En los estudios políticos , se han realizado encuestas para construir clasificaciones históricas del éxito de los presidentes de los Estados Unidos . Los sistemas de clasificación suelen basarse en encuestas de historiadores académicos y politólogos o en la opinión popular. Las clasificaciones académicas se centran en los logros presidenciales, las cualidades de liderazgo, los fracasos y las fallas. [1] [2] [3]
Las encuestas de opinión popular suelen centrarse en presidentes recientes o conocidos.
El Instituto de Investigación del Siena College ha realizado encuestas en 1982, 1990, 1994, 2002, 2010, 2018 y 2022, durante el segundo año del primer mandato de cada presidente desde Ronald Reagan. [8] Estas encuestas recogen clasificaciones presidenciales de historiadores, politólogos y académicos presidenciales en una variedad de atributos, habilidades y logros. [9] La encuesta de 1994 colocó a solo dos presidentes, Franklin D. Roosevelt y Abraham Lincoln, por encima de los 80 puntos y a dos presidentes, Andrew Johnson y Warren G. Harding, por debajo de los 50 puntos. [10] [11]
En 1996, William J. Ridings Jr. y Stuart B. McIver realizaron y publicaron una encuesta y, en 1997, un libro complementario sobre los resultados de la encuesta. [12] En la encuesta participaron 719 personas, principalmente historiadores académicos y politólogos, aunque también participaron algunos políticos y celebridades. Se incluyeron participantes de todos los estados y se hizo hincapié en obtener aportes de historiadoras y "especialistas en estudios afroamericanos ", así como de algunos historiadores no estadounidenses. Los encuestados calificaron a los presidentes en cinco categorías (cualidades de liderazgo, logros, gestión de crisis, habilidad política, nombramientos y carácter e integridad) y los resultados se tabularon para crear la clasificación general. [ se necesita una fuente no primaria ]
2000–2017
En 2005, James Lindgren realizó una encuesta presidencial para la Federalist Society y The Wall Street Journal . [13] [14] Al igual que en la encuesta de 2000, los editores buscaron equilibrar las opiniones de liberales y conservadores, ajustando los resultados "para dar a los académicos de tendencia demócrata y republicana el mismo peso". Franklin D. Roosevelt todavía se ubicó entre los tres primeros, pero el editor James Taranto señaló que los académicos de tendencia demócrata calificaron a George W. Bush como el sexto peor presidente de todos los tiempos, mientras que los académicos republicanos lo calificaron como el sexto mejor, lo que le dio una calificación de "promedio" por decisión dividida. [13]
En 2008, el diario londinense The Times pidió a ocho de sus "principales comentaristas internacionales y políticos" que clasificaran a los 42 presidentes "en orden de grandeza". [15]
La Encuesta C-SPAN sobre Liderazgo Presidencial consiste en clasificaciones de un grupo de historiadores y biógrafos presidenciales. La Encuesta C-SPAN sobre Liderazgo Presidencial se ha realizado cuatro veces: en 2000, 2009, 2017 y 2021. [16] [17] [18] [19] La encuesta de 2021 fue de 142 historiadores presidenciales, encuestados por el Equipo de Asesores Académicos de C-SPAN, compuesto por Douglas G. Brinkley , Edna Greene Medford , Richard Norton Smith y Amity Shlaes . En la encuesta, cada historiador califica a cada presidente en una escala de uno ("no efectivo") a 10 ("muy efectivo") en liderazgo presidencial en diez categorías: Persuasión pública, Liderazgo en crisis, Gestión económica, Autoridad moral, Relaciones internacionales, Habilidades administrativas, Relaciones con el Congreso, Visión/Establecimiento de una agenda, Búsqueda de justicia igualitaria para todos y Desempeño dentro del contexto de su época, con cada categoría ponderada por igual. [20] Los resultados de las cuatro encuestas de C-SPAN han sido bastante consistentes. Abraham Lincoln ha obtenido la clasificación más alta en cada encuesta y George Washington, Franklin D. Roosevelt y Theodore Roosevelt siempre han estado entre los cinco primeros, mientras que James Buchanan , Andrew Johnson y Franklin Pierce han estado en la parte inferior de las cuatro encuestas. [18] [ necesita actualización ]
La encuesta de 2011, la primera en la que se pedía a académicos del Reino Unido que calificaran a los presidentes estadounidenses, fue realizada por el Centro de la Presidencia de los Estados Unidos (USPC) en el Instituto para el Estudio de las Américas (ubicado en la Escuela de Estudios Avanzados de la Universidad de Londres ). En ella se sondeó la opinión de especialistas británicos en historia y política estadounidenses para evaluar el desempeño presidencial. También se hizo una evaluación provisional de Barack Obama , pero su presidencia, que entonces no había terminado, no se incluyó en la encuesta (de haberlo incluido, habría obtenido el octavo puesto en la general). [21]
En 2012, Newsweek pidió a un panel de historiadores que clasificaran a los diez mejores presidentes desde 1900. Los resultados mostraron que los historiadores habían clasificado a Franklin D. Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt, Lyndon B. Johnson, Woodrow Wilson , Harry S. Truman, John F. Kennedy, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Bill Clinton , Ronald Reagan y Barack Obama como los mejores desde ese año. [22]
