stringtranslate.com

Motion Picture Association

The Motion Picture Association (MPA)[1][2] is an American trade association representing the five major film studios of the United States, the mini-major Amazon MGM Studios, as well as the video streaming services Netflix and Amazon Prime Video. Founded in 1922 as the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA) and known as the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) from 1945 until September 2019,[3] its original goal was to ensure the viability of the American film industry. In addition, the MPA established guidelines for film content which resulted in the creation of the Motion Picture Production Code in 1930. This code, also known as the Hays Code, was replaced by a voluntary film rating system in 1968, which is managed by the Classification and Rating Administration (CARA).

The MPA has advocated for the motion picture and television industry, with the goals of promoting effective copyright protection, expanding market access and has worked to curb copyright infringement, including attempts to limit the sharing of copyrighted works via peer-to-peer file sharing networks and by streaming from pirate sites. Former United States Ambassador to France Charles Rivkin is the chairman and CEO.

History

Foundation and early history: 1922–1929

The MPA was founded as the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA) in 1922 as a trade association of member motion picture companies. At its founding, MPPDA member companies produced approximately 70 to 80 percent of the films made in the United States.[4] Former Postmaster General Will H. Hays was named the association's first president.[5]

The main focus of the MPPDA in its early years was on producing a strong public relations campaign to ensure that Hollywood remained financially stable and able to attract investment from Wall Street, while simultaneously ensuring that American films had a "clean moral tone".[4][6] The MPPDA also instituted a code of conduct for Hollywood's actors in an attempt to govern their behavior offscreen. Finally, the code sought to protect American film interests abroad by encouraging film studios to avoid racist portrayals of foreigners.[5][7]

From the early days of the association, Hays spoke out against public censorship,[7][8] and the MPPDA worked to raise support from the general public for the film industry's efforts against such censorship.[9] Large portions of the public opposed censorship, but also decried the lack of morals in movies.[10] The organisation also had formed a trust to block out Independents and enforce the monopolistic studio system.[11]

At the time of the MPPDA's founding, there was no national censorship, but some state and municipal laws required movies to be censored, a process usually overseen by a local censorship board.[10] As such, in certain locations in the U.S., films were often edited to comply with local laws regarding the onscreen portrayal of violence and sexuality, among other topics. This resulted in negative publicity for the studios and decreasing numbers of theater goers, who were uninterested in films that were sometimes so severely edited that they were incoherent.[5] In 1929, more than 50 percent of American moviegoers lived in a location overseen by such a board.[10]

In 1924, Hays instituted "The Formula", a loose set of guidelines for filmmakers, in an effort to get the movie industry to self-regulate the issues that the censorship boards had been created to address. "The Formula" requested that studios send synopses of films being considered to the MPPDA for review. This effort largely failed, however, as studios were under no obligation to send their scripts to Hays's office, nor to follow his recommendations.[10]

In 1927, Hays oversaw the creation of a code of "Don'ts and Be Carefuls" for the industry.[10] This list outlined the issues that movies could encounter in different localities. Hays also created a Studio Relations Department (SRD) with staff available to the studios for script reviews and advice regarding potential problems. Again, despite Hays' efforts, studios largely ignored the "Don'ts and Be Carefuls", and by the end of 1929, the MPPDA received only about 20 percent of Hollywood scripts prior to production,[5] and the number of regional and local censorship boards continued to increase.[10]

Production Code: 1930–1934

In 1930, the MPPDA introduced the Motion Picture Production Code, commonly called the Hays Code. The Code consisted of moral guidelines regarding what was acceptable to include in films.[12] Unlike the "Dont's and Be Carefuls", which the studios had ignored, the Production Code was endorsed by studio executives.[5] The Code incorporated many of the "Don'ts and Be Carefuls" as specific examples of what could not be portrayed. Among other rules, the code prohibited inclusion of "scenes of passion" unless they were essential to a film's plot; "pointed profanity" in either word or action; "sex perversion"; justification or explicit coverage of adultery; sympathetic treatment of crime or criminals; dancing with "indecent" moves; and white slavery.[13] Because studio executives had been involved in the decision to adopt the code, MPPDA-member studios were more willing to submit scripts for consideration. However, the growing economic impacts of the Great Depression of the early 1930s increased pressure on studios to make films that would draw the largest possible audiences, even if it meant taking their chances with local censorship boards by disobeying the Code.[5]

In 1933 and 1934, the Catholic Legion of Decency, along with a number of Protestant and women's groups, launched plans to boycott films that they deemed immoral.[14] In order to avert boycotts which might further harm the profitability of the film industry, the MPPDA created a new department, the Production Code Administration (PCA), with Joseph Breen as its head. Unlike previous attempts at self-censorship, PCA decisions were binding—no film could be exhibited in an American theater without a stamp of approval from the PCA,[10] and any producer attempting to do so faced a fine of $25,000.[5] After ten years of unsuccessful voluntary codes and expanding local censorship boards, the studio approved and agreed to enforce the codes, and the nationwide "Production Code" was enforced starting on July 1, 1934.[10]

War years: 1934–1945

In the years that immediately followed the adoption of the Code, Breen often sent films back to Hollywood for additional edits, and in some cases, simply refused to issue PCA approval for a film to be shown.[5][15] At the same time, Hays promoted the industry's new focus on wholesome films[16] and continued promoting American films abroad.[17]

