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Spanish Republican Air Force

El Chato No. 56 pilotado por Frank Glasgow Tinker en el 1er Cuadrado Lacalle . Con este avión obtuvo cuatro victorias. De vez en cuando también voló con el número 58.

El Ejército del Aire Republicano Español fue el brazo aéreo de las Fuerzas Armadas de la Segunda República Española , gobierno legalmente constituido de España entre 1931 y 1939. Inicialmente dividido en dos ramas: Aeronáutica Militar ( Aeronáutica Militar ) y Aeronáutica Naval ( Aeronáutica Naval ), la Fuerza Aérea Republicana se convirtió en Fuerzas Aéreas de la República Española ( Fuerzas Aéreas de la República Española (FARE) ), también conocida como Arma de Aviación , [nota 1] después de su reorganización tras la reestructuración de las Fuerzas Armadas Republicanas en septiembre de 1936. , al inicio de la Guerra Civil Española . [5] Esta extinta Fuerza Aérea es ampliamente conocida por la intensa acción que vio durante la Guerra Civil, desde julio de 1936 hasta su disolución en 1939.

El Ejército del Aire Republicano Español era conocido popularmente como "La Gloriosa" . Pero, según algunos historiadores, la estructura de mando de las fuerzas leales a España se vio empañada por la ineptitud y la falta de toma de decisiones durante toda la Guerra Civil. [6] A partir de las primeras semanas cruciales del conflicto en julio de 1936, el lado rebelde pudo emprender un puente aéreo masivo de tropas desde el Marruecos español utilizando principalmente el lento Ju 52 , sin ninguna interferencia republicana española. Este fue el primer puente aéreo de combate de largo alcance del mundo y los aviones militares del lado republicano español no lograron impedirlo. [7]

La Batalla de Guadalajara y la defensa de los cielos de Madrid contra los bombardeos nacionalistas durante el largo asedio de la capital serían los únicos escenarios en los que la fuerza aérea leal participó de manera efectiva. En otras importantes acciones militares republicanas, como la Ofensiva de Segovia , la Batalla de Teruel y la decisiva Batalla del Ebro , donde la Aviación Nacional ametrallaba implacablemente las posiciones leales con certeros ataques desde bajo nivel, [8] los aviones militares republicanos fueron prácticamente ausente de los cielos. Además, cuando aparecieron y atacaron, lo hicieron de manera desorganizada e inadecuada y en la mayoría de los casos no lograron efectos positivos. [6] La mayoría de los aviones republicanos españoles que sobrevivieron al conflicto fueron repintados con las marcas de la Aviación Nacional tras la derrota de la República española en los campos de batalla ibéricos. [9]

Historia

Como todas las ramas de las Fuerzas Armadas Republicanas Españolas, el Ejército del Aire Republicano Español pasó por dos fases claras durante su existencia:

los primeros años

En el momento de las elecciones municipales democráticas que dieron lugar a la proclamación de la República Española, el Ejército del Aire Español ( Aeronáutica Española ), bajo las denominaciones de Aeronáutica Militar y Aeronáutica Naval , siendo el primero el brazo aéreo del Ejército Republicano Español y el segundo La aviación naval de la Armada Republicana Española , [10] incluía principalmente aviones franceses, algunos de los cuales eran restos de la Guerra del Rif (1920-1926) . Una vez establecido el gobierno republicano, el general Luis Lombarte Serrano reemplazó al general promonárquico Alfredo Kindelán como comandante en jefe de la fuerza aérea, pero rápidamente sería sucedido por el comandante Ramón Franco , hermano menor del posterior dictador Francisco Franco , un héroe nacional que Anteriormente había realizado un vuelo transatlántico en el hidroavión Plus Ultra .

La aviación se estaba desarrollando en aquellos años en España; en 1931 el capitán Cipriano Rodríguez Díaz y el teniente Carlos de Haya González volaron sin escalas a Guinea Ecuatorial , entonces un puesto de avanzada colonial español.