Una encuesta de 2015 administrada por la Asociación Estadounidense de Ciencias Políticas (APSA) entre politólogos especializados en la presidencia estadounidense colocó a Abraham Lincoln en el primer lugar, con George Washington, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, Harry S. Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Bill Clinton, Andrew Jackson y Woodrow Wilson entre los 10 primeros. [23]
Una encuesta realizada en 2016 a 71 especialistas británicos por la Presidential History Network arrojó resultados similares a la encuesta de 2011 de la USPC, con Barack Obama ubicado en el primer cuartil. [24] [25]
2018-presente
En 2018, se envió una segunda encuesta de expertos del Proyecto de Grandeza Presidencial a los miembros de la sección de Presidentes y Política Ejecutiva de la APSA, que clasificó a Donald Trump por primera vez, colocándolo en la última posición. [26] En la edición de 2024, Trump obtuvo 10,92 puntos sobre 100, fácilmente el peor, mientras que los historiadores autoidentificados como republicanos calificaron a Trump entre los últimos cinco. [27] Los organizadores del estudio notaron una caída en las puntuaciones de los presidentes republicanos recientes al especular que los encuestados dan más peso a la lealtad de un presidente hacia las normas políticas e institucionales. [28] [29] La primera versión de esta encuesta se realizó en 2015. [30]
La encuesta Siena de 2018 a 157 académicos presidenciales informó que George Washington, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln, Theodore Roosevelt y Thomas Jefferson eran los cinco principales presidentes de Estados Unidos, y el director del SCRI, Don Levy, afirmó: "Los cinco primeros, el Monte Rushmore más FDR, están tallados en granito con los historiadores presidenciales...". [31] Donald Trump, que ingresa a la encuesta del SCRI por primera vez, se unió a Andrew Johnson y James Buchanan entre los tres últimos presidentes estadounidenses. George W. Bush, a quien los académicos presidenciales habían calificado en el quinto lugar más bajo en la encuesta anterior de 2010, mejoró en posición al duodécimo lugar más bajo. La encuesta Siena de 2022 tuvo a Franklin Roosevelt en primer lugar, Lincoln en segundo y Washington en tercer lugar, con los tres últimos como Trump, Buchanan y Johnson.
La encuesta C-SPAN de 2021 mostró una reciente rehabilitación continua de Ulysses Grant, mostró a George W. Bush mejorando, a Obama manteniéndose en un lugar alto y a Trump con el cuarto puesto más bajo. [32]
Resumen de la encuesta para académicos
Dentro de cada columna
Los fondos azules indican clasificaciones en el primer cuartil.
Los fondos verdes indican clasificaciones en el segundo cuartil.
Los fondos de color verde amarillento indican la clasificación media de un número impar de presidentes. [a]
Los fondos amarillos indican clasificaciones en el tercer cuartil.
Los fondos de color naranja indican clasificaciones en el cuarto cuartil.
At leftmost column head, click "triangles" to view the in-office order of each president. At each survey column head, click on "triangles" to view the ranking order for each president in that survey.Desplácese por el centro de la tabla. Los encabezados permanecerán visibles. Para visualizar la tabla completa a la vez, haga clic en "[deshabilitar]" en la parte superior izquierda.
La mayoría de las encuestas del siglo XXI consideraron a James Buchanan (izquierda), predecesor de Lincoln, como el peor presidente por su liderazgo durante la preparación para la Guerra Civil. Varias clasificaron al sucesor de Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, en último lugar por bloquear los derechos civiles de los esclavos liberados y socavar la Reconstrucción . Donald Trump , clasificado por primera vez en 2018, ha estado consistentemente entre los cuatro últimos y dos veces en el último lugar, debido a que rompió normas de larga data como la transición pacífica del poder , un precedente de los Estados Unidos que no se rompió desde que Washington lo estableció por primera vez en 1797.
Los primeros cinco presidentes (Washington, John Adams , Jefferson, James Madison y James Monroe ) fueron todos Padres Fundadores (también conocidos como " redactores ") y han sido clasificados consistentemente en el 50% superior, con Washington generalmente entre los tres primeros y Jefferson generalmente entre los cinco primeros.
Otra era presidencial considerada excepcional por los historiadores es la Segunda Guerra Mundial y la era de posguerra de mediados del siglo XX, con Roosevelt clasificándose consistentemente entre los tres primeros, Harry S. Truman y Dwight D. Eisenhower entre los diez primeros, y John F. Kennedy y Lyndon B. Johnson entre los 20 primeros.
Encuestas de académicos destacados
1982 Murray-Bendición
La encuesta Murray-Blessing de 1982 preguntó a los historiadores si eran liberales o conservadores en cuestiones domésticas, sociales y económicas. [43] La tabla siguiente muestra que los dos grupos tenían solo pequeñas diferencias en la clasificación de los mejores y peores presidentes. Ambos grupos estuvieron de acuerdo en la composición de nueve de los diez mejores presidentes (y estaban divididos sobre la inclusión de Lyndon B. Johnson o Dwight D. Eisenhower) y seis de los peores siete (divididos sobre Jimmy Carter o Calvin Coolidge ).