For nearly three years, studios complied with the Code. By 1938, however, as the threat of war in Europe loomed, movie producers began to worry about the possibility of decreased profits abroad. This led to a decreased investment in following the strictures of the code, and occasional refusals to comply with PCA demands.[5] That same year, responding to trends in European films in the run-up to the war, Hays spoke out against using movies as a vehicle for propaganda.[18] In 1945, after nearly 24 years as president, Hays stepped down from his position at the MPPDA, although he continued to act as an advisor for the Association for the next five years.[19]

Johnston era: 1945–1963

In 1945 the MPPDA hired Eric Johnston, four-time president of the United States Chamber of Commerce, to replace Hays.[20] During his first year as president, Johnston rebranded the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America as the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA).[5]

He also created the Motion Picture Export Association (MPEA) to promote American films abroad by opposing production company monopolies in other countries.[21][22] In 1947 the MPEA voted to discontinue film shipments to Britain after the British government imposed an import tax on American films.[23] Johnston negotiated with the British government to end the tax in 1948, and film shipments resumed.[24]

In 1956, Johnston oversaw the first major revision of the Production Code since it was created in 1930. This revision allowed the treatment of some subjects which had previously been forbidden, including abortion and the use of narcotics, so long as they were "within the limits of good taste". At the same time, the revisions added a number of new restrictions to the code, including outlawing the depiction of blasphemy and mercy killings in films.[25]

Johnston was well-liked by studio executives, and his political connections helped him function as an effective liaison between Hollywood and Washington.[26] In 1963, while still serving as president of the MPAA, Johnston died of a stroke.[27] For three years, the MPAA operated without a president while studio executives searched for a replacement.[28]

Valenti era: 1966–2004

The MPAA appointed Jack Valenti, former aide to President Lyndon Johnson, as president of the MPAA in 1966.[29] In 1968, Valenti replaced the Production Code with a system of voluntary film ratings, in order to limit censorship of Hollywood films and provide parents with information about the appropriateness of films for children.[30] In addition to concerns about protecting children,[31] Valenti stated in his autobiography that he sought to ensure that American filmmakers could produce the films they wanted, without the censorship that existed under the Production Code that had been in effect since 1934.[30]

In 1975, Valenti established the Film Security Office, an anti-piracy division at the MPAA, which sought to recover unauthorized recordings of films to prevent duplication.[29][32] Valenti continued to fight piracy into the 1980s, asking Congress to install chips in VCRs that would prevent illegal reproduction of video cassettes,[33] and in the 1990s supported law enforcement efforts to stop bootleg distribution of video tapes.[34] Valenti also oversaw a major change in the ratings system that he had helped create—the removal of the "X" rating, which had come to be closely associated with pornography. It was replaced with a new rating, "NC-17", in 1990.[35][36]

In 1994, the Motion Picture Export Association of America changed its name to the Motion Picture Association to more accurately reflect the global nature of audiovisual entertainment in today's international marketplace.[37]

In 2001, Valenti established the Digital Strategy Department at the MPAA to specifically address issues surrounding digital film distribution and piracy.[29][38]

Modern era: 2004–present

After serving as president of the MPAA for 38 years, Valenti announced that he would step down in 2004.[39] In September of that year, he was replaced by former Secretary of Agriculture Dan Glickman.[29] During his tenure, Glickman focused on tax issues, content protection efforts, and increasing U.S. studios' access to international markets.[40] He led lobbying efforts that resulted in $400 million in federal tax incentives for the film industry, and also supported a law which created federal oversight of anti-piracy efforts.[41] Glickman stepped down in 2010.[40][42]

After a search which lasted over a year, the MPAA hired former U.S. Senator Chris Dodd to replace Glickman in March 2011.[43] In his role as president, Dodd focused on content protection, trade, and improving Hollywood's image.[44] He traveled to China in 2011 in an effort to encourage the Chinese government to both crack down on piracy and further open its film market.[45] A settlement of a long-argued World Trade Organization complaint, coupled with Dodd's efforts, contributed to the United States' agreement with China in 2012 to open China's film market to more Hollywood films and to increase U.S. studios' share of box-office revenues in China.[46] In addition to this agreement with China, the U.S. signed more than 20 memos of understanding with foreign governments regarding the enforcement of intellectual property rights during Dodd's tenure at the MPAA.[47]

In 2011, the MPAA supported the passage of the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and PROTECT IP Act (PIPA).[48] After the two bills were shelved in early 2012, Dodd indicated that Hollywood might cut off campaign contributions to politicians who failed to support anti-piracy efforts in the future.[49]

In 2012, the MPAA launched the Diversity and Multicultural Outreach program, as part of an effort to increase diversity in the television and film industry both through employment and representation on screen.[50] Since its inception, the Diversity and Multicultural and Outreach group has conducted outreach and partnered with more than 20 multicultural groups and national civil rights organizations in sponsoring film screenings, festivals, and other diversity-themed events.[51]

Throughout his tenure at the MPAA, Dodd also highlighted the need for film studios to embrace technology as a means of distributing content.[52]

In June 2017, the MPAA supported the launch of the Alliance for Creativity and Entertainment (ACE), a coalition of entertainment companies, including the six major studios, Netflix and Amazon, that would draw on the MPAA's resources in an effort to reduce online piracy through research and legal efforts.[53]

Former U.S. diplomat and Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs Charles Rivkin succeeded Chris Dodd as CEO on September 5, 2017, and as chairman effective December 6, 2017.[citation needed] On January 25, 2019, film streaming service Netflix announced that it had joined the MPAA in an effort to identify itself among the major studios.[54]

In September 2019, the association updated its branding to reflect the global nature of the film, television, and streaming industry, officially changing its name to the Motion Picture Association (MPA), a name which it has used internationally since 1994. An updated logo also went into effect at this time.[55]

In September 2024, it was announced Amazon MGM Studios would join the MPA, making the seventh member in the entertainment policy group.[56]

Film rating system

In 1968, the MPAA established the Code and Rating Administration, or CARA (later renamed the Classification and Rating Administration), which began issuing ratings for films exhibited and distributed commercially in the United States to help parents determine what films are appropriate for their children.

