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Esteban I de Hungría

Esteban I , también conocido como el rey san Esteban ( en húngaro : Szent István király [ˌsɛnt ˈiʃtvaːn kiraːj] ; en latín : Sanctus Stephanus ; en eslovaco : Štefan I o Štefan Veľký ; c. 975 - 15 de agosto de 1038), fue el último gran príncipe de los húngaros entre 997 y 1000 o 1001, y el primer rey de Hungría desde 1000 o 1001 hasta su muerte en 1038. El año de su nacimiento es incierto, pero muchos detalles de su vida sugieren que nació en 975 o después, en Esztergom . Recibió el nombre pagano de Vajk al nacer, pero se desconoce la fecha de su bautismo. Fue el único hijo del gran príncipe Géza y su esposa, Sarolt , que descendía de una prominente familia de gyulas . Aunque sus padres estaban bautizados, Esteban fue el primer miembro de su familia en convertirse en un cristiano devoto. Se casó con Gisela de Baviera , descendiente de la dinastía imperial otoniana .

Después de suceder a su padre en 997, Esteban tuvo que luchar por el trono contra su pariente, Koppány , que contaba con el apoyo de un gran número de guerreros paganos. Derrotó a Koppány con la ayuda de caballeros extranjeros, entre ellos Vecelin , Hont y Pázmány , y señores nativos. Fue coronado el 25 de diciembre de 1000 o el 1 de enero de 1001 con una corona enviada por el papa Silvestre II . En una serie de guerras contra tribus y jefes semiindependientes, incluidos los húngaros negros y su tío, Gyula el Joven , unificó la cuenca de los Cárpatos . Protegió la independencia de su reino al obligar a las tropas invasoras de Conrado II, emperador del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico , a retirarse de Hungría en 1030.

Esteban estableció al menos un arzobispado, seis obispados y tres monasterios benedictinos, lo que llevó a la Iglesia en Hungría a desarrollarse independientemente de los arzobispos del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico . Fomentó la expansión del cristianismo al imponer severos castigos por ignorar las costumbres cristianas. Su sistema de administración local se basaba en condados organizados alrededor de fortalezas y administrados por funcionarios reales . Hungría disfrutó de un período duradero de paz durante su reinado y se convirtió en una ruta preferida para peregrinos y comerciantes que viajaban entre Europa occidental , Tierra Santa y Constantinopla .

Esteban sobrevivió a todos sus hijos, muriendo el 15 de agosto de 1038 a los 62 o 63 años. Fue enterrado en su nueva basílica , construida en Székesfehérvár y dedicada a la Santísima Virgen . Su muerte fue seguida por guerras civiles que duraron décadas. Fue canonizado por el papa Gregorio VII , junto con su hijo Emerico y el obispo Gerardo de Csanád , en 1083. Esteban es un santo popular en Hungría y territorios vecinos. En Hungría, su festividad (celebrada el 20 de agosto) es también un día festivo que conmemora la fundación del estado, conocido como el Día de la Fundación del Estado .

Primeros años (do.975–997)

La fecha de nacimiento de Esteban es incierta ya que no fue registrada en documentos contemporáneos. [1] Las crónicas húngaras y polacas escritas siglos después dan tres años diferentes: 967, 969 y 975. [2] El testimonio unánime de sus tres hagiografías de finales del siglo XI o principios del siglo XII y otras fuentes húngaras, que afirman que Esteban era "todavía un adolescente" en 997, [3] corroboran la fiabilidad del último año (975). [1] [2] La Leyenda Menor de Esteban añade que nació en Esztergom , [1] [2] [4] lo que implica que nació después de 972 porque su padre, Géza, Gran Príncipe de los húngaros , eligió Esztergom como residencia real alrededor de ese año. [1] Géza promovió la expansión del cristianismo entre sus súbditos por la fuerza, pero nunca dejó de adorar a dioses paganos. [5] [6] Tanto la Gran Leyenda de su hijo como el casi contemporáneo Thietmar de Merseburg describieron a Géza como un monarca cruel, sugiriendo que era un déspota que consolidó sin piedad su autoridad sobre los señores húngaros rebeldes. [6] [7]

Las crónicas húngaras coinciden en que la madre de Esteban era Sarolt , hija de Gyula , un jefe húngaro con jurisdicción en Transilvania o en la región más amplia de la confluencia de los ríos Tisza y Maros . [8] [9] Muchos historiadores, incluidos Pál Engel y Gyula Kristó , proponen que su padre era idéntico a " Gylas ", que había sido bautizado en Constantinopla alrededor de 952 y "permaneció fiel al cristianismo", [10] según el cronista bizantino John Skylitzes . [11] [12] Sin embargo, esta identificación no es aceptada unánimemente; el historiador György Györffy afirma que no fue el padre de Sarolt, sino su hermano menor, quien fue bautizado en la capital bizantina. [8] En contraste con todas las fuentes húngaras, la Crónica polaco-húngara y fuentes polacas posteriores afirman que la madre de Esteban era Adelhaid, una hermana desconocida del duque Mieszko I de Polonia , pero los historiadores modernos no aceptan la fiabilidad de este informe. [13]

Miniature of an illuminated manuscript depicting a birth.
El nacimiento de Esteban representado en la Crónica Iluminada

Esteban nació como Vajk , [4] [14] un nombre derivado de la palabra turca baj , que significa "héroe", "amo", "príncipe" o "rico". [2] [15] La Gran Leyenda de Esteban narra que fue bautizado por el santo obispo Adalberto de Praga , [15] quien se quedó en la corte de Géza varias veces entre 983 y 994. [16] [17] Sin embargo, la Leyenda casi contemporánea de San Adalberto , escrita por Bruno de Querfurt , no menciona este evento. [15] [16] [17] En consecuencia, la fecha del bautismo de Esteban es desconocida: Györffy argumenta que fue bautizado poco después del nacimiento, mientras que Kristó propone que solo recibió el bautismo justo antes de la muerte de su padre en 997. [15] [17]