En 1933, bajo el mando del Capitán Warlela, se llevaron a cabo estudios catastrales sistemáticos de España utilizando métodos modernos de fotografía aérea . Al año siguiente, el ingeniero español Juan de la Cierva despegó y aterrizó en el portaaviones Dédalo con su autogiro C-30P. En 1934 el comandante Eduardo Sáenz de Buruaga se convirtió en nuevo comandante en jefe de la Fuerza Aérea. Ese mismo año tuvo lugar una importante reestructuración del ala aérea militar española. [11]

Tras un decreto gubernamental de 2 de octubre de 1935, la Dirección General de Aeronáutica quedó bajo la autoridad del Ministerio de la Guerra , en lugar del Primer Ministro de España , tras lo cual en 1936 se reestructuraron las unidades regionales de la Fuerza Aérea. En consecuencia, el modelo de Escuadra de la Armada española fue sustituido por divisiones de Región Militar que todavía están operativas en la actualidad en el Ejército del Aire español . [12]

Cinco años después de la proclamación de la república española, una sección del Ejército Republicano en el Marruecos español se rebeló bajo las órdenes del general Francisco Franco . La rebelión sólo logró fraccionar España y Franco siguió adelante y comenzó una sangrienta guerra de desgaste, la Guerra Civil Española.

Durante la Guerra Civil la Fuerza Aérea del gobierno republicano español tendría que luchar contra la Aviación Nacional mejor equipada , creada por la fracción del ejército en rebelión y sus poderosos partidarios fascistas italianos y del Tercer Reich . [6]

La guerra Civil española

Después del golpe de Estado del 18 de julio de 1936 , el gobierno republicano perdió los aviones militares que se encontraban en los aeródromos bajo control rebelde. Las zonas leales a España conservaron, sin embargo, gran parte de los 60 aviones Breguet XIX , 27 Vickers Vildebeest y 56 Hispano-Nieuport Ni-52 que tenía el Ejército del Aire español antes de las hostilidades, pues la República tenía el control de la mayoría de el territorio. Sin embargo, ante una guerra de desgaste, ese mismo mes el gobierno republicano español compró en Francia 14 Dewoitine D.371 , 10 Dewoitine D.373 y 49 Potez 540 , entre otros aviones militares, por valor de 12 millones de francos. Todos estos aviones estaban en gran medida obsoletos en ese momento, [13] de modo que en los primeros cuatro meses después del inicio de las hostilidades, los únicos aviones del gobierno republicano que podían considerarse modernos eran tres Douglas DC-2 que habían sido adquiridos recientemente. para LAPE , la aerolínea republicana en marzo de 1935. [14] Estos fueron requisados ​​por el Ejército del Aire Republicano Español y utilizados como transportes militares.

Within the month of his military coup, the help received by Francisco Franco from Nazi Germany (Condor Legion) and Fascist Italy (Aviazione Legionaria) gave the rebels the upper hand in airpower over Spain. The first German and Italian bombers arrived to increase the size of the rebel air force already in July 1936 and Fiat CR.32 and Heinkel He 51 fighter planes began operating in August.[9] These planes helped the rebel army side to gain full control of the air, as did the Italian Aviazione Legionaria and the German Condor Legion.

In September 1936 the Navy and Air Ministry (Ministerio de Marina y Aire) and the Air Undersecretariat, (Subsecretaria del Aire), both part of the National Defence Ministry (Ministerio de la Defensa Nacional) were established under the command of Indalecio Prieto as minister. For identification purposes the Republican tricolor roundel was replaced by red bands, an insignia that had previously been used on Aeronáutica Naval aircraft during the monarchy in the 1920s, before the time of the Republic.[15][16] In the same month the first serious air combat took place over Madrid when Italian bombers attacked the city in a massive bombing operation.[17]

Las democracias occidentales, como Francia, Reino Unido y Estados Unidos, no ayudaron a la joven República española. Temerosos de la " amenaza comunista ", Neville Chamberlain y Léon Blum estaban dispuestos a sacrificar a España, como más tarde sacrificaron a Checoslovaquia , en la creencia de que se podría apaciguar a Hitler . [18] En el vacío así creado, sólo la Unión Soviética ayudó eficazmente al gobierno español. [19] A finales de octubre, cuatro meses después de que Adolf Hitler y Benito Mussolini suministraran a los rebeldes aviones alemanes e italianos , llegaron desde Rusia los primeros bombarderos Tupolev SB . Fueron apodados "Katiuska" . Un mes después llegaron los primeros aviones de combate soviéticos para paliar la falta de aviones operativos en el bando leal, el Polikarpov I-15 , apodado "Chato" (Nariz chata) [20] y el Polikarpov I-16 , apodado "Mosca" (mosca doméstica ). ) por los leales y "Rata" (rata) por los rebeldes. Los bombarderos de reconocimiento Polikarpov R-5 y RZ eran conocidos como "Natacha" en el Ejército del Aire Republicano Español. [21]