Colegio Siena 2010
Abreviaturas
Bg = Fondo
PL = Liderazgo del partido
CAb = Capacidad de comunicación
RC = Relaciones con el Congreso
CAp = Nombramientos judiciales
HE = Manejo de la economía
L = suerte
AC = Capacidad de compromiso
WR = Dispuesto a tomar riesgos
EAp = Nombramientos ejecutivos
OA = Capacidad general
Im = Imaginación
DA = Logros nacionales
Int = Integridad
EAb = Capacidad ejecutiva
FPA = Logros en política exterior
LA = Capacidad de liderazgo
CI = Inteligencia
AM = Evitar errores cruciales
EV = Visión de los expertos
O = General
Los fondos azules indican el primer cuartil.
Los fondos verdes indican el segundo cuartil.
Los fondos de color verde amarillento indican la mediana.
Los fondos amarillos indican el tercer cuartil.
Los fondos de color naranja indican el cuarto cuartil.
Fuente: [44]
2011 USPC
En septiembre/octubre de 2010, el Centro de la Presidencia de los Estados Unidos (USPC) del Instituto para el Estudio de las Américas de la Universidad de Londres encuestó a 47 especialistas británicos en historia y política estadounidenses. Los presidentes fueron calificados del 1 al 10 en cinco categorías:
visión/establecimiento de la agenda: "¿Tuvo el presidente la claridad de visión necesaria para establecer objetivos generales para su administración y dar forma a los términos del discurso político?"
liderazgo interno: "¿Demostró el presidente la habilidad política necesaria para lograr sus objetivos internos y responder eficazmente a acontecimientos imprevistos?"
Liderazgo en política exterior: "¿Fue el presidente un líder eficaz en la promoción de los intereses de la política exterior y la seguridad nacional de Estados Unidos?"
autoridad moral: "¿Defendió el presidente la autoridad moral de su cargo a través de su carácter, valores y conducta?"
Importancia histórica positiva del legado: "¿El legado del presidente tuvo beneficios positivos para el desarrollo de Estados Unidos a lo largo del tiempo?"
William Henry Harrison (1841) y James Garfield (1881) no fueron clasificados porque murieron poco después de asumir el cargo. Barack Obama (2009–) ocupó el octavo lugar en la clasificación provisional en enero de 2011, pero no fue contabilizado en los resultados finales (y, por lo tanto, no afectó las clasificaciones de otros presidentes) porque aún no había completado un mandato. [21]
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945) ocupó el primer lugar en general y en las categorías de visión/agenda, liderazgo interno y liderazgo en política exterior. Washington ocupó el primer lugar por su autoridad moral y Lincoln por su legado. Morgan cree que es probable que la clasificación de Roosevelt (que sólo superó marginalmente a la de Lincoln) haya subido porque la encuesta se realizó durante los peores problemas económicos desde la década de 1930. [21]
De los presidentes desde 1960, sólo Ronald Reagan y (en los resultados provisionales) Barack Obama se situaron entre los diez primeros; Obama fue el presidente mejor clasificado desde Harry Truman (1945-1953). La mayoría de los otros presidentes recientes ocuparon puestos intermedios, aunque George W. Bush se ubicó entre los diez últimos, el presidente peor clasificado desde Warren Harding (1921-1923). Lyndon Johnson (1963-1969) "habría quedado mucho más arriba en reconocimiento a sus logros en materia de derechos civiles si no fuera por el efecto corrosivo de Vietnam en sus puntuaciones de política exterior y autoridad moral". Al igual que en las encuestas de Estados Unidos, los cinco últimos (aparte de Harding) fueron presidentes antes y después de la Guerra Civil. [21]
Una de las diferencias más significativas con respecto a las encuestas estadounidenses es la relativamente baja posición que ocupa John F. Kennedy (1961-1963), que quedó en el puesto 15. Los académicos británicos "parecen criticar a JFK por la brecha entre su retórica y sus logros sustantivos como presidente". [21]
Abreviaturas
VSA = Visión/Establecer una agenda
DL = Liderazgo interno
FPL = Liderazgo en política exterior
MA = Autoridad moral
HL = Legado histórico (significado positivo de)
O = General
Los fondos azules indican el primer cuartil.
Los fondos verdes indican el segundo cuartil.
Los fondos amarillos indican el tercer cuartil.
Los fondos de color naranja indican el cuarto cuartil.
Cada categoría se clasifica según su puntuación numérica media (entre paréntesis). Fuente: [37]
2016 Filipinas
En 2016, la Presidential History Network encuestó a 71 especialistas británicos e irlandeses. Las preguntas fueron las mismas que en la encuesta de la USPC, que fue dirigida por algunas de las mismas personas. Algunos encuestados no calificaron a presidentes con los que no estaban familiarizados. El número mínimo de respuestas (62) fue para los presidentes más bien oscuros e intrascendentes Hayes, Arthur, Cleveland y Benjamin Harrison. Entre 69 y 70 calificaron a todos los presidentes recientes, desde FDR en adelante. [24]
Abreviaturas
VSA = Visión/Establecer una agenda
DL = Liderazgo interno
FPL = Liderazgo en política exterior
MA = Autoridad moral
HL = Legado histórico (significado positivo de)
O = General
Los fondos azules indican el primer cuartil.
Los fondos verdes indican el segundo cuartil.
Los fondos de color verde amarillento indican la mediana.
Los fondos amarillos indican el tercer cuartil.
Los fondos de color naranja indican el cuarto cuartil.