La hagiografía oficial de Esteban , escrita por el obispo Hartvic y sancionada por el papa Inocencio III , narra que "fue instruido plenamente en el conocimiento del arte gramatical" en su infancia. [18] [2] Esto implica que estudió latín, aunque se justifica cierto escepticismo ya que pocos reyes de esta época sabían escribir. Sus otras dos hagiografías de finales del siglo XI no mencionan ningún estudio gramatical, afirmando únicamente que "fue criado recibiendo una educación apropiada para un pequeño príncipe". [2] Kristó dice que la última observación solo se refiere al entrenamiento físico de Esteban, incluida su participación en cacerías y acciones militares. [2] Según la Crónica Iluminada , uno de sus tutores fue un conde Deodatus de Italia , que más tarde fundó un monasterio en Tata . [19]

Según las leyendas de Esteban, el Gran Príncipe Géza convocó una asamblea de los jefes y guerreros húngaros cuando Esteban "ascendió a la primera etapa de la adolescencia", [18] a la edad de 14 o 15 años. [20] [21] Géza nombró a Esteban como su sucesor y todos los presentes hicieron un juramento de lealtad al joven príncipe. [21] Györffy escribe, sin identificar su fuente, que Géza nombró a su hijo para gobernar el " ducado de Nyitra " en esa época. [15] Los historiadores eslovacos, incluidos Ján Steinhübel y Ján Lukačka, aceptan la opinión de Györffy y proponen que Esteban administró Nyitra (ahora Nitra , Eslovaquia) desde alrededor de 995. [22] [23]

Géza arregló el matrimonio de Esteban con Gisela , hija de Enrique II, duque de Baviera , en o después de 995. [4] [24] Este matrimonio estableció el primer vínculo familiar entre un gobernante húngaro y una casa gobernante de Europa occidental, [25] ya que Gisela estaba estrechamente relacionada con la dinastía otoniana de emperadores del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico . [17] Según la tradición popular conservada en la abadía de Scheyern en Baviera , la ceremonia tuvo lugar en el castillo de Scheyern y fue celebrada por San Adalberto. [21] Gisela fue acompañada a su nuevo hogar por caballeros bávaros, muchos de los cuales recibieron concesiones de tierras de su esposo y se establecieron en Hungría, lo que ayudó a fortalecer la posición militar de Esteban. Según Györffy, Esteban y su esposa "presumiblemente" se establecieron en Nyitra después de su matrimonio. [26] [27]

Reinado (997–1038)

Gran Príncipe (997–1000)

El gran príncipe Géza murió en 997. [14] [28] Esteban convocó una asamblea en Esztergom donde sus partidarios lo declararon gran príncipe. [29] Inicialmente, solo controlaba las regiones noroccidentales de la cuenca de los Cárpatos ; el resto del territorio todavía estaba dominado por jefes tribales. [30] La ascensión de Esteban al trono estaba en línea con el principio de primogenitura , que prescribía que un padre era sucedido por su hijo. [27] Por otro lado, contradecía la idea tradicional de antigüedad , según la cual Géza debería haber sido sucedido por el miembro más antiguo de la dinastía Árpád , que era Koppány en ese momento. [27] [31] Koppány, que tenía el título de duque de Somogy , había administrado durante muchos años las regiones de Transdanubia al sur del lago Balaton . [25] [28] [32]

Koppány's execution
La ejecución de Koppány tras su derrota a manos de Esteban, representada en el Chronicon Pictum

Koppány le propuso matrimonio a la viuda de Géza, Sarolt, de acuerdo con la costumbre pagana del matrimonio por levirato . [29] [33] [34] También anunció su pretensión al trono. [29] Aunque no es imposible que Koppány ya hubiera sido bautizado, en 972, [29] la mayoría de sus partidarios eran paganos, oponentes del cristianismo representado por Esteban y su séquito predominantemente alemán . [35] Una carta de 1002 para la Archiabadía de Pannonhalma escribe sobre una guerra entre "los alemanes y los húngaros" al referirse a los conflictos armados entre Esteban y Koppány. [35] [36] Aun así, Györffy dice que Oszlar (" Alan "), Besenyő (" Pecheneg "), Kér y otros nombres de lugares, que se refieren a grupos étnicos o tribus húngaras en Transdanubia alrededor de las supuestas fronteras del ducado de Koppány, sugieren que importantes unidades auxiliares y grupos de guerreros húngaros, que habían sido establecidos allí por el Gran Príncipe Géza, lucharon en el ejército de Esteban. [37]

Kristó afirma que todo el conflicto entre Esteban y Koppány fue solo una disputa entre dos miembros de la dinastía Árpád , sin efecto sobre otros líderes tribales húngaros. [30] Koppány y sus tropas invadieron las regiones del norte de Transdanubia, tomaron muchos de los fuertes de Esteban y saquearon sus tierras. [35] Esteban, quien, según la Crónica Iluminada , "estaba por primera vez ceñido con su espada", [38] colocó a los hermanos Hont y Pázmány a la cabeza de su propia guardia y nombró a Vecelin para liderar el ejército real. [35] [39] [40] El último era un caballero alemán que había llegado a Hungría en el reinado de Géza. [41] Hont y Pázmány eran, según la Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum de Simón de Kéza y la Crónica Iluminada , «caballeros de origen suabo » [42] que se establecieron en Hungría bajo Géza o en los primeros años del reinado de Esteban. [30] Por otro lado, Lukačka y otros historiadores eslovacos dicen que Hont y Pázmány eran nobles «eslovacos» que se habían unido a Esteban durante su gobierno en Nyitra. [43]