Since the rating system was first introduced in November 1968, it has gone through several changes, including the addition of a PG-13 rating.[57][58] The ratings system is completely voluntary, and ratings have no legal standing.[59][60] Instead, the American film industry enforces the MPAA film ratings after they have been assigned,[61] with many theaters refusing to exhibit non-rated films.[62] For example, it is against the American film industry's policy to admit unaccompanied children to an R-rated film. An unrated film is often denoted by "NR", such as in newspapers, although this is not a formal MPAA rating.[63]

In 2006, the film This Film Is Not Yet Rated alleged that the MPAA gave preferential treatment to member studios during the process of assigning ratings,[64] as well as criticizing the rating process for its lack of transparency. In response, the MPAA posted its ratings rules, policies, and procedures, as well as its appeals process, online.[65] According to the MPA, the ratings are made by an independent group of parents.[66]

According to a 2015 study commissioned by CARA, ninety-three percent of parents in the U.S. find the rating system to be a helpful tool.[67]

The ratings currently used by the MPA's voluntary system are:[66]

Members

The original MPAA members were the "Big Eight" film studios: Paramount Pictures, Fox Film, Loews, Universal Pictures, and United Artists, followed by Warner Bros. in 1923, Columbia Pictures in 1924, along with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer[68] (formed by the merger of Loews, Metro Pictures, Goldwyn Pictures, and Louis B. Mayer Productions), and RKO Pictures in 1928. Then came the 1935 merger of Fox Film and 20th Century Pictures into 20th Century Fox.[69]

United Artists briefly resigned from the organization in 1956 over a ratings dispute, although they rejoined later in the decade.[70] By 1966, Allied Artists Pictures had joined the original members.[71] In the following decade, new members joining the MPAA included Avco Embassy in 1975 and Walt Disney Studios in 1979.[72][73][74] The next year, Filmways became a MPAA member, but was later replaced in 1986 along with Avco Embassy when the De Laurentiis Entertainment Group and Orion Pictures joined the MPAA roster.[73]

As of 1995, the MPAA members were MGM—which included United Artists after their 1981 merger, Paramount, Sony Pictures—which included Columbia and TriStar Pictures after their 1989 acquisition, 20th Century Fox, Universal, Disney, and Warner Bros.[75][76] Turner Entertainment joined the MPAA in 1995, but was purchased in 1996 by Time Warner.[77][78] The number of members dropped to six in 2005, following Sony's failed attempt to acquire MGM.[79] The MPAA's member companies remained intact until the 2019 acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney, including 20th Century Fox.[80][81]

Netflix was approved as a new member in January 2019, making it the first non-studio and the first streaming service to be part of the organization. The addition of Netflix also helped to maintain the number of members after the acquisition of 20th Century Fox by Disney. The MPA aims to recruit additional members.[82]

In September 2024, it was announced that Amazon MGM Studios and Prime Video would join the MPA as its seventh member starting October 1, the second non-studio to do so after Netflix in 2019; this would also mark a return to the MPA for MGM, currently a division of Amazon MGM Studios, after it lost membership in 2005 following a buyout led by Sony.[83]

Content protection efforts

The MPA's concerted efforts at fighting copyright infringement began in 1975 with the establishment of the Film Security Office, which sought to recover unauthorized recordings of films in order to prevent duplication.[29][32] The MPA has continued to pursue a number of initiatives to combat illegal distribution of films and TV shows, especially in response to new technologies. In the 1980s, it spoke out against VCRs and the threat that the MPA believed they represented to the movie industry,[84] with MPAA president Jack Valenti drawing a parallel between the threat of the VCR and that of the Boston Strangler.[85] In 1986, the MPAA asked Congress to pass a law that would require VCRs to come equipped with a chip to prevent them from making copies.[33] Legal efforts at stopping homemade copies of broadcast television largely ended, however, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that such copying constituted fair use.[86]

The MPA continued to support law enforcement efforts to stop bootleg production and distribution of videotapes and laserdiscs into the 1990s,[34][87] and in 2000 took successful legal action against individuals posting DVD decryption software on the Internet in Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Reimerdes.[88] Following the release of RealDVD—an application that enabled users to make copies of DVDs—RealNetworks sued the DVD Copy Control Association and the major studios in 2008 over the legality of the software, accusing them of violating the Sherman Antitrust Act.[89] The judgment found there were no grounds for the antitrust claim and dismissed the suit.[90] The court later found that the RealNetworks product violated the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA).[91]

The MPA has continued to support law enforcement efforts to prevent illegal distribution of copyrighted materials online.[92] The MPA and its British counterpart, the Federation Against Copyright Theft (FACT), also funded the training of Lucky and Flo, a pair of Labrador Retrievers, to detect polycarbonates used in the manufacturing of DVDs.[93]

The MPA strives to protect the creative rights of the large corporate film makers. Its counterpart has come up with infamous slogans such as "Who Makes Movies?" and "You can click, but you can't hide".[94]

