Countries with research stations in Antarctica. Countries with active research stations (orange), countries with inactive or no research stations (grey).
Multiple governments have set up permanent research stations in Antarctica and these bases are widely distributed. Unlike the drifting ice stations set up in the Arctic, the current research stations of the Antarctic are constructed either on rocks or on ice that are (for practical purposes) fixed in place.
Many of these stations are staffed throughout the year. Of the 56 signatories to the Antarctic Treaty, a total of 55 countries (as of 2023)[1] operate seasonal (summer) and year-round research stations on the continent. The number of people performing and supporting scientific research on the continent and nearby islands varies from approximately 4,800 during the summer to around 1,200 during the winter (June).[2] In addition to these permanent stations, approximately 30 field camps are established each summer to support specific projects.[3][dubious – discuss]
During the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the late 19th century, the first bases on the continent were established. In 1898, Carsten Borchgrevink, a Norwegian/British explorer, led the British Antarctic Expedition to Cape Adare, where he established the first Antarctic base on Ridley Beach. This expedition is often referred to now as the Southern Cross Expedition, after the expedition's ship name. Most of the staff were Norwegian, but the funds for the expedition were British, provided by Sir George Newnes. The 10 members of this expedition explored Robertson Bay to the west of Cape Adare by dog teams, and later, after being picked up by the ship at the base, went ashore on the Ross Ice Shelf for brief journeys. The expedition hut is still in good condition and is visited frequently by tourists.
The hut was later occupied by Scott's Northern Party under the command of Victor Campbell for a year in 1911, after its attempt to explore the eastern end of the ice shelf discovered Roald Amundsen already ashore preparing for his assault on the South Pole.
In 1903, William S. Bruce's Scottish National Antarctic Expedition set off to Antarctica, with one of its aims to establish a meteorological station in the area. After the expedition failed to find land, Bruce decided to head back to Laurie Island in the South Orkneys and find an anchorage there.[4] The islands were well-situated as a site for a meteorological station, and their relative proximity to the South American mainland allowed a permanent station to be established.[5] Bruce instituted a comprehensive program of work, involving meteorological readings, trawling for marine samples, botanical excursions, and the collection of biological and geological specimens.[4]
The major task completed during this time was the construction of a stone building, christened "Omond House".[6] This was to act as living accommodation for the parties that would remain on Laurie Island to operate the proposed meteorological laboratory. The building was constructed from local materials using the dry stone method, with a roof improvised from wood and canvas sheeting. The completed house was 20 feet by 20 feet square (6m × 6m), with two windows, fitted as quarters for six people. Rudmose Brown wrote: "Considering that we had no mortar and no masons' tools it is a wonderfully fine house and very lasting. I should think it will be standing a century hence ..."[7]
Bruce later offered to transfer the station and instruments to Argentina on the condition that the government committed itself to the continuation of the scientific mission.[8] Bruce informed the British officer William Haggard of his intentions in December 1903, and Haggard ratified the terms of Bruce's proposition.[9]
The Scotia sailed back for Laurie Island on 14 January 1904, transporting Argentinean officials from the Ministry of Agriculture, National Meteorological Office, Ministry of Livestock and National Postal and Telegraphs Office. In 1906, Argentina communicated to the international community the establishment of a permanent base on the South Orkney Islands.
Expansion
Orcadas Base, c. 1927
Little happened for the following forty years.
The United States starting under the leadership of Admiral Richard E. Byrd constructed a series of five bases near the Bay of Whales named Little America between 1929 and 1958. All of them have now drifted off to sea on icebergs.
Before the start of the Second World War, German aircraft had dropped markers with swastikas across Queen Maud Land in an attempt to create a territorial claim (New Swabia).[10]
In 1943 the British launched Operation Tabarin, to establish a presence on the continent. The chief reason was to establish solid British claims to various uninhabited islands and parts of Antarctica, reinforced by Argentine sympathies toward Germany.
Led by Lieutenant James Marr, the 14-strong team left the Falkland Islands in two ships, HMS William Scoresby (a minesweeping trawler) and HMS Fitzroy, on Saturday, January 29, 1944. Marr had accompanied the British explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton on his final Antarctic expedition in 1921–22. Bases were established during February near the abandoned Norwegian whaling station on Deception Island, where the Union Flag was hoisted in place of Argentine flags, and at Port Lockroy (on February 11) on the coast of Graham Land. A further base was founded at Hope Bay on February 13, 1945, after a failed attempt to unload stores on February 7, 1944. These were the first permanent bases to be constructed on the Antarctic mainland.[11]
Discovery Hut (1902) at Hut Point Peninsula of Ross Island, Antarctica, one of the earliest repeatedly temporarily used dwellings on Antarctica. In the background McMurdo Station, the largest on Antarctica today, with cargo operations of the supply ship MV American Tern of Operation Deep Freeze 2007.
The Antarctic Treaty, first signed on 1 December 1959 by 12 countries, stated that scientific investigations in research stations in Antarctica can continue, but all observations must be shared.[13] The Antarctic Treaty also stated that Antarctica can only be used for peaceful purposes and any exploitation of the continent such as mining is forbidden, thus scientific research is the only activity that may be performed on Antarctica.[14] As more countries established research stations on Antarctica, the number of signatories of the treaty increased, with 56 signatories as of 2023, 55 of whom utilize their rights and operate research stations in Antarctica.[13] 7 of the signatories also laid claims on Antarctica (and 4 reserved their rights to do so), with the intention of expanding research in those territories in the future. However, research facilities have also been established by countries in the claimed area of other countries.