Cada categoría se clasifica según su puntuación numérica media. Fuente: [25]
2017 C-SPAN
Abreviaturas
PP = Persuasión pública
CL = Liderazgo en crisis
EM = Gestión económica
MA = Autoridad moral
IR = Relaciones internacionales
AS = Habilidades administrativas
RC = Relaciones con el Congreso
VSA = Visión/Establecer una agenda
PEJ = Persiguió la justicia igualitaria para todos
PCT = Rendimiento en el contexto de los tiempos
O = General
Los fondos azules indican el primer cuartil.
Los fondos verdes indican el segundo cuartil.
Los fondos de color verde amarillento indican la mediana.
Los fondos amarillos indican el tercer cuartil.
Los fondos de color naranja indican el cuarto cuartil.
Fuente: [45]
Colegio Siena 2018
El 13 de febrero de 2019, Siena publicó su sexta encuesta presidencial. [46]
La encuesta se inició en 1982 y se lleva a cabo un año después del mandato de cada nuevo presidente. Actualmente, se trata de una encuesta a 157 académicos presidenciales que analizan una variedad de parámetros de liderazgo.
El ranking otorgó los cinco primeros puestos a George Washington, Franklin Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln, Theodore Roosevelt y Thomas Jefferson, en consonancia con las encuestas anteriores. Washington había ocupado el cuarto puesto en todas las encuestas anteriores, y Franklin Roosevelt el primero.
(Los números a continuación no coinciden con la fuente donde hay empates en las clasificaciones. En cambio, se han contabilizado como si hubiera empates en otras encuestas (por ejemplo, 26, 27, 27, 27, 30 en lugar de 26, 27, 27, 27, 28 ), de modo que todas las categorías abarcan el rango 1–44).
Abreviaturas
Bg = Fondo
Im = Imaginación
Int = Integridad
CI = Inteligencia
L = suerte
WR = Dispuesto a tomar riesgos
AC = Capacidad de compromiso
EAb = Capacidad ejecutiva
LA = Capacidad de liderazgo
CAb = Capacidad de comunicación
OA = Capacidad general
PL = Liderazgo del partido
RC = Relaciones con el Congreso
CAp = Nombramientos judiciales
HE = Manejo de la economía
EAp = Nombramientos ejecutivos
DA = Logros nacionales
FPA = Logros en política exterior
AM = Evitar errores cruciales
EV = Visión de los expertos
O = General
Los fondos azules indican el primer cuartil.
Los fondos verdes indican el segundo cuartil.
Los fondos amarillos indican el tercer cuartil.
Los fondos de color naranja indican el cuarto cuartil.
2021 C-SPAN
Abreviaturas
PP = Persuasión pública
CL = Liderazgo en crisis
EM = Gestión económica
MA = Autoridad moral
IR = Relaciones internacionales
AS = Habilidades administrativas
RC = Relaciones con el Congreso
VSA = Visión/Establecer una agenda
PEJ = Persiguió la justicia igualitaria para todos
PCT = Rendimiento en el contexto de los tiempos
O = General
Los fondos azules indican el primer cuartil.
Los fondos verdes indican el segundo cuartil.
Los fondos amarillos indican el tercer cuartil.
Los fondos de color naranja indican el cuarto cuartil.
Fuente: [47]
2022 Siena College
The Siena College Research Institute released their seventh poll results on June 22, 2022. The best 10% and worst 10% remain unchanged from their 2018 poll (top five: F. D. Roosevelt, Lincoln, Washington, T. Roosevelt, Jefferson; bottom five: A. Johnson, Buchanan, Trump, Harding, Pierce). 41% of the scholars polled said that if a president were to be added to Mount Rushmore, it should be FDR. 63% believed that the president should be elected by a national popular vote; whereas, 17% supported the Electoral College.[48]
A year into his term, Joe Biden entered the ranking in the second quartile, at nineteenth place out of 45. Among recent presidents, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Barack Obama moved up in the rankings, while George W. Bush and Donald Trump moved down, though part of the downward shift was due to the addition of a new president to the poll. Counting from the other direction, Trump remained unchanged at third place from last. The changes were relatively small (one or two places), apart from Obama, who moved up six places (14%) to eleventh place, in the first quartile. Notable shifts among earlier presidents included the continuing rehabilitation of Lyndon Johnson, up 8 places into the first quartile, and of Ulysses Grant, up 3 places (up 8 in the individual evaluations) into the second quartile; and the lessening appreciation of Andrew Jackson, down 4 places to the median (down 7, into the third quartile, in the individual evaluations); Ronald Reagan, down 5 places, remaining in the second quartile; and Zachary Taylor, down 6 places into the fourth quartile.[49]
Abbreviations
Bg = Background (family, education, experience)
Im = Imagination
Int = Integrity
IQ = Intelligence
L = Luck
WR = Willing to take risks
AC = Ability to compromise
EAb = Executive ability
LA = Leadership ability
CAb = Communication ability (speak, write)
OA = Overall ability
PL = Party leadership
RC = Relationship with Congress
CAp = Court appointments
HE = Handling of U.S. economy
EAp = Executive appointments
DA = Domestic accomplishments
FPA = Foreign policy accomplishments
AM = Avoiding crucial mistakes
PV = Present overall view [the average ranking of the polled experts][k]
O = Overall rank [the average of the individual parameters][l]
Blue backgrounds indicate first quartile.