El brazo aéreo republicano fue reestructurado nuevamente en mayo de 1937. La nueva estructura incluía dos ramas, el Arma de Aviación y la Subsecretaría de Aviación , pero unificaba la Aeronáutica Militar y la Aeronáutica Naval . Algunas fuentes dan esta fecha como la de creación del Ejército del Aire Republicano Español, aunque anteriormente ya estaba operativo como ejército del aire. La Fuerza Aérea Republicana mantendría esta estructura hasta su disolución dos años después. [11] Muchos aviones pertenecientes a la flota de la Aerolínea Republicana Española LAPE (Líneas Aéreas Postales Españolas) fueron requisados ​​por el Ejército del Aire Republicano Español y utilizados como transporte militar. [22]

Innovative, and often lethal, aeronautical bombing techniques were tested by Condor Legion German expeditionary forces against loyalist areas on Spanish soil with the permission of Generalísimo Franco. The pilots of the Spanish Republican Air Force were unable to check these modern-warfare attacks. Their planes were mostly obsolete and often in a bad state of disrepair.[23] The ungainly French Potez 540, a highly vulnerable plane that proved itself a failure in Spanish skies during the Civil War,[24] was labelled as 'Flying Coffin' (Spanish: Ataúd Volante) by loyalist pilots.[25]The rebel side, however, claimed that both air forces were almost equal, since the Soviet Union was helping the loyalist air force, but the fact was that:

... on the other side, the fabled military support provided by the Soviet Union was too little and too late – and generally of poor quality. In addition, whilst the Nationalists received vast supplies on credit from the US and Britain, Stalin's assistance came with strings attached.[26]

The Spanish Republican Air Force was unable to counteract the deadly low-level attacks and close support of the infantry tactics developed by Wolfram von Richthofen during the Civil War.[27] As an air force it became practically ineffective after the Battle of the Ebro in 1938, when the spine of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces was broken. Finally the Spanish Republican Air Force was completely disbanded after the decisive rebel victory on 1 April 1939.

The last Republican military airport in Catalonia was in Vilajuiga, from where on 6 February 1939 Commander Andrés García La Calle led a great part of the planes of the Spanish Republican Air Force to France. The orders had been given in haste by the beleaguered authorities of the doomed Republican Government who wanted to prevent the aircraft from falling into the enemy's hands. The planes landed in Francazal near Toulouse, where the French authorities impounded them, arrested the Spanish Republican pilots, and swiftly interned them in concentration camps.

The Escuadrilla España

Aircraft supplied by France at the beginning of the conflict were obsolete and slow, an easy target for the more modern and faster Italian and German fighters

The Escuadrilla España or Escuadra España, Squadron España, French: Escadrille Espagne, also known as Escuadrilla Internacional, was a Spanish Republican Air Force unit organized by French writer André Malraux. Even though it was largely ineffective, this squadron became something of a legend after the writer's claims of nearly annihilating part of the rebel army in the Battle of the Sierra Guadalupe at Medellín, Extremadura. The Escuadrilla España reached a maximum of 130 members and would fly a total of 23 combat missions before it was wrapped up in February 1937.

During the 1930s, André Malraux was active in the anti-fascist Popular Front in France. Upon hearing the news of General Franco's rebellion that marked the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, he put himself at the service of the Spanish Republic. Despite opposition from French president Albert Lebrun, Malraux helped to organize the aid to the Republican air force[28] helped by his contacts with highly placed personalities within the French Air Ministry, such as Jean Moulin, future French Resistance leader. Even though President Albert Lebrun opposed direct assistance to the threatened fellow republic, Léon Blum, then the prime minister of France, decided to help the Spanish Republicans with discretion. Thus 20 Potez 540, 5 Bloch 210, 10 Breguet XIX, 17 Dewoitine D.371, 2 Dewoitine D.500/510, 5 Amiot 143, 5 Potez 25 and 6 Loire 46 planes were sent to Spain at the beginning of the conflict.[29] Thirteen more Dewoitine D.371 are mentioned by Jules Moch in his book Recontres avez Leon Blum and the Amiot 143 ended up not being delivered,[30] for aircraft constructor Félix Amiot, who would later become a Nazi collaborator, sympathized with the enemies of Republican Spain in the civil war.[31]