Koppány estaba sitiando Veszprém cuando fue informado de la llegada del ejército de Esteban. [37] En la batalla que siguió, Esteban obtuvo una victoria decisiva sobre sus enemigos. [34] Koppány murió en el campo de batalla. [25] Su cuerpo fue descuartizado y sus partes fueron exhibidas a las puertas de los fuertes de Esztergom, Győr , Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia, Rumania ) y Veszprém con el fin de amenazar a todos aquellos que estaban conspirando contra el joven monarca. [34] [44] [45]

Esteban ocupó el ducado de Koppány y concedió grandes propiedades a sus propios partidarios. [28] [46] También prescribió que los antiguos súbditos de Koppány debían pagar diezmos a la Archiabadía de Pannonhalma, según el acta de fundación de este monasterio que se ha conservado en un manuscrito que contiene interpolaciones . [35] [47] El mismo documento declara que "no había otros obispados y monasterios en Hungría" en ese momento. [48] Por otro lado, el obispo casi contemporáneo Thietmar de Merseburg afirmó que Esteban "estableció obispados en su reino" [49] antes de ser coronado rey. [48] Si el último informe es válido, las diócesis de Veszprém y Győr son los candidatos más probables, según el historiador Gábor Thoroczkay. [50]

Coronación (1000-1001)

St Stephen's modern sculpture in Budapest
Escultura moderna del rey San Esteban en Budapest

Al ordenar la exhibición de una parte del cadáver descuartizado de Koppány en Gyulafehérvár, la residencia de su tío materno, Gyula el Joven , Esteban afirmó su derecho a gobernar todas las tierras dominadas por señores húngaros. [51] También decidió fortalecer su estatus internacional adoptando el título de rey. [52] Sin embargo, las circunstancias exactas de su coronación y sus consecuencias políticas están sujetas a debate académico. [53]

Tietmar de Merseburgo escribe que Esteban recibió la corona "con el favor y la insistencia" [49] del emperador Otón III (r. 996-1002), [54] lo que implica que Esteban aceptó la soberanía del Emperador antes de su coronación. [53] Por otro lado, todas las leyendas de Esteban enfatizan que recibió su corona del Papa Silvestre II (r. 999-1003). [53] Kristó [55] y otros historiadores [56] señalan que el Papa Silvestre y el emperador Otón eran aliados cercanos, lo que implica que ambos informes son válidos: Esteban "recibió la corona y la consagración" [49] del Papa, pero no sin el consentimiento del Emperador. Unos 75 años después de la coronación, el papa Gregorio VII (r. 1075-1085), que reivindicó la soberanía sobre Hungría, declaró que Esteban había «ofrecido y rendido devotamente» Hungría «a San Pedro » (es decir, a la Santa Sede ). [54] [56] [57] En un informe contrastante, la Gran Leyenda de Esteban afirma que el rey ofreció Hungría a la Virgen María . [56] Los historiadores modernos, incluidos Pál Engel y Miklós Molnár, escriben que Esteban siempre afirmó su soberanía y nunca aceptó la soberanía papal o imperial. [25] [53] Por ejemplo, ninguna de sus cartas estaba fechada según los años del reinado de los emperadores contemporáneos, lo que habría sido el caso si hubiera sido su vasallo. [58] Además, Esteban declaró en el preámbulo de su Primer Libro de Leyes que gobernaba su reino «por la voluntad de Dios». [58] [59]

Se desconoce la fecha exacta de la coronación de Esteban. [55] Según la tradición húngara posterior, fue coronado el primer día del segundo milenio, que puede referirse al 25 de diciembre de 1000 o al 1 de enero de 1001. [14] [60] Los detalles de la coronación de Esteban conservados en su Gran Leyenda sugieren que la ceremonia, que tuvo lugar en Esztergom o Székesfehérvár [61] siguió el rito de la coronación de los reyes alemanes. [62] En consecuencia, Esteban fue ungido con aceite consagrado durante la ceremonia. [62] El retrato de Esteban, conservado en su capa real desde 1031, muestra que su corona, como la diadema del Sacro Emperador Romano, era una corona de aro decorada con piedras preciosas . [63]

Además de su corona, Esteban consideraba que una lanza con una bandera era un símbolo importante de su soberanía. [63] Por ejemplo, sus primeras monedas llevan la inscripción LANCEA REGIS ("la lanza del rey") y representan un brazo que sostiene una lanza con una bandera. [63] Según el contemporáneo Adémar de Chabannes , el emperador Otón III le había dado una lanza al padre de Esteban como muestra del derecho de Géza a "disfrutar de la mayor libertad en la posesión de su país". [64] Esteban es llamado de varias maneras: Ungarorum rex ("rey de los húngaros"), Pannoniorum rex ("rey de los panonios") o Hungarie rex ("rey de Hungría") en sus cartas. [54]

Consolidación (1001–do.1009)

Aunque el poder de Esteban no dependía de su coronación, [54] la ceremonia le otorgó la legitimidad internacionalmente aceptada de un monarca cristiano que gobernaba su reino " por la gracia de Dios ". [65] Todas sus leyendas atestiguan que estableció un arzobispado con sede en Esztergom poco después de su coronación. [66] Este acto aseguró que la Iglesia en Hungría se independizara de los prelados del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico. [67] [68] La primera referencia a un arzobispo de Esztergom, llamado Domokos , se ha conservado en la escritura de fundación de la Archiabadía de Pannonhalma de 1002. [66] Según el historiador Gábor Thoroczkay, Esteban también estableció la Diócesis de Kalocsa en 1001. [69] Esteban invitó a sacerdotes extranjeros a Hungría para evangelizar su reino. [68] Los asociados del difunto Adalberto de Praga, incluidos Radla y Astrik , llegaron a Hungría en los primeros años de su reinado. [70] [71] La presencia de un "Arzobispo de los Húngaros" anónimo en el sínodo de 1007 de Frankfurt y la consagración de un altar en Bamberg en 1012 por el Arzobispo Astrik muestran que los prelados de Esteban mantenían una buena relación con el clero del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico. [7]