Green backgrounds indicate second quartile.
Yellow-green backgrounds indicate the median.
Yellow backgrounds indicate third quartile.
Orange backgrounds indicate fourth quartile.
Source: Siena College Research Institute: 2022 Survey of U.S. Presidents
^Quartiles were determined by splitting the data into an upper and lower half and then splitting these halves each into two quartiles. When splitting an odd total number of rankings, the median is given an intermediate color.
^ a b cGrover Cleveland was elected to two non-consecutive terms, serving as both the 22nd and 24th president of the United States; he is the only person to have held the office in non-consecutive terms. Because Cleveland had two presidencies, the number of persons who have served as president is one less than the number of presidents in order of succession.
^ a b c dWilliam Henry Harrison and James Garfield are sometimes omitted from rankings of the presidents because of the brevity of their terms in office. In addition to Grover Cleveland's two presidential numbers, this contributes to the number of ranks assigned by some sources being less than the presidential complement of the era.
^ a b c d e fTyler was elected on the Whig ticket as Harrison's vice president, but Tyler became an independent after the Whigs expelled him from the party in 1841.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x yUnderline within a column indicates a given survey's lowest-ranking president (or presidents, in the event of a tie for last place).
^ a b c d e fWhen he ran for reelection in 1864, Republican Abraham Lincoln formed a bipartisan electoral alliance with War Democrats by selecting Democrat Andrew Johnson as his running mate, and running on the National Union Party ticket. Not until 1868, long after the National Union Party had disbanded, did Johnson rejoin the Democratic Party.
^ a b c d e f gItalics within row indicate rank awarded before president had completed term in office.
^Obama would place 8th based on provisional scores of the USPC 2011 survey, but was not given a ranking in the final results as he had not yet completed his term when the survey was conducted.
^Harrison was only president for one month, therefore, he was not ranked in this survey.
^Garfield was president for 6 and a half months, therefore, he was not ranked in this survey.
^The average evaluation. The wording on the survey was "your present overall view."
^The average rank as calculated by Sienna from the data items in the table. This is usually within a few places of the average evaluation, but more divergent in the cases of Ulysses Grant and Richard Nixon.
Scholar surveys of diversity and racism
Walton and Smith (2002–2020)
Professors Hanes Walton Jr. and Robert Smith in their book American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom, ranked presidents for their views and actions on the topic of race.[50] Presidents can be ranked twice since "White supremacist" refers only to personal belief; while the other categories incorporate policy actions as well.[50]
^Held a belief in the inferiority of African people
^Supported slavery or segregation. All presidents before Lincoln defended slavery.
^Record shows no positions on racial issues
^Varied between anti-racist and racially neutral policies
^Attempted to dismantle at least some aspects of racial subordination
^ a bJefferson is rated as both white supremacist and institutional racist (for defending the institution of slavery), but acted as soon as constitutionally possible to end the slave trade.[52]
^ a b c d e fLincoln, Truman and Nixon are rated as both white supremacist, for their personal views, and antiracist, for their policies.[52]
^ a bEisenhower is rated as white supremacist for his personal beliefs and ambivalent for his support and forcing of the integration of Little Rock Central High School.[52]
^ a bTrump is rated as white supremacist for his personal beliefs and institutionally racist for his policies.[53]
^John Quincy Adams took no anti-racist actions as president, but was not personally racist and after his presidency was a vigorous opponent of slavery.[52]
Tillery and Greer (2019)
In May 2019, Dr. Alvin Tillery of the Center for the Study of Diversity and Democracy at Northwestern University and Dr. Christina Greer of Fordham University "conducted a poll of 113 academic researchers and asked them to rate the 14 modern presidents on both their overall leadership and rhetoric on diversity and inclusion using a scale ranging from 0 to 100."[54] Survey respondents were significantly more liberal than the national average, "with only 13 percent of the respondents describing themselves as either moderate, slightly conservative, or conservative."[54]
Public opinion polls
2010 Gallup poll
A Gallup poll taken on November 19–21, 2010, asked 1,037 Americans to say, based on what they know or remember about the nine most recent former presidents, whether they approve or disapprove of how each handled his job in office.[55]
John F. Kennedy (85% approval/10% disapproval)
Ronald Reagan (74% approval/24% disapproval)
Bill Clinton (69% approval/30% disapproval)
George H. W. Bush (64% approval/34% disapproval)
Gerald Ford (61% approval/26% disapproval)
Jimmy Carter (52% approval/42% disapproval)
Lyndon B. Johnson (49% approval/36% disapproval)
George W. Bush (47% approval/51% disapproval)
Richard Nixon (29% approval/65% disapproval)
2011 Gallup poll
A Gallup poll about presidential greatness taken February 2–5, 2011, asked 1,015 American adults the following question: "Who do you regard as the greatest United States president?"[3]
Ronald Reagan (19%)
Abraham Lincoln (14%)
Bill Clinton (13%)
John F. Kennedy (11%)
George Washington (10%)
Franklin Roosevelt (8%)
Barack Obama (5%)
Theodore Roosevelt (3%)
Harry S. Truman (3%)
George W. Bush (2%)
Thomas Jefferson (2%)
Jimmy Carter (1%)
Dwight Eisenhower (1%)
George H. W. Bush (1%)
Andrew Jackson (<0.5%)
Lyndon B. Johnson (<0.5%)
Richard Nixon (<0.5%)
In addition, "Other" received 1%, "None" received 1% and "No opinion" received 5%.