Online file sharing

In the early 2000s, the MPAA began focusing its efforts to curb copyright infringement specifically on peer-to-peer file sharing, initially using a combination of educational campaigns[95] and cease and desist letters to discourage such activity. In the first six months of 2002, the MPAA sent more than 18,000 such letters to internet service providers to forward to users engaged in copyright infringement.[96]

In late 2004, the MPAA changed course and filed lawsuits in a concerted effort to address copyright infringement on a number of large online file-sharing services, including BitTorrent and eDonkey.[97] The following year, the MPAA expanded its legal actions to include lawsuits against individuals who downloaded and distributed copyrighted material via peer-to-peer networks.[98]

The MPAA also played a role in encouraging the Swedish government to conduct a raid of the Pirate Bay file-sharing website in May 2006.[99] Swedish officials have acknowledged that part of the motivation for the raid was the threat of sanctions from the World Trade Organization, along with a letter from the MPAA.[100][101]

In 2013, the Center for Copyright Information unveiled the Copyright Alert System, a system established through an agreement between the MPAA, the Recording Industry Association of America, and five of the US's largest internet service providers.[102] The system used a third-party service to identify content being distributed illegally. Users were then informed that their accounts were being used for possible copyright infringement and were provided with information about ways to get authorized content online.[103] Users who received multiple notices of infringement faced "mitigations measures", such as temporary slowing of their Internet service, but the system did not include termination of subscriber accounts. Subscribers facing such action had a right to appeal to the American Arbitration Association.[104] In January 2017, the Copyright Alert System was discontinued. While no official reason was given, the MPAA's general counsel stated that the system had not been equipped to stop repeat infringers.[105]

On December 24, 2014, the Sony Pictures hack revealed that following a lawsuit in which the MPAA won a multimillion judgment against Hotfile, a file hosting website, the MPAA colluded with Hotfile to misrepresent the settlement so that the case would serve as a deterrent. The settlement was previously believed to be $80 million and was widely reported; however, Hotfile only paid the studios $4 million and agreed to have the $80 million figure recorded as the judgment and the website shut down.[106][107][108]

In a case resolved in 2015, the MPAA and others supported the United States International Trade Commission (ITC)'s decision to consider electronic transmissions to the U.S. as "articles" so that it could prevent the importation of digital files of counterfeit goods. While the case being considered by the ITC involved dental appliances, the ITC could have also used such authority to bar the importation of pirated movies and TV shows from rogue foreign websites that traffic in infringing content.[109] The Federal Circuit Court of Appeals took up the matter, and ultimately ruled against the ITC.[110]

In 2016, the MPAA reported Putlocker as one of the "top 5 rogue cyberlocker services" to the Office of the United States Trade Representative as a major piracy threat; the website was then blocked in the United Kingdom.[111][112][113]

In 2019, the MPA released an overview of the piracy markets in contravention of the US Government. Added to the list were Chinese hosting service Baidu, and Russian gambling firm 1xBet.[114]

Criticism and controversies

Publicity campaigns

The MPAA has also produced publicity campaigns to discourage piracy. The Who Makes Movies? advertising campaign in 2003 highlighted workers in the film industry describing how piracy affected them. The video spots ran as trailers before films, and as television advertisements.[115] In 2004, the MPAA began using the slogan "You can click, but you can't hide". This slogan appeared in messages that replaced file-sharing websites after they had been shut down through MPAA legal action.[116] It also appeared in posters and videos distributed to video stores by the MPAA.[117] Also in 2004, the MPAA partnered with the Federation Against Copyright Theft and the Intellectual Property Office of Singapore to release "You Wouldn’t Steal A Car", a trailer that was shown before films in theaters equating piracy with car theft.[118] The trailer was later placed at the beginning of the video on many DVDs in many cases as an unskippable clip (not being able to skip or fast-forward), which triggered criticism and a number of parodies.[119]

In 2005, the MPAA commissioned a study to examine the effects of file sharing on film industry profitability. The study concluded that the industry lost $6.1 billion per year to piracy, and that up to 44 percent of domestic losses were due to file sharing by college students. In 2008, the MPAA revised the percentage of loss due to college students down to 15 percent, citing human error in the initial calculations of this figure. Beyond the percentage of the loss that was attributable to college students, however, no other errors were found in the study.[120]

In 2015, theaters began airing the MPAA's "I Make Movies" series, an ad campaign intended to combat piracy by highlighting the stories of behind-the-scenes employees in the film and television industry.[121] The series pointed audiences to the MPAA's "WhereToWatch" website (later dubbed "The Credits")[122] which provides attention to the behind-the-scenes creativity involved in filmmaking.

Accusations of copyright infringement

The MPAA itself has been accused of copyright infringement on multiple occasions. In 2007, the creator of a blogging platform called Forest Blog accused the MPAA of violating the license for the platform, which required that users link back to the Forest Blog website. The MPAA had used the platform for its own blog, but without linking back to the Forest Blog website. The MPAA subsequently took the blog offline, and explained that the software had been used on a test basis and the blog had never been publicized.[123][124]

Also in 2007, the MPAA released a software toolkit for universities to help identify cases of file sharing on campus. The software used parts of the Ubuntu Linux distribution, released under the General Public License, which stipulates that the source code of any projects using the distribution be made available to third parties. The source code for the MPAA's toolkit, however, was not made available. When the MPAA was made aware of the violation, the software toolkit was removed from their website.[125]

In 2006, the MPAA admitted having made illegal copies of This Film Is Not Yet Rated (a documentary exploring the MPAA itself and the history of its rating system)[126] — an act which Ars Technica explicitly described as hypocrisy[127] and which Roger Ebert called "rich irony".[128] The MPAA subsequently claimed that it had the legal right to copy the film despite this being counter to the filmmaker's explicit request, because the documentary's exploration of the MPAA's ratings board was potentially a violation of the board members' privacy.[126]

International activities

Around the world, the MPA helps with local law enforcement to combat piracy.