La transformación de Hungría en un estado cristiano fue una de las principales preocupaciones de Esteban durante su reinado. [72] Aunque la conversión de los húngaros ya había comenzado durante el reinado de su padre, fue sólo Esteban quien obligó sistemáticamente a sus súbditos a abandonar sus rituales paganos. [73] Su actividad legislativa estaba estrechamente relacionada con el cristianismo. [74] Por ejemplo, su Primer Libro de Leyes de los primeros años de su reinado incluye varias disposiciones que prescriben la observancia de los días festivos y la confesión antes de la muerte. [75] [76] Sus otras leyes protegían los derechos de propiedad [77] y los intereses de las viudas y los huérfanos, o regulaban el estatus de los siervos. [76]

Si alguien tiene un corazón tan endurecido que no quiere confesar sus faltas según el consejo de un sacerdote, Dios no lo quiera con ningún cristiano, yacerá sin ningún servicio divino ni limosna como un infiel. Si sus parientes y vecinos no llaman al sacerdote y, por lo tanto, muere sin confesar, se le ofrecerán oraciones y limosnas, pero sus parientes lavarán su negligencia con ayuno de acuerdo con el juicio de los sacerdotes. Los que mueren de muerte repentina serán enterrados con todo honor eclesiástico, porque el juicio divino está oculto para nosotros y es desconocido.

—  Leyes del rey Esteban I [78]
Gyula the Younger is captured
Las fuerzas de Esteban capturan a su tío, Gyula el Joven.

Muchos señores húngaros se negaron a aceptar la soberanía de Esteban incluso después de su coronación. [44] El nuevo rey primero se volvió contra su propio tío, Gyula el Joven, cuyo reino "era el más amplio y rico", [79] según la Crónica Iluminada . [80] Esteban invadió Transilvania y se apoderó de Gyula y su familia alrededor de 1002 [81] [82] o en 1003. [14] [80] Los Anales de Hildesheim contemporáneos [82] agregan que Esteban convirtió el "país de su tío a la fe cristiana por la fuerza" después de su conquista. [80] En consecuencia, los historiadores datan el establecimiento de la diócesis de Transilvania en este período. [82] [69] Si la identificación, propuesta por Kristó, Györffy y otros historiadores húngaros, de Gyula con un tal Prokui —quien era el tío de Esteban según Tietmar de Merseburgo— es válida, [83] Gyula escapó más tarde del cautiverio y huyó a Boleslao I el Valiente , duque de Polonia (r. 992-1025). [80]

[Duke Boleslav the Brave's] territory included a certain burg, located near the border with the Hungarians. Its guardian was lord Prokui, an uncle of the Hungarian king. Both in the past and more recently, Prokui had been driven from his lands by the king and his wife had been taken captive. When he was unable to free her, his nephew arranged for her unconditional release, even though he was Prokui's enemy. I have never heard of anyone who showed such restraint towards a defeated foe. Because of this, God repeatedly granted him victory, not only in the burg mentioned above, but in others as well.

— Thietmar of Merseburg, Chronicon[84]

About a hundred years later, the chronicler Gallus Anonymus also made mention of armed conflicts between Stephen and Boleslav, stating that the latter "defeated the Hungarians in battle and made himself master of all their lands as far as the Danube".[22][85][86] Györffy says that the chronicler's report refers to the occupation of the valley of the river Morava—a tributary of the Danube—by the Poles in the 1010s.[86] On the other hand, the Polish-Hungarian Chronicle states that the Polish duke occupied large territories north of the Danube and east of the Morava as far as Esztergom in the early 11th century.[86][87] According to Steinhübel, the latter source proves that a significant part of the lands that now form Slovakia were under Polish rule between 1002 and 1030.[87] In contrast with the Slovak historian, Györffy writes that this late chronicle "in which one absurdity follows another" contradicts all facts known from 11th-century sources.[88]

Kean's defeat by Stephen
Stephen defeats Kean "Duke of the Bulgarians and Slavs"

The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that Stephen "led his army against Kean, Duke of the Bulgarians and Slavs whose lands are by their natural position most strongly fortified"[89] following the occupation of Gyula's country.[90] According to a number of historians, including Zoltán Lenkey[90] and Gábor Thoroczkay,[69] Kean was the head of a small state located in the southern parts of Transylvania and Stephen occupied his country around 1003. Other historians, including Györffy, say that the chronicle's report preserved the memory of Stephen's campaign against Bulgaria in the late 1010s.[91]

Likewise, the identification of the "Black Hungarians"[92]—who were mentioned by Bruno of Querfurt and Adémar de Chabannes among the opponents of Stephen's proselytizing policy—is uncertain.[93] Györffy locates their lands to the east of the river Tisza;[94] while Thoroczkay says they live in the southern parts of Transdanubia.[69] Bruno of Querfurt's report of the Black Hungarians' conversion by force suggests that Stephen conquered their lands at the latest in 1009 when "the first mission of Saint Peter"[95]—a papal legate, Cardinal Azo—arrived in Hungary.[96] The latter attended the meeting in Győr where the royal charter determining the borders of the newly established Bishopric of Pécs was issued on 23 August 1009.[95]

The Diocese of Eger was also set up around 1009.[95][97] According to Thoroczkay, "it is very probable" that the bishopric's establishment was connected with the conversion of the Kabars—an ethnic group of Khazar origin—[98] and their chieftain.[99] The head of the Kabars—who was either Samuel Aba or his father—[100] married Stephen's unnamed younger sister on this occasion.[99][101] The Aba clan was the most powerful among the native families who joined Stephen and supported him in his efforts to establish a Christian monarchy.[102] The reports by Anonymus, Simon of Kéza and other Hungarian chroniclers of the Bár-Kalán, Csák and other 13th-century noble families descending from Hungarian chieftains suggest that other native families were also involved in the process.[102]