Public Policy Polling
A Public Policy Polling poll taken between September 8–11, 2011, asked 665 American voters, based on what they know or remember about the nine then-most recent former presidents, whether they hold favorable or unfavorable views of how each handled his job in office.[56]
John F. Kennedy (74% favorability/15% unfavorability)
Ronald Reagan (60% favorability/30% unfavorability)
Bill Clinton (62% favorability/34% unfavorability)
George H. W. Bush (53% favorability/35% unfavorability)
Gerald Ford (45% favorability/26% unfavorability)
Jimmy Carter (45% favorability/43% unfavorability)
Lyndon B. Johnson (36% favorability/39% unfavorability)
George W. Bush (41% favorability/51% unfavorability)
Richard Nixon (19% favorability/62% unfavorability)
Vision Critical/Angus Reid poll
A Vision Critical/Angus Reid Public Opinion poll taken on February 18–19, 2011, asked 1,010 respondents about 11 former presidents plus the current president and whether each was a good or bad president.[57]
John F. Kennedy (80% approval/6% disapproval)
Ronald Reagan (72% approval/16% disapproval)
Bill Clinton (65% approval/24% disapproval)
Dwight D. Eisenhower (61% approval/6% disapproval)
Harry S. Truman (57% approval/7% disapproval)
Jimmy Carter (47% approval/28% disapproval)
George H. W. Bush (44% approval/38% disapproval)
Barack Obama (41% approval/33% disapproval)
Gerald Ford (37% approval/25% disapproval)
Lyndon B. Johnson (33% approval/27% disapproval)
George W. Bush (30% approval/55% disapproval)
Richard Nixon (24% approval/54% disapproval)
2013 Gallup poll
A Gallup poll taken November 7–10, 2013, asked 1,039 American adults the following question: "How do you think each of the following presidents will go down in history—as an outstanding president, above average, average, below average, or poor?".[58]
2014 Quinnipiac poll
A Quinnipiac University poll taken June 24–30, 2014, asked 1,446 American registered voters who they believed were the best and worst presidents since World War II.[60]
Best president since World War II:
Ronald Reagan (35%)
Bill Clinton (18%)
John F. Kennedy (15%)
Barack Obama (8%)
Dwight Eisenhower (5%)
Harry S. Truman (4%)
Lyndon B. Johnson (tie) (3%)
George H. W. Bush (tie) (3%)
Jimmy Carter (2%)
Richard Nixon (tie) (1%)
Gerald Ford (tie) (1%)
George W. Bush (tie) (1%)
Worst president since World War II:
Barack Obama (33%)
George W. Bush (28%)
Richard Nixon (13%)
Jimmy Carter (8%)
Lyndon B. Johnson (tie) (3%)
Ronald Reagan (tie) (3%)
Bill Clinton (tie) (3%)
Gerald Ford (tie) (2%)
George H. W. Bush (tie) (2%)
Dwight Eisenhower (1%)
Harry S. Truman (tie) (<1%)
John F. Kennedy (tie) (<1%)
2017 Quinnipiac poll
Four years later, a Quinnipiac University poll taken January 20–25, 2017, asked 1,190 American voters who they believed were the best and worst presidents since World War II.[61]
Best president since World War II:
Ronald Reagan (30%)
Barack Obama (29%)
John F. Kennedy (12%)
Bill Clinton (9%)
Dwight Eisenhower (tie) (3%)
George W. Bush (tie) (3%)
Harry S. Truman (tie) (2%)
Lyndon B. Johnson (tie) (2%)
Jimmy Carter (tie) (2%)
George H. W. Bush (tie) (2%)
Richard Nixon (tie) (<1%)
Gerald R. Ford (tie) (<1%)
Worst president since World War II:
Richard Nixon (24%)
Barack Obama (23%)
George W. Bush (22%)
Jimmy Carter (10%)
Ronald Reagan (5%)
Bill Clinton (4%)
Lyndon B. Johnson (3%)
George H. W. Bush (2%)
Gerald R. Ford (1%)
Harry S. Truman (tie) (<1%)
Dwight Eisenhower (tie) (<1%)
John F. Kennedy (tie) (<1%)
2017 Morning Consult poll
Including President Donald Trump for the first time, a Morning Consult poll taken February 9–10, 2017, asked 1,791 American registered voters who they believed were the best and worst presidents since World War II.[62][63]
Best president since World War II:
Ronald Reagan (26%)
Barack Obama (20%)
John F. Kennedy (17%)
Bill Clinton (9%)
Donald Trump (6%)
George W. Bush (tie) (2%)
Harry S. Truman (tie) (2%)
Jimmy Carter (tie) (2%)
George H. W. Bush (tie) (2%)
Richard Nixon (tie) (1%)
Lyndon B. Johnson (tie) (1%)
Gerald R. Ford (<1%)
Worst president since World War II:
Donald Trump (26%)
Barack Obama (25%)
Richard Nixon (13%)
George W. Bush (7%)
Bill Clinton (6%)
Jimmy Carter (5%)
George H. W. Bush (3%)
Lyndon B. Johnson (2%)
Ronald Reagan (tie) (1%)
Gerald R. Ford (tie) (1%)
Dwight D. Eisenhower (tie) (1%)
Harry S. Truman (tie) (1%)
John F. Kennedy (<1%)
2018 Quinnipiac poll
A Quinnipiac University poll taken March 3–5, 2018, asked 1,122 American voters who they believed were the best and worst presidents since World War II.[64]
