] shariah boards lack of awareness of their banks' failure to follow shariah compliant practices in or their power to stop these practices.[517] However this did not deter patronage of the banks by the pious (one of whom explained that if his Islamic bank was not truly shariah compliant, 'The sin is on their head now, not on mine! What I could do, I've done.')[518]

The Bank of London and the Middle East (BLME) have majority non-Muslim customers that receive a fixed percentage of profits, rather than an interest rate. However, critics say that sharia deposits and products are too similar to interest-rate related products, in contrast to the share of profits earned. Other explanations for the rise of non-Muslim customers in Islamic banking have been pointed towards ethical reasons in negative screening of investments like tobacco, alcohol, and arms.[519]

One estimate of customer preference (given by a Pakistani banker) in the Pakistani banking industry, was that about 10% of customers were "strictly conventional banking clients", 20% were strictly Shariah-compliant banking clients, and 70% would prefer Shariah-compliant banking but would use conventional banking if "there was a significant pricing difference".[520] A survey of Islamic and conventional banking customers found (unsurprisingly) Islamic banking customers were more observant (having attended hajj, observing salat, growing a beard, etc.), but also had higher savings account balances than conventional bank customers, were older, better educated, had traveled more overseas, and tended to have a second account at a conventional bank.[Note 37] Another study, using "official data" reported to State Bank of Pakistan, found that for lenders who had taken out both Islamic (Murabaha) financing and conventional loans, the default rate was more than twice as high on the conventional loans. Borrowers were "less likely to default during Ramadan and in big cities if the share of votes to religious-political parties increases, suggesting that religion – either through individual piousness or network effects – may play a role in determining loan default."[522][Note 38]

Costs

Muhammad El-Gamal argues that because Islamic financial products imitate conventional financial products but operate in accordance with the rules of shariah, different products will require additional jurist and lawyer fees, "multiple sales, special-purpose vehicles, and documentations of title". In addition there will be costs associated with "the peculiar structure that Islamic banks use for late payment penalties". Consequently, their financing tends to cost more than, and/or accounts pay less return than conventional products.[524]

El-Gama also argues that another source of inefficiency/greater expense in Islamic banking and a reason its replications of conventional finance are "always one step behind" new financial products in the conventional industry, is the industry's dependence on "classical "nominate contracts" (murabahah credit sales, ijara leases, etc.). These contracts follow classical texts and were created in a time when financial markets were very limited. They are not equipped to "disentangle various risks" that "modern" financial markets and institutions (such as "money markets, capital markets, options markets, etc.") are so designed. On the other hand, making their contracts/products more efficient, will alienate the pious customer base that wants contracts/products to follow classical forms.[525]

Most studies have found Islamic banks less efficient on average, than conventional ones.

In one important part of the finance market – home buying – Islamic finance has not been able to compete with conventional finance in at least some countries (the UK as of 2002, and the US and Canada as of 2009). According to Humayon Dar, the monthly payments, for a shariah compliant "Lease Contract" used by Islamic Investment Banking Unit of Ahli United Bank Kuwait in Britain "are much higher" than equivalent conventional mortgages.[530] In Canada the cost of Islamic home finance was 100 to 300 basis points higher than conventional home finance, and in the U.S. 40 to 100 basis points higher, according to Hans Visser. (Visser credits the higher cost of Islamic ijara financing to its higher risk weighting compared to conventional mortgages under Basel I and Basel II international standard of minimum capital requirements for banks.)[326]

Maturity

According to M. O. Farooq, "common explanations offered by" the Islamic finance movement for the Islamic banking industry shortcomings are that

  1. industry problems and challenges are part of a "learning curve" and will be solved over time;
  2. unless and until the industry operates in an Islamic society and environment it will be hindered by non-Islamic influences and won't "operate in its essence".[200]