The MPA offices in the world are:

See also

References

  1. ^ Johnson, Ted (September 18, 2019). "Motion Picture Association Rebrands With Unified Name And Updated Logo". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on October 10, 2020. Retrieved September 18, 2019.
  2. ^ Zigo, Tom (September 18, 2019). "Motion Picture Association Unifies Global Brand". Motion Picture Association. Washington. Archived from the original on September 29, 2020. Retrieved September 18, 2019.
  3. ^ Eggerton, John (September 18, 2019). "MPAA Rebrands to Reflect International Monicker". Broadcasting & Cable. Archived from the original on December 7, 2019. Retrieved September 18, 2019.
  4. ^ a b "Ultimatum by Hays to Purify Movies". The New York Times. June 5, 1922. Archived from the original on July 23, 2018. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Leff, Leonard J.; Simmons, Jerold L. (2001). The Dame in the Kimono: Hollywood, Censorship, and the Production Code. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0813190118.
  6. ^ "Hays Attacks Censors; Says Film Men O.K." The Evening News. May 26, 1922. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
  7. ^ a b "Czar of Movies Hits Censorship". The Spokesman-Review. January 25, 1924. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
  8. ^ "Hays Says Public Censors Will Fail". The New York Times. July 25, 1922. Archived from the original on July 23, 2018. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
  9. ^ "Will Hays, Pledging Motion Picture Industry to Clean Pictures, Asks Public to Aid War on Evil Films". Providence News. July 6, 1922. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h Gregory D. Black (1996). Hollywood Censored: Morality Codes, Catholics, and the Movies. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521565928. Archived from the original on April 7, 2022. Retrieved February 15, 2013.
  11. ^ The New York Times, October 29, 1925.
  12. ^ "Movie Industry to Bar Obscenity and Crime Scenes, Plan". The Telegraph-Herald and Times-Journal. April 2, 1930. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
  13. ^ "Producers Adopt Code of Conduct For Screen Shows". The Calgary Daily Herald. April 1, 1930. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
  14. ^ Matthew Bernstein (2000). Controlling Hollywood: Censorship and Regulation in the Studio Era. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0813527074. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved February 15, 2013.
  15. ^ "Pictures Purged". Lewiston Morning Tribune. July 15, 1934. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
  16. ^ "Newest Pictures Based on Classics". Spokane Daily Chronicle. March 26, 1935. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
  17. ^ "Will Hays Gets Italy to Lift Film Blockage". The Milwaukee Journal. November 25, 1936. Retrieved February 19, 2013.[permanent dead link]
  18. ^ "Hays Scores Propaganda On Screens". The Pittsburgh Press. March 30, 1938. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
  19. ^ "Eric Johnston to Rule Movies". The Spokesman-Review. September 20, 1945. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved February 19, 2013.
  20. ^ "Johnston Named Motion Picture Czar". Spokane Daily Chronicle. September 19, 1945. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved February 19, 2013.
  21. ^ Jon Lewis (2002). Hollywood V. Hard Core: How the Struggle Over Censorship Saved the Modern Film Industry. NYU Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 0814751423.
  22. ^ "Movies Begin to Fight Foreign Monopolies". The New York Times. April 5, 1946. Archived from the original on July 23, 2018. Retrieved April 12, 2013.
  23. ^ "Film Group Votes Ban On Movies for England". The Deseret News. August 7, 1947. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved April 12, 2013.
  24. ^ "MPEA Approves Johnston's Agreement; To Lift Film Embargo After British Ratify". The New York Times. March 19, 1948. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved April 16, 2013.
  25. ^ "Motion Picture Code Made 'More Flexible'". Eugene Register Guard. December 17, 1956. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved April 12, 2013.
  26. ^ Jack Valenti (2007). This Time, This Place. New York: Three Rivers Press. p. 271. ISBN 9780307346650.
  27. ^ "Eric Johnston Dies at 66". St. Petersburg Times. August 23, 1963. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved April 12, 2013.
  28. ^ "History of the MPAA". MPAA.org. Motion Picture Association of America. Archived from the original on June 21, 2013. Retrieved April 23, 2013.
  29. ^ a b c d e Jeff Clabaugh (July 1, 2004). "Valenti retires, Glickman named Hollywood's Washington man". Washington Business Journal. Archived from the original on June 29, 2020. Retrieved April 2, 2013.
  30. ^ a b Jack Valenti (2007). This Time, This Place. New York: Three Rivers Press. pp. 302–306. ISBN 9780307346650.
  31. ^ "Film Ratings System Adopted By Industry". St. Petersburg Times. October 8, 1968. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved March 12, 2013.
  32. ^ a b "Movie industry fights film piracy". Windsor Star. April 14, 1975. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved April 18, 2013.
  33. ^ a b Bill McCloskey (September 23, 1986). "Movie Producers Want Anti-Copy Device On VCR Makers". The Associated Press. Archived from the original on December 2, 2013. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  34. ^ a b Paul Verna (May 18, 1991). "MPAA Bags Some 50,000 Bogus Vids in N.Y. Bust". Billboard. Archived from the original on December 2, 2013. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  35. ^ Melina Gerosa; Anne Thompson (October 12, 1990). "How the X Got Axed". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on January 6, 2015. Retrieved April 18, 2013.