Best president since World War II:
Ronald Reagan (28%)
Barack Obama (24%)
John F. Kennedy (tie) (10%)
Bill Clinton (tie) (10%)
Donald Trump (7%)
Dwight Eisenhower (4%)
Harry S. Truman (tie) (3%)
Jimmy Carter (tie) (3%)
Lyndon B. Johnson (2%)
George H. W. Bush (tie) (1%)
Richard Nixon (tie) (1%)
George W. Bush (tie) (1%)
Gerald R. Ford (<1%)
Worst president since World War II:
Donald Trump (41%)
Barack Obama (21%)
Richard Nixon (10%)
Jimmy Carter (8%)
George W. Bush (6%)
Bill Clinton (4%)
Lyndon B. Johnson (tie) (2%)
Ronald Reagan (tie) (2%)
Gerald R. Ford (1%)
Harry S. Truman (tie) (<1%)
Dwight Eisenhower (tie) (<1%)
John F. Kennedy (tie) (<1%)
George H. W. Bush (tie) (<1%)
2021 Gallup poll
A Gallup poll taken January 4–15, 2021, asked 1,023 American adults the following question: "How do you think each of the following presidents will go down in history—as an outstanding president, above average, average, below average, or poor?"[65]
Memorability of the presidents
2014 Roediger and DeSoto Survey
In November 2014, Henry L. Roediger III and K. Andrew DeSoto published a study in the journal Science asking research subjects to name as many presidents as possible.[66][67] They reported data from three generations as well as from an online survey conducted in 2014[update]. The percentage of participants in the online survey sample who could name each president was the following:
In July 2021, a survey was taken on the memorability of U.S. Presidents by name and facial recognition.[68] The rate of memorability for the name recognition survey was:
Bill Clinton (98%)
Barack Obama (98%)
George W. Bush (96%)
Abraham Lincoln (95%)
Ronald Reagan (94%)
George Washington (93%)
Richard Nixon (92%)
George H.W. Bush (90%)
John F. Kennedy (88%)
Jimmy Carter (83%)
Lyndon B. Johnson (82%)
Thomas Jefferson (77%)
William Howard Taft (77%)
Teddy Roosevelt (75%)
Dwight D. Eisenhower (74%)
Harry S. Truman (73%)
Andrew Jackson (65%)
Franklin D. Roosevelt (59%)
James Madison (55%)
Grover Cleveland (53%)
Benjamin Harrison (53%)
Martin Van Buren (52%)
Gerald Ford (52%)
James A. Garfield (50%)
Woodrow Wilson (50%)
William Henry Harrison (48%)
John Quincy Adams (48%)
Rutherford B. Hayes (47%)
Herbert Hoover (46%)
John Adams (44%)
James K. Polk (43%)
Franklin Peirce (42%)
Chester A. Arthur (42%)
Ulysses S. Grant (37%)
John Tyler (36%)
William McKinley (35%)
Millard Fillmore (31%)
Warren G. Harding (31%)
Zachary Taylor (28%)
James Monroe (26%)
Andrew Johnson (24%)
Calvin Coolidge (21%)
James Buchanan (18%)
Reception
Gerard Baker, US editor for The Times, writes, "the 42 American presidents fall into a well-established, bell-curve or normal distribution on a chart – a handful of outstanding ones, a handful of duds, and a lot of so-sos. I couldn't, in all honesty therefore, really say that number 13 on the list is that much better than number 30."[69]
Political scientist Walter Dean Burnham described "dichotomous or schizoid profiles" of presidents, making some hard to classify in his opinion. Historian Alan Brinkley said "there are presidents who could be considered both failures and great or near great (for example, Wilson, Johnson, Nixon)". Historian and political scientist James MacGregor Burns observed of Nixon: "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president, so brilliant and so morally lacking?"[70]
David Herbert Donald, noted biographer of Abraham Lincoln, relates that when he met John F. Kennedy in 1961, Kennedy voiced his deep dissatisfaction and resentment with historians who had rated some of his predecessors. Kennedy remarked, "No one has a right to grade a president—even poor James Buchanan—who has not sat in his chair, examined the mail and information that came across his desk, and learned why he made his decisions."[71] Historian and political scientist Julian E. Zelizer has argued that traditional presidential rankings explain little concerning actual presidential history and that they are "weak mechanisms for evaluating what has taken place in the White House."[72] The broadly static nature of the rankings over multiple decades has also been called into question[who?], particularly given the frequent exposure of previously unknown material about American government.[73][failed verification][citation needed]
The first British survey, published in 2011, places some small government advocates higher than recent US surveys have: Thomas Jefferson at 4, Ronald Reagan at 8, and Andrew Jackson at 9 (compare 7, 10 and 13 in C-SPAN 2009).[21][relevant?]