While the veracity of the second explanation can not be verified before a complete Islamic society is established, Feisal Khan points in regard to the first defense that it has been over twenty years (1993) since one critic (Timur Kuran)[531] first highlighted the industry problems (the basic similarity of Islamic banking in practice to the conventional, the marginalizing of the equity-based, risk-sharing modes and embrace of short-term products and debt-like instruments), and since a supporter (Ausaf Ahmad) defended the industry as early in its transition from conventional banking.[199]

Seventeen years later, Ibrahim Warde, an Islamic finance proponent, lamented that "rather than disappearing, murabaha and comparable sale-based products grew significantly and today they constitute the bulk of the activity of most Islamic Banks..."[532][480]

Most critics of the Islamic banking industry call for further orthodoxy and a redoubling of effort and stricter enforcement of sharia.[Note 39] Some (M. O. Farooq and M. A. Khan), have blamed the industry problems on its condemnation of any and all interest on loans as forbidden riba, and the impracticality of attempting to enforce this prohibition.[535]

Lack of conformance with Islamic financial principles

Critic Feisal Khan argues that in many ways Islamic finance has not lived up to its defining characteristics. Risk-sharing is lacking because profit and loss sharing modes are so infrequently used. Underlying material transactions are also missing in such transactions as "tawarruq, commodity murabahas, Malaysian Islamic private debt securities, and Islamic short-sales". Exploitation is involved when high fees are charged for "doing nothing more substantial than mimicking conventional banking /finance products". Haram activities are not avoided when banks (following the customary practice) simply take the word of clients/financees/borrowers that they will not use funds for un-Islamic activities.[536]

Etic (from outside) and universal issues

Lack of compliance with global standards

International Monetary Fund (IMF) has highlighted the risk of Islamic banking and finance's lack of common understanding of money laundering (ML) and terrorism financing (TF) and resultant noncompliance such as with Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) recommendations. Some of these ML/TF risks related to Islamic finance are similar to conventional financing, but there are unknown and large number of unknown risks and issues. These risks are caused by the complexity of Islamic finance products as well as the nature of the relationship between the Islamic banks and stakeholders. Since there is limited experience and capability within Islamic banking and finance system for the risk mitigation and compliance with the global ML/TF standards, the risks are magnified. These risks become critical in case of vulnerable, non-compliant or rogue nations and organisations. "The FATF standards are implemented without any form of tailoring to the specificities of Islamic finance. The FATF, the Islamic finance standard-setters, and the national regulators should seek a greater understanding of the specific ML/TF risks that may arise in Islamic finance and develop an appropriate response."[537]

Terrorism financing

According to Alex P. Schmid writing in 2004,[Note 40] a network of Islamic banks has "proved to be an ideal instrument for money manipulation" to channel funds to terrorist organizations. One reason being that the banks are used for zakat donations and "the code of practice of Islamic banks requires the destruction of all documents as soon as the zakat money transfer has taken place." Thus, zakat charitable donations may end up financing "the purchase of arms and the sponsorship of terror attacks", as well as food for the needy, and educational and job training programs.[538]