Stephen set up a territory-based administrative system,[80] establishing counties.[103] Each county, headed by a royal official known as a count or ispán, was an administrative unit organized around a royal fortress.[103] Most fortresses were earthworks in this period,[104] but the castles at Esztergom, Székesfehérvár and Veszprém were built of stone.[105] Forts serving as county seats also became the nuclei of Church organization.[104] The settlements developing around them, where markets were held on each Sunday, were important local economic centers.[104]

Wars with Poland and Bulgaria (c. 1009–1018)

Stephen's brother-in-law, Henry II, became King of Germany in 1002 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1013.[58] Their friendly relationship ensured that the western borders of Hungary experienced a period of peace in the first decades of the 11th century.[58][106] Even when Henry II's discontented brother, Bruno, sought refuge in Hungary in 1004, Stephen preserved the peace with Germany and negotiated a settlement between his two brothers-in-law.[58][107] Around 1009, he gave his younger sister in marriage to Otto Orseolo, Doge of Venice (r. 1008–1026), a close ally of the Byzantine Emperor, Basil II (r. 976–1025), which suggests that Hungary's relationship with the Byzantine Empire was also peaceful.[108] On the other hand, the alliance between Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire brought her into a war with Poland lasting from around 1014[109] until 1018.[110] The Poles occupied the Hungarian posts along the river Morava.[111] Györffy and Kristó write that a Pecheneg incursion into Transylvania, the memory of which has been preserved in Stephen's legends, also took place in this period, because the Pechenegs were close allies of the Polish duke's brother-in-law, Grand Prince Sviatopolk I of Kiev (r. 1015–1019).[109][112]

Poland and the Holy Roman Empire concluded the Peace of Bautzen in January 1018.[112] Later in the same year, 500 Hungarian horsemen accompanied Boleslav of Poland to Kyiv, suggesting that Hungary had been included in the peace treaty.[112] The historian Ferenc Makk says that the Peace of Bautzen obliged Boleslav to hand over all the territories he had occupied in the Morava valley to Stephen.[111] According to Leodvin, the first known Bishop of Bihar (r. c. 1050 – c. 1060), Stephen allied with the Byzantines and led a military expedition to assist them against "barbarians" in the Balkan Peninsula.[113] The Byzantine and Hungarian troops jointly took "Cesaries" which Györffy identifies as the present-day town of Ohrid.[114] Leodvin's report suggests that Stephen joined the Byzantines in the war ending with their conquest of Bulgaria in 1018.[115] However, the exact date of his expedition is uncertain.[114] Györffy argues that it was only in the last year of the war that Stephen led his troops against the Bulgarians.[114]

Domestic policies (1018–1024)

Saints Gerard and Emeric
Modern statute of Bishop Gerard of Csanád and his disciple, Prince Emeric (both were canonized along with King Stephen in 1083). Püspökkút-statue in Székesfehérvár, installment
Pécsvárad Abbey
Ruins of the Pécsvárad Abbey, established by Stephen

Bishop Leodvin wrote that Stephen collected relics of a number of saints in "Cesaries" during his campaign in the Balkans, including Saint George and Saint Nicholas.[115] He donated them to his new triple-naved basilica dedicated to the Holy Virgin[116] in Székesfehérvár,[117] where he also set up a cathedral chapter and his new capital.[118] His decision was influenced by the opening, in 1018 or 1019, of a new pilgrimage route that bypassed his old capital, Esztergom. The new route connected Western Europe and the Holy Land through Hungary.[119][120] Stephen often met the pilgrims, contributing to the spread of his fame throughout Europe.[121] Abbot Odilo of Cluny, for example, wrote in a letter to Stephen that "those who have returned from the shrine of our Lord" testify to the king's passion "towards the honour of our divine religion".[122] Stephen also established four hostels for pilgrims in Constantinople, Jerusalem, Ravenna and Rome.[123]

[Almost] all those from Italy and Gaul who wished to go to the Sepulchre of the Lord at Jerusalem abandoned the usual route, which was by sea, making their way through the country of King Stephen. He made the road safe for everyone, welcomed as brothers all he saw and gave them enormous gifts. This action led many people, nobles and commoners, to go to Jerusalem.

— Rodulfus Glaber, The Five Books of the Histories[124]

In addition to pilgrims, merchants often used the safe route across Hungary when travelling between Constantinople and Western Europe.[119] Stephen's legends refer to 60 wealthy Pechenegs who travelled to Hungary, but were attacked by Hungarian border guards.[125] The king sentenced his soldiers to death in order to demonstrate his determination to preserve internal peace.[125] Regular minting of coinage began in Hungary in the 1020s.[126] His silver dinars bearing the inscriptions STEPHANUS REX ("King Stephen") and REGIA CIVITAS ("royal city") were popular in contemporary Europe, as demonstrated by counterfeited copies unearthed in Sweden.[119][126]

Stephen convinced some pilgrims and merchants to settle in Hungary.[119][122] Gerard, a Benedictine monk who arrived in Hungary from the Republic of Venice between 1020 and 1026, initially planned to continue his journey to the Holy Land, but decided to stay in the country after his meeting with the king.[121] Stephen also established a number of Benedictine monasteries—including the abbeys at Pécsvárad, Zalavár and Bakonybél[127]—in this period.[128]