  36. ^ "Big-name Hollywood directors join battle over MPAA". Spokane Chronicle. July 31, 1990. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved April 18, 2013.
  37. ^ "Motion Picture Dist. Association (India) Pvt. Ltd: About Us". mpaa-india.org. Archived from the original on February 20, 2015. Retrieved March 11, 2015.
  38. ^ Guy Wright (July 1, 2004). "Jack Valenti Steps Down from MPAA/MPA". Digital Producer Magazine.
  39. ^ "Hollywood chief Valenti to retire". BBC. July 2, 2004. Archived from the original on April 20, 2021. Retrieved April 2, 2013.
  40. ^ a b Anne Schroeder Mullins (October 19, 2009). "Glickman says he'll step down in 2010". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved April 2, 2013.[permanent dead link]
  41. ^ Jim Puzzanghera; Claudia Eller (October 20, 2009). "Search starts for MPAA chief Dan Glickman's replacement". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on July 26, 2020. Retrieved April 16, 2013.
  42. ^ Greg Sandoval (January 22, 2010). "MPAA's Dan Glickman steps down". CNET. Retrieved April 2, 2013.
  43. ^ Richard Verrier; Jim Puzzanghera (March 2, 2011). "MPAA hires former Sen. Dodd as head". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on July 26, 2020. Retrieved April 2, 2013.
  44. ^ Pamela McClintock (April 5, 2012). "MPAA Chief Christopher Dodd Says SOPA Debate Isn't Over, Defends Hosting Harvey Weinstein Even as He Attacked Over 'Bully'". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on April 17, 2020. Retrieved April 2, 2013.
  45. ^ Jonathan Landreth (June 13, 2011). "MPAA's Chris Dodd Presses China to Open Film Market". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on April 17, 2020. Retrieved April 2, 2013.
  46. ^ Faughnder, Ryan (April 28, 2017). "Shake-up at the MPAA. Hollywood's chief lobbyist, Chris Dodd, to be replaced by Charles Rivkin". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 21, 2022. Retrieved January 21, 2022.
  47. ^ Petski, Denise (April 28, 2017). "Chris Dodd Stepping Down As Chairman Of MPAA; Charles Rivkin To Take Over". Deadline. Archived from the original on May 2, 2020. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
  48. ^ Alex Ben Block (January 17, 2012). "MPAA Chairman Chris Dodd Speaks Out Against 'Blackout' Protest of SOPA and PIPA". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on April 17, 2020. Retrieved April 2, 2013.
  49. ^ "Chris Dodd warns of Hollywood backlash against Obama over anti-piracy bill". Fox News. January 19, 2012. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved July 26, 2020.
  50. ^ "Inclusion & Multicultural Outreach". Motion Picture Association of America. Archived from the original on July 26, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
  51. ^ Garcia, Tonya (June 3, 2015). "MPAA Partners With "Dope" For American Black Film Festival Opening Night". MadameNoire. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved July 26, 2020.
  52. ^ Alex Ben Block (October 26, 2011). "Chris Dodd Pushes Back Against Hollywood Vs. Technology Criticisms In SMPTE". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on December 16, 2019. Retrieved April 2, 2013.
  53. ^ Lieberman, David (June 13, 2017). "Hollywood And Digital Companies Forge Global Anti-Piracy Alliance". Deadline. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
  54. ^ Johnson, Ted (January 22, 2019). "Netflix Joins the Motion Picture Association of America". Variety. Archived from the original on June 10, 2019. Retrieved June 4, 2019.
  55. ^ Johnson, Ted (September 18, 2019). "Motion Picture Association Rebrands With Unified Name And Updated Logo". Deadline. Archived from the original on October 10, 2020. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
  56. ^ Weprin, Alex (September 19, 2024). "Amazon Prime Video and MGM Studios Join Motion Picture Association". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved September 25, 2024.
  57. ^ Richard L. Coe (October 14, 1968). "Film Classification Starts Nov. 1". Toledo Blade. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved March 12, 2013.
  58. ^ Charles Champlin (January 29, 1970). "Film Ratings Plan Will Be Revised". The Victoria Advocate. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved March 12, 2013.
  59. ^ Hal Lipper (September 29, 2009). "At last, an adult decision". St. Petersburg Times. Archived from the original on September 27, 2013. Retrieved May 1, 2013.
  60. ^ Dan Richman (May 20, 2003). "Law limits some violent video games". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Archived from the original on August 4, 2020. Retrieved May 10, 2013.
  61. ^ Pamela McClintock (March 16, 2013). "CinemaCon: MPAA Tweaks Movie Ratings System in Wake of Newtown School Shooting". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on May 8, 2020. Retrieved May 10, 2013.
  62. ^ Pamela McClintock (March 26, 2012). "Weinstein Co. to Release Unrated 'Bully' in Protest of 'R'". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on April 17, 2020. Retrieved May 9, 2013.
  63. ^ Franklin, Daniel P. (2006). Politics and Film: The Political Culture of Film in the United States. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 153. ISBN 9781461641018.
  64. ^ Peter Travers (August 3, 2006). "This Film Is Not Yet Rated". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on June 19, 2017. Retrieved May 28, 2013.
  65. ^ Pamela McClintock (January 16, 2007). "MPAA, NATO reform ratings system". Variety. Archived from the original on July 4, 2017. Retrieved May 7, 2013.
  66. ^ a b "Film Ratings". MPAA.org. Archived from the original on November 19, 2021. Retrieved August 4, 2014.