The French planes, however, were not up to the enemy aircraft. The slow Potez 540, some of them badly equipped,[32] rarely survived three months of air missions, reaching only about 80 knots against enemy fighters flying at more than 250 knots.[33] Few of the fighters proved to be airworthy, and were delivered intentionally without guns or gun-sights. The French Ministry of Defense had feared that modern types of planes would easily be captured by the Germans fighting for Franco, and the lesser models were a way of maintaining official "neutrality".[34] In the end the French planes were surpassed by more modern types introduced in late 1936 on both sides and their fate was that many of them crashed or were shot down. The crash of Spanish Republican Air Force serial 'Ñ' Potez 540 plane that was shot down by rebel planes over the Sierra de Gúdar range of the Sistema Ibérico near Valdelinares inspired André Malraux to make his L'espoir movie.

In order to give the whole operation an official character, the Spanish Republican War Ministry authorities gave André Malraux the rank of lieutenant colonel, even though he was not a pilot and hadn't even been through military service. This title gave Malraux authority as Squadron Leader of Escuadrilla España, for he was only answerable to general Ignacio Hidalgo de Cisneros, the Spanish Ministerio del Aire commander-in-chief. The writer thus helped to hire crews for the planes, mainly volunteers and professional pilots who had served in the Aéropostale. After the pilots and the planes arrived to Madrid in August 1936, Malraux himself took charge of the organization of the squadron.

Malraux was given considerable autonomy, in Albacete he recruited his own personnel, who escaped the control of the International Brigades run by hard-line Stalinist André Marty who tried to impose discipline. The only thing that held together the writer's motley group of pilots, gunners, mechanicians and airfield assistants and guards, was their common antifascist resolve.

Malraux had to pay a heavy price for his freedom of action though. The Escuadrilla España would suffer a chronic shortage of spare parts and supplies. The number of planes in combat condition was greatly reduced by accidents, lack of quality and by being shot down in action. André Marty, unhappy with the group's autonomy, plotted to bring the Escuadrilla España under his command. Finally the situation was resolved by means of the integration of the squadron in the regular Spanish armed forces. Once the contracts of the professional pilots was severed, the Escuadrilla España would become part of the official Republican Air Force, losing its former status, but taking the name of Escuadrilla Malraux in honor of its founder. The losses, however, escalated, and after covering the flight from enemy-occupied Málaga, the last two bombers were shot down and the Escuadrilla Malraux was formally dissolved.

Even after France joined the Non-Intervention Committee, Malraux helped the Spanish Republic to acquire military aircraft through third countries. The Spanish Republican government circulated photos of Malraux's standing next to some Potez 540 bombers suggesting that France was on their side, at a time when France and the United Kingdom had declared official neutrality. Malraux, however, was not there at the behest of the French Government. Aware of the Republicans' inferior armaments, of which outdated aircraft were just one part of the problem, he toured the United States to raise funds for the Spanish Republican cause. In 1937 he published L'Espoir (Man's Hope), a novel influenced by his Spanish war experiences.[35]

Malraux has often been criticized by opponents for his involvement or motivations in the Spanish Civil War. Comintern sources, for example, described him as an 'adventurer'.[36] The professional pilots of the Escuadrilla España charged exorbitant rates to the Republican Government for their services.[37] Other biographical sources, including fellow combatants, praise Malraux's leadership and sense of camaraderie. At any rate, Malraux's participation in such an historical event as the Spanish Civil War inevitably brought him adversaries, as well as supporters, resulting in a polarization of opinion.[38]

Soviet pilots in Spain

Model of a Spanish Republican Tupolev SB2 Katyuska, La Sénia Museum.

The Soviet Union profited from the international isolation of the Spanish Republic imposed by the Non-intervention agreements and assisted the beleaguered Republican government by providing weapons and pilots. Some of the most effective pilots in Spain were young men from the Soviet Union. The Spanish Republican Air Force lacked modern planes and experienced pilots. Unlike most other foreign pilots in the service of the Spanish Republican Air Force, Russian pilots were technically volunteers. They received no incentives, like combat bonuses, to supplement their modest wages.