The Long Life of Saint Gerard mentions Stephen's conflict with Ajtony, a chieftain in the region of the river Maros. Many historians date their clash to the end of the 1020s, although Györffy and other scholars put it at least a decade earlier.[129][86] The conflict arose when Ajtony, who "had taken his power from the Greeks", according to Saint Gerard's legend, levied tax on the salt transported to Stephen on the river.[130] The king sent a large army led by Csanád against Ajtony, who was killed in battle.[131] His lands were transformed into a Hungarian county and the king set up a new bishopric at Csanád (Cenad, Romania), Ajtony's former capital, which was renamed after the commander of the royal army.[131] According to the Annales Posonienses, the Venetian Gerard was consecrated as the first bishop of the new diocese in 1030.[132]

Conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire (1024–1031)

Stephen's brother-in-law, Emperor Henry, died on 13 July 1024.[133] He was succeeded by a distant relative,[134] Conrad II (r. 1024–1039), who adopted an offensive foreign policy.[135] Conrad II expelled Doge Otto Orseolo—the husband of Stephen's sister—from Venice in 1026.[121][135] He also persuaded the Bavarians to proclaim his own son, Henry, as their duke in 1027, although Stephen's son Emeric had a strong claim to the Duchy of Bavaria through his mother.[134] Emperor Conrad planned a marriage alliance with the Byzantine Empire and dispatched one of his advisors, Bishop Werner of Strasbourg, to Constantinople.[116][136] In the autumn of 1027, the bishop seemingly travelled as a pilgrim, but Stephen, who had been informed of his actual purpose, refused to let him enter into his country.[116][136] Conrad II's biographer Wipo of Burgundy narrated that the Bavarians incited skirmishes along the common borders of Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire in 1029, causing a rapid deterioration in relations between the two countries.[137][138]

Emperor Conrad personally led his armies to Hungary in June 1030 and plundered the lands west of the River Rába.[137][139] However, according to the Annals of Niederalteich, the emperor, suffering from consequences of the scorched earth tactics used by the Hungarian army,[140] returned to Germany "without an army and without achieving anything, because the army was threatened by starvation and was captured by the Hungarians at Vienna".[139] Peace was restored after Conrad had ceded the lands between the rivers Lajta and Fischa to Hungary in the summer of 1031.[141]

At this same time, dissensions arose between the Pannonian nation and the Bavarians, through the fault of the Bavarians. And, as a result, King [Stephen] of Hungary made many incursions and raids in the realm of the Norici (that is, of the Bavarians). Disturbed on this account Emperor Conrad came upon the Hungarians with a great army. But King [Stephen], whose forces were entirely insufficient to meet the Emperor, relied solely on the guardianship of the Lord, which he sought with prayers and fasts proclaimed through his whole realm. Since the Emperor was not able to enter a kingdom so fortified with rivers and forests, he returned, after he had sufficiently avenged his injury with lootings and burnings on the borders of the kingdom; and it was his wish at a more opportune time to complete the things he had begun. His son, King Henry, however, still a young boy entrusted to the care of Eigilbert, bishop of Freising, received a legation of King [Stephen] which asked for peace; and solely with the counsel of the princes of the realm, and without his father's knowledge, he granted the favor of reconciliation.

— Wipo, The Deeds of Conrad II[142]

Last years (1031–1038)

Prince Emeric's funeral and the blinding of Vazul
Prince Emeric's funeral and the blinding of Vazul (Chronicon Pictum, 1358)

Stephen's biographer, Hartvic, narrates that the King, whose children died one by one in infancy, "restrained the grief over their death by the solace on account of the love of his surviving son",[143] Emeric.[144] However, Emeric was wounded in a hunting accident and died in 1031.[119] After the death of his son, the elderly King could never "fully regain his former health",[145] according to the Illuminated Chronicle.[144] Kristó writes that the picture, which has been preserved in Stephen's legends, of the king keeping the vigils and washing the feet of paupers, is connected with Stephen's last years, following the death of his son.[146]

Emeric's death jeopardized his father's achievements in establishing a Christian state,[147] because Stephen's cousin, Vazul—who had the strongest claim to succeed him—was suspected of an inclination towards paganism.[148] According to the Annals of Altaich Stephen disregarded his cousin's claim and nominated his sister's son, the Venetian Peter Orseolo, as his heir.[149] The same source adds that Vazul was captured and blinded, and his three sons, Levente, Andrew and Béla, were expelled from Hungary.[149] Stephen's legends refer to an unsuccessful attempt upon the elderly king's life by members of his court.[146] According to Kristó, the legends refer to a plot in which Vazul participated and his mutilation was a punishment for this act.[146] That Vazul's ears were filled with molten lead was only recorded in later sources, including the Illuminated Chronicle.[146]

In the view of some historians, provisions in Stephen's Second Book of Laws on the "conspiracy against the king and the kingdom" imply that the book was promulgated after Vazul's unsuccessful plot against Stephen.[76][150] However, this view has not been universally accepted.[76] Györffy states that the law book was issued, not after 1031, but around 1009.[151] Likewise, the authenticity of the decree on tithes is debated: according to Györffy, it was issued during Stephen's reign, but Berend, Laszlovszky and Szakács argue that it "might be a later addition".[47][151]

Stephen died on 15 August 1038.[152] He was buried in the basilica of Székesfehérvár.[149] His reign was followed by a long period of civil wars, pagan uprisings and foreign invasions.[153][154] The instability ended in 1077 when Ladislaus, a grandson of Vazul, ascended the throne.[155]

Family

King St Stephen and his wife
King Stephen and his wife Gisela of Bavaria founding a church at Óbuda from the Chronicon Pictum

Stephen married Gisela, a daughter of Duke Henry the Wrangler of Bavaria, who was a nephew of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor.[156] Gisela's mother was Gisela of Burgundy, a member of the Welf dynasty.[21][157] Born around 985, Gisela was younger than her husband, whom she survived.[21][157] She left Hungary in 1045 and died as Abbess of the Niedernburg Abbey in Passau in Bavaria around 1060.[158]

Although the Illuminated Chronicle states that Stephen "begot many sons",[159][160] only two of them, Otto and Emeric, are known by name.[65] Otto, who was named after Otto III, seems to have been born before 1002.[65] He died as a child.[160]

Emeric, who received the name of his maternal uncle, Emperor Henry II, was born around 1007.[65] His Legend from the early 12th century describes him as a saintly prince who preserved his chastity even during his marriage.[160] According to Györffy, Emeric's wife was a kinswoman of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II.[114] His premature death led to the series of conflicts leading to Vazul's blinding and civil wars.[119][161]

Be obedient to me, my son. You are a child, descendant of rich parents, living among soft pillows, who has been caressed and brought up in all kinds of comforts; you have had a part neither in the troubles of the campaigns nor in the various attacks of the pagans in which almost my whole life has been worn away.