See also

Related Islamic topics
Non-Islamic topics

References

Notes

  1. ^ "... Modern Islamic banking/finance movement has been deeply influenced by the contemporary Islamic movements."[7]
  2. ^ Thus, when "currencies of base metal were first introduced in the Islamic world, no jurist ever thought that paying a debt in a higher number of units of this fiat money was riba" as they were concerned with "the real value of money."[29][self-published source?]
  3. ^ i.e. M.P. Bhindara, one of the non-Muslim MNA – Member of the National Assembly of Pakistan – representing their minority religious group – in this case the Hindus – rather than an electoral district.
  4. ^ the Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal (MMA) party
  5. ^ 1 Dinar during Muhammad era were approximately 12 Dirhams.[49]
  6. ^ According to Ibn Sa'd, debt of al-Zubayr 1,200,000 Dinar.[51]
  7. ^ "At least according to banking law in Kuwait 'the starting point in this formula' of Islamic banking 'is conventional financial practice, from which Islamic finance deviates only insofar as some conventional practices are deemed forbidden under Sharia.' ... Islamic finance 'is not constructively built from classical jurisprudence'. Rather, Islamic alternatives or modifications of conventional practices are sought whenever the latter is deemed forbidden. ... Ibn Taymiyya famously stated that two prohibitions can explain all distinctions between contracts that are deemed valid or invalid: those of riba and gharar."[109]
  8. ^ see also Hubar Hasan[112]
  9. ^ Convert Umar Ibrahim Vadillo states: "For the last one hundred years the way of the Islamic reformers have led us to Islamic banks, Islamic Insurance, Islamic democracy, Islamic credit cards, Islamic secularism, etc. This path is dead. It has shown its face of hypocrisy and has led the Muslim world to a place of servile docility to the world of capitalism."[122]According to critic Critic Feisal Khan "there have thus been two broad categories of critic of the current version of IBF [Islamic Banking and Finance]: the Islamic Modernist/Minimalist position, and the Islamic ultra Orthodox/Maximalist one. ... The ultra Orthodox [such as the Islamic courts in Pakistan] ... agree with the Modernist/Minimalist criticism that contemporary Islamic banking is indeed nothing but disguised conventional banking but ... agitate for a truly Islamic banking and finance system".[123]
  10. ^ Winner of the 1997 IDB Prize in Islamic Banking
  11. ^ Several ahadith, in addition to prohibiting games of chance, prohibit bayu al-gharar (literally "trading in risk",[130][better source needed] defined as sales in which gharar is the major component).[131] Jurists have distinguished between this kind of gharar, and ghasar considered minor (yasir) and so permissible (halal),[131] but disagree over what constitutes gharar that is minor and gharar that is substantial, (at least according to one source, Abu Umar Faruq Ahmad),[132] have not agreed on an exact definition of the meaning and concept of gharar.[133]
  12. ^ Monzer Kahf argues that the quranic verse (in 2:275) where non-Muslims complain – "... they say, 'Trade is [just] like interest.' But Allah has permitted trade and has forbidden interest" – refers to credit sales.[142]
  13. ^ Taqi Usmani explains that in such transactions "the whole price ... is against a commodity and not against money" and so "... once the price is fixed, it relates to the commodity, and not to the time". Consequently "the price will remain the same and can never be increased by the seller." If the price had "been against time", (which is forbidden) "it might have been increased, if the seller allows ... more time" for repayment when the bill is past due.[144]
  14. ^ "Indeed, truth-in-lending regulations in the United States force Islamic and conventional financiers to report the implicit interest rates they charge their customers in such financing arrangements."[150][151]
  15. ^ "Another achievement of Islamic banking may be gauged from the fact that many conventional banks have also started using Islamic banking techniques in the conduct of their business, particularly in dealing either with Muslim clients or in dominantly Muslim regions."[191][192]
  16. ^ According to Oxford-Analytica, as of 2010 AAOIFI’s standards are mandatory for Islamic financial institutions in Bahrain, Dubai International Financial Centre, Jordan, Sudan, Syria and Qatar[227]
  17. ^ Faleel Jamaldeen divides Islamic finance instruments into four groups – designating bay al-muajil and salam "trade financing instruments" rather than asset-based instruments.[245]
  18. ^ for example bay al-muajil instruments are used in combination with murabaha,[256] a ijara (leasing) may be used in combination with bai (purchasing) contract,[257] and sukuk ("Islamic bonds") can be based on mudaraba, murabaha, salam, ijara, etc.[258]