Many Soviet airmen came in the fall 1936, along with the new aircraft that the Spanish Republic had purchased from Russia. After the western democracies refused military assistance to the established Spanish Government in the name of so-called "Non-Intervention", the Soviet Union and Mexico were practically the only nations that helped Republican Spain in its struggle. In a similar manner as Hitler with his Third Reich re-armament, Joseph Stalin saw the acquisition of first-hand combat experience in Spain by Soviet pilots and technicians as essential for his plans regarding the capability and combat readiness of the Soviet Air Forces. Therefore, much emphasis was placed on detailed reporting of the results of the testing of the new Russian military equipment and air-warfare techniques.[39]

The first planes that came to Spain were Tupolev SB bombers; the fighters would arrive later. Their first action was a morale-lifting bombing raid on the Talavera de la Reina military airfield used by the Legionary Nazi and Italian planes that dropped their bombs over Madrid every day. This action made the Russian pilots very popular among the people in Madrid. The Katiuska pilots took advantage for the time being of their aircraft's relatively higher speed, but the plane was vulnerable and its fuel tanks easily caught fire when shot at. Furthermore, when the Condor Legion brought the speedier Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters later in the war, the SB squadrons suffered heavy losses.

Anatol Serov, nicknamed "Mateo Rodrigo", established the Escuadrilla de Vuelo Nocturno fighter squadron along with Mikhail Yakushin. This night-flight section would use I-15 Chatos that had modified exhaust pipes, so that the flames in front would not impair the pilot's night vision. M. Yakushin would become the leader of the Night Fighter Squadron that would be quite effective against the Condor Legion Ju 52 night bombing raids.[40]

A finales de noviembre de 1936 había alrededor de 300 pilotos rusos en Madrid o sus alrededores. La mejorada capacidad defensiva de la República Española elevó la moral de las zonas de España bajo control leal. Los pilotos rusos dieron su mejor actuación en la Batalla de Guadalajara , derrotando a la Aviazione Legionaria italiana y atacando incesantemente a las milicias fascistas desde el aire.

Siguiendo las exigencias del Comité de No Intervención , los pilotos soviéticos fueron eliminados gradualmente en el otoño de 1938 y aviadores españoles entrenados ocuparon sus lugares después de haber sido entrenados en las escuelas de vuelo de Albacete , Alicante , Murcia , El Palomar , Alhama , Los Alcázares , Lorca o El Carmolí que habían sido levantados por los militares soviéticos. [41]

De los aproximadamente 772 aviadores rusos que sirvieron en el Ejército del Aire Republicano Español durante más de dos años, un total de 99 perdieron la vida. Se mostró poca gratitud o reconocimiento hacia los pilotos supervivientes a pesar de su esfuerzo y, para agravar su triste suerte, muchos se convertirían más tarde en víctimas de las purgas de Stalin tras su regreso a la URSS. [42]

Entrenamiento de pilotos

La formación de los pilotos, así como del resto del personal de las Fuerzas Aéreas, estaba confiada a los Servicios de Instrucción . Del Ministerio de Marina y Aire dependían las distintas unidades de los Servicios de Instrucción . [11] Durante la Guerra Civil las bases y centros de instrucción se encontraban dispersos por toda la zona republicana:

Ases de combate

Ranks

Preceding agencies

Aircraft, insignia and historical documents

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Some authors favor the name Arma de Aviación, claiming that the term Fuerzas Aéreas de la República Española (FARE) was only used later by some pilots such as Francisco Tarazona in their memories (Francisco Tarazona Torán, Yo fui piloto de caza rojo.)