— Stephen's Admonitions to his son, Emeric[125]

The following family tree presents Stephen's ancestors and his relatives who are mentioned in the article.[157][162]

*A Khazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady.
**Györffy writes that she may have been a member of the Bulgarian Cometopuli dynasty.
***Samuel Aba might have been the son of Stephen's sister instead of her husband.

Legacy

Founder of Hungary

King Saint Stephen on the 10,000 forint Hungarian banknote (1998–)
Silver coin: 5 Pengő, Death of St. Stephen 1938

Stephen has always been considered one of the most important statesmen in the history of Hungary.[163] His main achievement was the establishment of a Christian state that ensured that the Hungarians survived in the Carpathian Basin, in contrast to the Huns, Avars and other peoples who had previously controlled the same territory.[163] As Bryan Cartledge emphasizes, Stephen also gave his kingdom "forty years of relative peace and sound but unspectacular rule".[164]

His successors, including those descended from Vazul, were eager to emphasize their devotion to Stephen's achievements.[165] Although Vazul's son, Andrew I of Hungary, secured the throne due to a pagan uprising, he prohibited pagan rites and declared that his subjects should "live in all things according to the law which King St. Stephen had taught them", according to the 14th-century Illuminated Chronicle.[165][166] In medieval Hungary, communities that claimed a privileged status or attempted to preserve their own "liberties" often declared that the origin of their special status was to be attributed to King Saint Stephen.[167] An example is a 1347 letter from the people of Táp telling the king about their grievances against the Pannonhalma Archabbey and stating that the taxes levied upon them by the abbot contradicted "the liberty granted to them in the time of King Saint Stephen".[168]

Sainthood

Stephen's cult emerged after the long period of anarchy characterizing the rule of his immediate successors.[169][170] However, there is no evidence that Stephen became an object of veneration before his canonization.[171] For instance, the first member of the royal family to be named after him, Stephen II, was born in the early 12th century.[172]

Stephen's canonization was initiated by Vazul's grandson, King Ladislaus I of Hungary, who had consolidated his authority by capturing and imprisoning his cousin, Solomon.[173][174] According to Bishop Hartvic, the canonization was "decreed by apostolic letter, by order of the Roman see",[175] suggesting that the ceremony was permitted by Pope Gregory VII.[176] The ceremony started at Stephen's tomb, where on 15 August 1083 masses of believers began three days of fasting and praying.[177] Legend tells that Stephen's coffin could not be opened until King Ladislaus held Solomon in captivity at Visegrád.[177] The opening of Stephen's tomb was followed by the occurrence of healing miracles, according to Stephen's legends.[174] Historian Kristó attributes the healings either to mass psychosis or deception.[174] Stephen's legends also say that his "balsam-scented" remains were elevated from the coffin, which was filled with "rose-colored water", on 20 August.[177] On the same day, Stephen's son, Emeric, and the bishop of Csanád, Gerard, were also canonized.[178]

Having completed the office of Vespers the third day, everyone expected the favors of divine mercy through the merit of the blessed man; suddenly with Christ visiting his masses, the signs of miracles poured forth from heaven throughout the whole of the holy house. Their multitude, which that night were too many to count, brings to mind the answer from the Gospel which the Savior of the world confided to John, who asked through messengers whether he was the one who was to come: the blind see, the lame walk, the deaf hear, the lepers are cleansed, the crippled are set straight, the paralyzed are cured...

— Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary[179]

Stephen's first legend, the so-called Greater Legend, was written between 1077 and 1083.[180] It provided an idealized portrait of the king,[181] one who dedicated himself and his kingdom to the Virgin Mary.[180] However, Stephen's Lesser Legend—composed around 1100,[181] under King Coloman[180]—emphasized Stephen's severity.[181] A third legend, also composed during King Coloman's reign by Bishop Hartvic, was based on the two existing legends.[180] Sanctioned in 1201 by Pope Innocent III, Hartvic's work served as Stephen's official legend.[180] Gábor Klaniczay wrote that Stephen's legends "opened a new chapter in the legends of holy rulers as a genre", suggesting that a monarch can achieve sainthood through actively using his royal powers.[182] Stephen was the first triumphant miles Christi ("Christ's soldier") among the canonized monarchs.[183] He was also a "confessor king", one who had not suffered martyrdom, whose cult was sanctioned, in contrast with earlier holy monarchs.[184]

Stephen's cult spread beyond the borders of Hungary. Initially, he was primarily venerated in Scheyern and Bamberg, in Bavaria, but his relics were also taken to Aachen, Cologne, Montecassino and Namur.[170] Upon the liberation of Buda from the Ottoman Turks, Pope Innocent XI expanded King Saint Stephen's cult to the entire Roman Catholic Church in 1686,[170] and declared 2 September his feast day.[161][170] As the feast of Saint Joachim was moved, in 1969, from 16 August,[185] the day immediately following the day of Stephen's death, Stephen's feast was moved to that date.[186] Stephen is venerated as the patron saint of Hungary,[170] and regarded as the protector of kings, masons, stonecutters, stonemasons and bricklayers,[187] and also of children suffering from severe illnesses.[187] His canonization was recognized by Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople in 2000.[188] In the calendar of the Hungarian Catholic Church, Stephen's feast is observed on 20 August, the day on which his relics were translated.[170] In addition, a separate feast day (30 May) is dedicated to his "Holy Dexter".[170]