Permanent active stations
The percentage of the summer Antarctic population (formed by Antarctic and Subantarctic research stations) each country makes up[needs update]
United States (24.98%)
Argentina (12.66%)
Chile (9.87%)
United Kingdom (6.13%)
France (6.03%)
Australia (5.88%)
Russia (5.30%)
Japan (3.53%)
China (3.45%)
Italy (3.22%)
South Africa (2.86%)
South Korea (2.70%)
India (1.89%)
Germany (1.70%)
New Zealand (1.62%)
Spain (1.25%)
Norway (1.21%)
Other (5.72%)
The United States maintains the southernmost base, Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the largest base and research station in Antarctica, McMurdo Station. The second-southernmost base is the Chinese Kunlun Station at 80°25′2″S during the summer season, and the Russian Vostok Station at 78°27′50″S during the winter season.
Active research stations in the South Shetland Islands. Red squares represent summer-only stations.
Inactive stations
Impact and pollution
A private Il-76 airplane landing onto a ice runway at Union Glacier (upper-left), which causes black carbon concentrations to increase in the surrounding snow (right), as observed through sample collection (lower-left).[46]
In 2023 a research report from an Australian team[47] found that the pollution left by international research stations was comparable to that seen in some of the busiest ports in the world.
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^ a bRudmose Brown, R. N.; Pirie, J. H.; Mossman, R. C. (2002). The Voyage of the Scotia. Edinburgh: Mercat Press. pp. 34–57. ISBN 1-84183-044-5.
^Rudmose Brown, Pirie & Mossman 2002, p. 57.
^"Voyage of the Scotia 1902–04: The Antarctic". Glasgow Digital Library. Archived from the original on 2008-03-11. Retrieved 2008-06-30.
^Speak, Peter (2003). William Speirs Bruce: Polar Explorer and Scottish Nationalist. Edinburgh: NMS Publishing. p. 85. ISBN 1-901663-71-X.
^Escude, Carlos; Cisneros, Andres. "Historia General de las Relaciones Exteriores de la Republica Argentina" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on May 4, 2012. Retrieved July 6, 2012.
^Moneta, Jose Manuel (1954). Cuatro Años en las Orcadas del Sur (9th ed.). Ediciones Peuser.
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^China opens first Antarctic research station due south of Australia and New Zealand ABC News, 8 February 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024
^Zhao Lei, China opens fifth Antarctic research station China Daily via Asia News Network, 8 February 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
^"Rothera Station R". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
^"San Martín Base" (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Fundación Marambio. 2024. Retrieved 27 April 2024.
^"Bird Island Station BI". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
^"King Edward Pont Station M". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
^"La Antartida". Archived from the original on 2014-05-12. Retrieved 2014-05-11.
^"Port Lockroy Diaries". United Kingdom Antarctic Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 20 December 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2018.
^"History of Port Lockroy (Station A)". British Antarctic Survey. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
^"Signy Station H". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
^"中国正式建成南极泰山科考站". 8 February 2014. Archived from the original on 2014-02-10. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
^Varetto, Gianni (August 24, 2017). "Belarusian Antarctic Research Vechernyaya Station (WAP BLR-New)". Worldwide Antarctic Program. Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved October 30, 2017.
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^"Dumont d'Urville". Institute Polaire Français. Archived from the original on 12 May 2021. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
^Dubrovin, L.I.; Petrov, V.N. (1971). Scientific Stations in Antarctica 1882-1963 [Nauchnye Stanstii V Antarktike 1882-1963] (PDF). Gidrometeorologicheskoe Izdatel'stvo. New Delhi: Indian National Scientific Documentation Center. pp. 327–329. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-01-12. Retrieved 2021-05-28.
^"History of Faraday (Station F)". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^Varetto, Gianni (2017). "Giacomo Bove Station". Worldwide Antarctic Program. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018. Retrieved 8 October 2018.
^"Deception Island Station B". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^"Sandefjord Bay Station C". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 7 October 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^"Hope Bay Station D". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^"Stonington Island Station E". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^"Admiralty Bay Station G". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^"Prospect Point Station J". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^"Anvers Island Station N". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^"Danco Island Station O". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^"Adelaide Station T". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^"View Point Station V". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 7 October 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^"Detaille Island Station W". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 7 October 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^"Horseshoe Island Station Y". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
^Cordero, Raúl R.; Sepúlveda, Edgardo; Feron, Sarah; Damiani, Alessandro; Fernandoy, Francisco; Neshyba, Steven; Rowe, Penny M.; Asencio, Valentina; Carrasco, Jorge; Alfonso, Juan A.; Llanillo, Pedro (22 February 2022). "Black carbon footprint of human presence in Antarctica". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 984. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13..984C. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-28560-w. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 8863810. PMID 35194040.
^Antarctic pollution by researchers surfaces in new report Green Prophet, 10 September 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2024
COMNAP Antarctic Facilities Map, 2009 (Archived September 15, 2009, at the Wayback Machine)
Antarctic Exploration Timeline, animated map of Antarctic exploration and settlement, showing where and when Antarctic research stations were established