  67. ^ McClintock, Pamela (December 3, 2015). "Movie Ratings: Sex Remains Top Concern for American Parents, Not Violence". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on February 16, 2018. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
  68. ^ Spring, Joel (1992). Images of American Life. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 50. ISBN 0791410706. Archived from the original on August 26, 2021. Retrieved March 7, 2013.
  69. ^ Movers and Shakers: The 100 Most Influential Figures in Modern Business. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. 2003. p. 253. ISBN 0738209147. Retrieved March 14, 2013.
  70. ^ "The Man with the Golden Arm". American Film Institute. Archived from the original on October 13, 2018. Retrieved March 19, 2013.
  71. ^ Vaughn, Stephen (2006). Freedom and Entertainment: Rating the Movies in an Age of New Media. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0521676541. Retrieved March 7, 2013.
  72. ^ Weiler, A H (January 26, 1975). "Jack Valenti, pres of Motion Picture Assn of Amer..." New York Times. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  73. ^ a b Arnold, Gary (April 5, 1980). "Film Notes". Washington Post. Archived from the original on July 16, 2022. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  74. ^ "Movie Group's Meeting At Cannes Is Canceled". New York Times. April 29, 1986. Archived from the original on July 16, 2022. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  75. ^ Cook, David (2000). Lost Illusions: American Cinema in the Shadow of Wtergate and Vietnam. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 21. ISBN 0520232658. Archived from the original on January 24, 2016. Retrieved March 7, 2013.
  76. ^ "Sony to Buy Columbia, Says Americans Will Run Studio : 1st Sale of Film Maker to Japanese". latimes.com. September 27, 1989. Archived from the original on October 19, 2021. Retrieved September 24, 2012.
  77. ^ Wharton, Dennis (January 25, 1995). "Turner Pix Joins MPAA". Daily Variety. Archived from the original on July 16, 2022. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  78. ^ Fabrikant, Geraldine (October 11, 1996). "Holders Back Time Warner-Turner Merger". New York Times. Archived from the original on February 14, 2015. Retrieved March 14, 2013.
  79. ^ "MPAA ( Motion Picture Association of America )". Doctor HDMI. 2012. Archived from the original on June 3, 2021. Retrieved May 3, 2022. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) was an MPAA member until 2005, shortly after Sony Pictures Entertainment's failed attempt to buy that studio.
  80. ^ Littleton, Cynthia (March 19, 2019). "Disney Closes $71 Billion 21st Century Fox Deal". Variety. Archived from the original on March 20, 2019. Retrieved May 23, 2019.
  81. ^ "Who We Are – Our Story". Motion Picture Association of America. Archived from the original on April 9, 2020. Retrieved April 27, 2017.
  82. ^ McClintock, Pamela (January 22, 2019). "Netflix Becomes First Streamer to Join the Motion Picture Association of America". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on January 22, 2019. Retrieved January 22, 2019.
  83. ^ Johnson, Ted (September 19, 2024). "MPA Adds Amazon Prime Video and MGM Studios As Newest Member". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved September 19, 2024.
  84. ^ William D. Marbach (April 26, 1982). "Putting the Bite On the Home VCR". Newsweek. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  85. ^ Malcolm Jones (April 26, 1987). "The invasion of the VCRs". St. Petersburg Times. Archived from the original on December 2, 2013. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  86. ^ "'Distortion' Charged; DAT Anticopy Technology Debated At Joint Hill Hearing". Communications Daily. April 3, 1987. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  87. ^ Seth Goldstein (May 21, 1994). "Picture This". Billboard. Archived from the original on July 16, 2022. Retrieved March 19, 2013.
  88. ^ Sam Costella (September 6, 2000). "Content de-scrambling fought". InfoWorld Daily News. Archived from the original on December 2, 2013. Retrieved March 8, 2013.
  89. ^ Greg Sandoval (May 13, 2009). "RealNetworks accuses MPAA of antitrust violations". CNET. Retrieved May 28, 2013.
  90. ^ David Kravets (January 11, 2010). "Judge Slams MPAA 'Cartel' Allegations". Wired. Archived from the original on March 3, 2012. Retrieved May 28, 2013.
  91. ^ Goel, Vindu (March 3, 2010). "RealNetworks Drops Fight to Sell DVD Copying Software". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 16, 2018. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
  92. ^ David Lieberman (January 4, 2013). "MPAA Cheers Prison Sentence For Leader Of Internet Piracy Ring". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on December 2, 2013. Retrieved April 22, 2013.
  93. ^ Jeremy Kirk (May 11, 2006). "MPAA Trains Dogs to Sniff Out Pirate DVDs". PCWorld. Archived from the original on August 4, 2020. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  94. ^ Doctorow, Cory (February 11, 2005). "Who did MPAA rip off "You can click but you can't hide" from? -- UPDATED". Archived from the original on August 4, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2015.
  95. ^ Dan Atkinson (December 10, 2003). "Music piracy persists at Boston U., nationwide despite lawsuits". University Wire. Archived from the original on December 2, 2013. Retrieved March 8, 2013.
  96. ^ Simon Woolley (June 3, 2002). "Shiver me timbers: Online bootlegs bane of entertainment industry". Townsville Bulletin/Townsville Sun. Archived from the original on December 2, 2013. Retrieved March 8, 2013.