  19. ^ according to Mehmet Asutay quotes Zubair Hasan[270]
  20. ^ "In order to pressurize the buyer to pay the installments promptly, the buyer may be asked to promise that in case of default, he will donate some specified amount for a charitable purpose."[281]
  21. ^ (Resolution 179 (19/5)).[333]
  22. ^ (although the mudarib may have more freedom of action than a strict wakil).[351]
  23. ^ Deposit accounts held at a bank or other financial institution may be called transaction accounts, checking accounts, current accounts or demand deposit accounts. It is available to the account owner "on demand" and is available for frequent and immediate access by the account owner or to others as the account owner may direct. Transaction accounts are known by a variety of descriptions, including a current account (British English), chequing account or checking account when held by a bank,[65] share draft account when held by a credit union in North America. In the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, India and a number of other countries, they are commonly called current or cheque accounts.)
  24. ^ According to Mahmud El-Gamal Classical jurists "recognized two types of property possession based on liability risk": trust and guaranty. 1) With a trust (which result, e.g., from deposits, leases, and partnerships), the possessor only responsible for compensating the owner for damage to property if the trustee has been negligence or committed a transgression. 2) With guaranty the possessor guarantees the property against any damage, whether or not the guarantor was negligent or committed a transgression. Classical jurists consider the two possessions mutually exclusive, so if two different "considerations" conflict – one stating the property is held in trust and another stating in guaranty – "the possession of guaranty is deemed stronger and dominant, and rules of guaranty are thus applied".[367]
  25. ^ According to data published by the Islamic Financial Services Board.[382]
  26. ^ options are a "common form" of a derivative).[410]
  27. ^ ("Half of global poverty reside in Muslim world ..."[416]
  28. ^ at the First Pakistan Islamic Banking and Money Market Conference[19]
  29. ^ a professor of economics at Rice University (United States)
  30. ^ M.O. Farooq cites Monzer Kahf as pointing out how the shariah board of one bank (Bank al Taqwa) defended that bank's management after its failure in 1998 "stating that ... the board of directors and the management did their best and took sound finance and investment decisions", when in fact the management had "invested in one single project more than 60 per cent bank's assets .... in violation of well-established banking rules".[458] Monzer KAHF. "Islamic Banks: The Rise of a New Power Alliance of Wealth and Shari'ah Scholarship," in Clement HENRY and Rodney WILSON (eds.). The Politics of Islamic Finance [Edinburgh University Press, 2004], p35</ref>[459]
  31. ^ (For example, Farooq complains there is "not a single citation for exploitation or injustice"[469] in two substantial bibliographies on (orthodox) Islamic economics – Muslim Economic Thinking: A Survey of Contemporary Literature, with "700 entries under 51 subcategories over 115 pages", and Islamic Economics: Annotated Sources in English and Urdu by Muhammad Akram Khan. [Leicester, UK; Islamic Foundation, 1983]</ref>
  32. ^ Saudi Arabia and Egypt Islamic banking by Suliman Hamdan Albalawi, publishing in 2006,[471]
  33. ^ In Malaysia, another study found the share of musharaka financing declined from 1.4% in 2000 to 0.2% in 2006,[472][271]
  34. ^ a study from 2000–2006 by Khan M. Mansoor and M. Ishaq Bhatti,[473][249] survey by F. Khan of the largest Islamic banks published in 2010 found PLS use ranging from between 0.5% and 21.6%.[474]
  35. ^ At least in theory late fees may be Islamically justified if they are donated to charity.[95][96][97] suggests that 'the problem of bad debts be solved by a "cooperative insurance" to which borrowers contribute'.[498]
  36. ^ "Another achievement of Islamic banking may be gauged from the fact that many conventional banks have also started using Islamic banking techniques in the conduct of their business, particularly in dealing either with Muslim clients or in dominantly Muslim regions."[502]
  37. ^ Survey of 5133 bank customers of 30 branches of an Islamic and a conventional bank led by Ayesha Khalid Khan.[521]
  38. ^ a study of "conventional and Islamic loans using a comprehensive monthly dataset from Pakistan that follows more than 150,000 loans over the period 2006:04 to 2008:12".[523]
  39. ^ such as Muhammad Taqi Usmani,[533] Saleh Abdullah Kamel and Harris Irfan[534]
  40. ^ in Forum on Crime in Society, Terrorism, Volume 4 of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

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Books and journal articles

External links