References

  1. ^ BLOCH 200/210 Archived 19 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  2. ^ Breguet Br.413
  3. ^ "Br.460 B4". Archived from the original on 8 January 2020. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
  4. ^ "Spanish Civil War Aircraft". Archived from the original on 5 February 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
  5. ^ Memoria Republicana - SBHAC
  6. ^ a b c Antony Beevor (2006) [1982]. The Battle for Spain. Orion. ISBN 978-0-7538-2165-7.
  7. ^ Per photograph caption pg.146 and also text pg.201, Air Power, Budiansky, Stephen, Penguin Group, London England 2005
  8. ^ Chris Goss et al. Luftwaffe Fighter-Bombers Over Britain: The German Air Force's Tip and Run Campaign, 1942-43, Stackpole, ISBN 978-0-8117-0691-9, p. 26
  9. ^ a b "Aircraft that took part in the Spanish Civil War". Archived from the original on 5 February 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
  10. ^ Hispano Suiza E-30 Archived 24 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  11. ^ a b c Memoria republicana — SBHAC. Estructura orgánica de las FARE
  12. ^ Ejército del Aire - 1936 Archived 20 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  13. ^ Gerald Howson, Arms for Spain: Untold Story of the Spanish Civil War, John Murray Publishers Ltd, 1998, ISBN 978-0-7195-5556-5
  14. ^ 11-III-1935 Llega a Barajas el primer Douglas DC-2 para las Líneas Aéreas Postales Españolas (LAPE)
  15. ^ "Blackburn T.1/T.2 Swift/Dart with 1927 Aeronáutica Naval markings". Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
  16. ^ "Blackburn T.3 Velos with 1927 Aeronáutica Naval markings". Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
  17. ^ Ejército del Aire - 1939 Archived 20 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  18. ^ Pierre Renouvin & René Rémond, Léon Blum, chef de gouvernement. 1936-1937, Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques, coll. 'Références', 1981
  19. ^ Stalin and the Spanish Civil War - Soviet Hardware Supplied to the Republic
  20. ^ "Unidades de la FARE que actuaron con I-15". Archived from the original on 18 May 2009. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
  21. ^ Polikarpov RZ Natacha
  22. ^ "LAPE Poster with Airline Network". Archived from the original on 26 December 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2012.
  23. ^ EL Potez 54 en la Guerra Civil Española
  24. ^ Biplane fighter aces
  25. ^ Potez 540/542 Archived 11 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  26. ^ Review: Antony Beevor, The Battle for Spain: the Spanish Civil War 1936-1939
  27. ^ Edward Jablonski, Terror from the Sky: Airwar, Vol. 1, Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co. 1972, p. 15
  28. ^ Cate, pp.228-242
  29. ^ Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War; New revised edition (2011)
  30. ^ Aircraft that didn't participate in the Spanish Civil war
  31. ^ Ángel Viñas, La Soledad de la República Archived 30 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  32. ^ Spanish Potez 540
  33. ^ Air Aces - Semyon Desnitsky
  34. ^ Cate, p.235
  35. ^ John Sturrock (9 August 2001). "The Man from Nowhere". The London Review of Books. Vol. 23, no. 15.
  36. ^ Beevor, p.140
  37. ^ Beevor, id.
  38. ^ Derek Allan, Art and the Human Adventure, André Malraux's Theory of Art (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2009). pp. 25-27.
  39. ^ Soviet Pilots in the Spanish Civil War
  40. ^ Los chatos nocturnos - ADAR
  41. ^ John O'Connell, The Effectiveness of Airpower in the 20th Century: Part One (1914 - 1939), iUniverse, ISBN 978-0595430826, p. 125
  42. ^ Soviet Air Force (VVS) Reference List Archived 13 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  43. ^ I-16 in Spanish Civil War Archived 18 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  44. ^ Russian War Heroes - Sergei I. Gritsevets
  45. ^ Spanish Civil War - U.S.S.R. Air Aces
  46. ^ José María Bravo Fernández, el último gran 'as' de la República. El País
  47. ^ Lista incompleta de aviones
  48. ^ Spanish Civil War Air Aces - Spain
  49. ^ Jan Ferák - ¡No pasaran!
  50. ^ III.díl. Španělsko. Fašismus 1936 až 1939. Č 9
  51. ^ Air Aces: Francisco Tarazona Torán
  52. ^ Francisco Tarazona Torán, Yo fui piloto de caza rojo. Editorial San Martín, Madrid 1974 ISBN 978-84-7140-069-7
  53. ^ Biplane fighter aces - Božidar Petrović
  54. ^ ADAR - Sergei Fyodorovich Tarkhov Archived 3 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  55. ^ Abraham Lincoln Brigade - James Peck

Bibliography

Further reading

External links