  97. ^ Fred Locklear (December 14, 2004). "MPAA lawsuits target BitTorrent, eDonkey and Direct Connect networks". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on July 8, 2017. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  98. ^ Bary Alyssa Johnson (August 29, 2005). "MPAA Anti-Piracy Lawsuits Target Individuals". PC Magazine. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  99. ^ Thomas Mennecke (June 20, 2006). "Sweden Pressured to take Pirate Bay Action". Slyck.com. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  100. ^ Frank Ahrens (June 15, 2006). "U.S. Joins Industry in Piracy War". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on April 4, 2017. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  101. ^ Adam Ewing (June 21, 2006). "US threatened Sweden with sanctions over piracy". The Local. Archived from the original on November 1, 2009. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  102. ^ Sean J. Miller (February 26, 2013). "MPAA-Backed Copyright Alert System Unveiled". Back Stage. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved April 22, 2013.
  103. ^ Sarah Laskow (February 28, 2013). "The new copyright alert system is running". Columbia Journalism Review. Archived from the original on July 26, 2020. Retrieved April 22, 2013.
  104. ^ "Copyright Alert System FAQs". copyrightinformation.org. Center for Copyright Information. Archived from the original on May 23, 2013. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
  105. ^ Johnson, Ted (January 27, 2017). "Internet Service Providers, Studios and Record Labels Call It Quits on Copyright Alert System". Variety. Archived from the original on February 16, 2018. Retrieved February 21, 2018.
  106. ^ Van der Sar, Ernesto (December 24, 2014). "MPAA Secretly Settled With Hotfile for $4 Million, Not $80 Million". Torrentfreak. Archived from the original on February 16, 2018. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
  107. ^ "Sony email leak has uncovered the truth behind MPAA and Hotfile dispute". Archived from the original on April 20, 2021. Retrieved December 29, 2014.
  108. ^ "Sony Hack Reveals That MPAA's Big '$80 Million' Settlement With Hotfile Was A Lie". December 24, 2014. Archived from the original on April 20, 2021. Retrieved December 30, 2014.
  109. ^ Gardner, Eriq (February 19, 2015). "With the MPAA Watching, ITC Says Case About Teeth Won't Bring Down the Internet". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on February 16, 2018. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
  110. ^ Johnson, Ted (November 10, 2015). "MPAA Warns Appellate Ruling Could Limit Ability to Fight Digital Piracy". Variety. Archived from the original on February 16, 2018. Retrieved February 21, 2018.
  111. ^ Sandoval, Greg (March 31, 2012). "MPAA wants more criminal cases brought against 'rogue' sites". CNET. Archived from the original on March 9, 2018. Retrieved October 17, 2016.
  112. ^ Prabhu, Vijay (October 17, 2016). "Yet Another Video Streaming Service Bites The Dust, Putlocker Shuts Down". TechWorm. Archived from the original on August 4, 2020. Retrieved October 17, 2016.
  113. ^ Bolton, Doug (May 26, 2016). "Putlocker blocked in the UK by internet service providers after High Court order". The Independent. Archived from the original on August 31, 2017. Retrieved October 17, 2016.
  114. ^ "MPA Adds 1XBET and Baidu to Latest Piracy Threat Report * TorrentFreak". Archived from the original on January 24, 2021. Retrieved January 17, 2021.
  115. ^ Brooks Boliek (July 23, 2003). "H'wood steps up antipiracy fight". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  116. ^ "Movie body hits peer-to-peer nets". BBC News. February 11, 2005. Archived from the original on June 7, 2013. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  117. ^ Greg Hernandez (November 17, 2004). "MPAA Files Piracy Suits". The Daily News of Los Angeles. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  118. ^ "Be HIP at the Movies". Intellectual Property Office of Singapore. July 27, 2004. Archived from the original on September 24, 2008. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  119. ^ Finlo Rohrer (June 18, 2009). "Getting inside a downloader's head". BBC. Archived from the original on December 9, 2012. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
  120. ^ Justin Pope (January 23, 2008). "MPAA admits mistake on downloading study". Newsweek. Archived from the original on February 7, 2008. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  121. ^ Sneider, Jeff (June 25, 2015). "MPAA to Run 'I Make Movies' Ads at AMC Theaters, Local Cinema Chains". The Wrap. Archived from the original on February 16, 2018. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
  122. ^ "The Credits". mpaa.org. Archived from the original on July 23, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
  123. ^ "MPAA: We Were Only Testing Forest Blog". Torrentfreak. February 28, 2007. Archived from the original on February 16, 2018. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
  124. ^ Brett Thomas (February 19, 2007). "MPAA violates software license". bit-tech.net. Archived from the original on November 10, 2013. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  125. ^ Ryan Paul (December 4, 2007). "MPAA's University Toolkit hit with DMCA takedown notice after GPL violation". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on July 8, 2017. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  126. ^ a b MPAA finds itself accused of piracy, by John Horn; at the Los Angeles Times (via archive.org); published January 24, 2006; retrieved June 11, 2014
  127. ^ MPAA admits to unauthorized movie copying Archived July 8, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, by Eric Bangeman, at Ars Technica; published January 24, 2006; retrieved June 11, 2014
  128. ^ Sundance #7: Film ratings exposed! Archived June 22, 2019, at the Wayback Machine, by Roger Ebert; at RogerEbert.com; published January 26, 2006; retrieved June 11, 2014

External links