Holy Dexter

A mumified hand, with a strip decorated with pearls on it, in a gilded box
The Holy Right displayed in St. Stephen's Basilica, Budapest

Stephen's intact dexter, or right hand (Hungarian: Szent Jobb), became the subject of a cult.[178][189] A cleric named Mercurius stole it, but it was discovered on 30 May 1084 in Bihar County.[177] The theft of sacred relics, or furta sacra, had by that time become a popular topic of saints' biographies.[190] Bishop Hartvic described the discovery of Stephen's right hand in accordance with this tradition, referring to adventures and visions.[190] An abbey erected in Bihar County (now Sâniob, Romania) was named after and dedicated to the veneration of the Holy Dexter.[178]

Why is it, brothers, that his other limbs having become disjointed and, his flesh having been reduced to dust, wholly separated, only the right hand, its skin and sinews adhering to the bones, preserved the beauty of wholeness? I surmise that the inscrutability of divine judgement sought to proclaim by the extraordinary nature of this fact nothing less than that the work of love and alms surpasses the measure of all other virtues. ... The right hand of the blessed man was deservedly exempt from putrefaction, because always reflourishing from the flower of kindness it was never empty from giving gifts to nourish the poor.

— Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary[191]

The Holy Dexter was kept for centuries in the Szentjobb Abbey, except during the Mongol invasion of 1241 and 1242, when it was transferred to Ragusa (now Dubrovnik, Croatia).[189] The relic was then taken to Székesfehérvár around 1420.[189] Following the Ottoman occupation of the central territories of the Kingdom of Hungary in the mid-16th century, it was guarded in many places, including Bosnia, Ragusa and Vienna.[192] It was returned to Hungary in 1771, when Queen Maria Theresa donated it to the cloister of the Sisters of Loreto in Buda.[192] It was kept in Buda Castle's St. Sigismund Chapel between around 1900 and 1944, in a cave near Salzburg in 1944 and 1945, and again by the Sisters of Loreto in Buda, between 1945 and 1950. Finally, since 1950, the Holy Dexter has been in St. Stephen's Basilica in Budapest.[192] An annual procession celebrating the relic was instituted in 1938, and continued until 1950, when the procession was forbidden by the Communist government. It was resumed in 1988.[192]

Admonitions

According to Stephen's Greater Legend, the king "himself compiled a book for his son on moral education".[193] This work, now known as Admonitions or De institutione morum,[194] was preserved in manuscripts written in the Late Middle Ages. Although scholars debate whether it can actually be attributed to the king or a cleric, most of them agree that it was composed in the first decades of the 11th century.[54][195]

The Admonitions argues that kingship is inseparably connected with the Catholic faith.[54][195] Its author emphasized that a monarch is required to make donations to the Church and regularly consult his prelates, but is entitled to punish clergymen who do wrong.[54] One of its basic ideas was that a sovereign has to cooperate with the "pillars of his rule", meaning the prelates, aristocrats, ispáns and warriors.[195]

My dearest son, if you desire to honor the royal crown, I advise, I counsel, I urge you above all things to maintain the Catholic and Apostolic faith with such diligence and care that you may be an example for all those placed under you by God, and that all the clergy may rightly call you a man of true Christian profession. Failing to do this, you may be sure that you will not be called a Christian or a son of the Church. Indeed, in the royal palace, after the faith itself, the Church holds second place, first constituted and spread through the whole world by His members, the apostles and holy fathers, And though she always produced fresh offspring, nevertheless in certain places she is regarded as ancient. However, dearest son, even now in our kingdom the Church is proclaimed as young and newly planted; and for that reason she needs more prudent and trustworthy guardians lest a benefit which the divine mercy bestowed on us undeservedly should be destroyed and annihilated through your idleness, indolence or neglect.

— Stephen's Admonitions to his son, Emeric[196]

In arts

A mumified hand, with a strip decorated with pearls on it, in a gilded box
Church of Saint Sava, Belgrade

King St Stephen has been a popular theme in Hungarian poetry since the end of the 13th century.[197] The earliest poems were religious hymns which portrayed the holy king as the apostle of the Hungarians. Secular poetry, especially poems written for his feast day, followed a similar pattern, emphasizing Stephen's role as the first king of Hungary.[197] Poets described Stephen as the symbol of national identity and independence and of the ability of the Hungarian nation to survive historical cataclysms during the Communist regime between 1949 and 1989.[197]

A popular hymn, still sung in the churches, was first recorded in the late 18th century.[197] It hails King St. Stephen as "radiant star of Hungarians".[197] Ludwig van Beethoven composed his King Stephen Overture for the inauguration of the Hungarian theatre in Pest in 1812.[198] According to musician James M. Keller, "[t]he descending unisons that open the King Stephen Overture would seem to prefigure the opening of the Ninth Symphony; ... [a]nd then a later theme, introduced by flutes and clarinets, seems almost to be a variation ... of the famous Ode 'To Joy' melody of the Ninth Symphony's finale".[198] Hungarian composer Ferenc Erkel named his last complete opera from 1885, István király ("King Stephen"), after him.[199] In 1938, Zoltán Kodály wrote a choral piece titled Ének Szent István Királyhoz ("Hymn to King Stephen").[200] In 1983, Levente Szörényi and János Bródy composed a rock opera—István, a király ("Stephen, the King")—about the early years of his reign. Seventeen years later, in 2000, Szörényi composed a sequel called Veled, Uram! ("You, Sir").[201]

See also

References

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  10. ^ John Skylitzes: A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057 (ch. 11.5.), p. 231.
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