Survey takers
In 2002, Ron Walters, former director of the University of Maryland's African American Leadership Institute, stated that ranking based on the presidents' ability to balance the interests of the majority and those of excluded groups was practical in respect to American debate on racial politics. Presidents have traditionally been ranked on personal qualities and their leadership ability to solve problems that move the nation in a positive direction. Walters stated that there was a qualitative difference between presidential evaluations from white and African-American intellectuals. He gives as an example of this difference a comparison between two contemporary studies, a 1996 New York Times poll by Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., where 31 white historians and one black historian ranked presidents as "Great", "Near Great", "High Average", "Average", "Below Average", or "Failure", and a survey performed by professors Hanes Walton Jr. and Robert Smith and featured in their book American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom, where 44 African-American political scientists and historians ranked presidents as "White Supremacist", "Racist", "Racially Neutral", "Racially Ambivalent", or "Antiracist".[74]
A 2012 analysis by Mark Zachary Taylor faulted presidential surveys with "partisan bias and subjective judgments", suggesting an algorithm to rank of the presidents based on objectively measurable economic statistics. His algorithm placed Franklin Roosevelt as the best president for the economy, followed by Harding, Hayes and McKinley tied for second. The worst-ranked presidents were Hoover and Van Buren, tied.[75]
Alvin S. Felzenberg has criticized what he sees as a liberal bias in presidential rankings. In particular, he ranks Ronald Reagan in third place, substantially higher than averaged rankings. In reviewing his 2010 book, Michael Genovese says, "Felzenberg is upset—with some justification—at the liberal bias he sees as so prevalent in the ranking of U.S. presidents by historians and political scientists. To remedy this, he has provided a counter to the liberal bias with a conservative bias. In doing so, he commits all the sins of which he accuses liberals. This book is a mirror image of the work he finds so troubling....It is unscientific, impressionistic, and highly subjective."[76]
^ a bMaranell, Gary M. (June 1970). "The Evaluation of Presidents: An Extension of the Schlesinger Polls". The Journal of American History. 57 (1): 104–113. doi:10.2307/1900552. JSTOR 1900552. S2CID 154631219.
^William J. Ridings Jr. and Stuart B. McIver. Rating the Presidents: A Ranking of U.S. leaders, from the Great and Honorable to the Dishonest and Incompetent Archived January 3, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. 2000. ISBN 0806521511.
^ a b"Americans Say Reagan Is the Greatest U.S. President". Gallup. February 18, 2011. Archived from the original on March 14, 2012. Retrieved March 16, 2012.
^ a bSchlesinger, Arthur M. "Our Presidents: A Rating by 75 Historians". The New York Times. July 1962. pp. 12–13, 40–41, 43.
^ a b"Rating the Presidents: Washington to Clinton". PBS. Archived from the original on April 13, 2010. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
^Schlesinger, Arthur M. (June 1, 1997). "Rating the Presidents: Washington to Clinton". Political Science Quarterly. 112 (2): 179–190. doi:10.2307/2657937. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2657937.
^DeGregorio, William A. (1991). The complete book of U. S. presidents (3rd ed.). New York: Barricade. p. 704. ISBN 978-0-942637-37-3.
^"About the Presidents Study". Archived from the original on September 24, 2019. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
^"Siena's 6th Presidential Expert Poll 1982–2018". Archived from the original on July 19, 2019. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
^"Historians Give Good Grades to Clinton Presidency in Siena College Survey". January 11, 1995. Archived June 28, 2006.
^"FDR America's Greatest President". August 19, 2002. Archived February 10, 2007.
^Ridings, William J.; MacIver, Stuart B. (1997). Rating the presidents: a ranking US leaders, from the great and honorable to the dishonest and incompetent. A Citadel Press book. Secaucus, NY: Carol Publ. Group. ISBN 978-0-8065-1799-5.
^ a b cTaranto, James (September 12, 2005). "Opinion: Presidential Leadership; The Rankings". OpinionJournal from The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on February 7, 2006.
^Taranto, James; Leo, Leonard, eds. (2004). Presidential leadership: rating the best and the worst in the White House. A Wall Street journal book. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-5433-5.
^Griffin, Jeremy; Hines, Nico (October 28, 2008). "Who's the greatest? The Times US presidential rankings". The Times. London. Archived from the original on December 2, 2020. Retrieved March 24, 2010.
^"C-SPAN Releases Second Historians Survey of Presidential Leadership" Archived February 17, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. C-SPAN. February 15, 2009.
^"Presidential Historians Survey 2017" Archived February 17, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. C-SPAN. February 17, 2017.
^ a b"C-SPAN Releases Third Historians Survey of Presidential Leadership" Archived November 13, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. C-SPAN. February 17, 2017.
^"C-SPAN releases fourth Historians Survey of Presidential Leadership". C-SPAN. June 30, 2021. Archived July 1, 2021, at the Wayback Machine.
^"Methodology: Presidential Historians Survey 2021" Archived July 2, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. C-SPAN. June 30, 2021.
^"From Franklin Delano Roosevelt to John F. Kennedy, Newsweek's 10 Best Presidents (Photos)". The Daily Beast. September 24, 2012. Archived from the original on April 24, 2014. Retrieved April 13, 2014.
^ a bRottinghaus, Brandon (February 13, 2015). "Measuring Obama against the great presidents". The Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on January 6, 2016. Retrieved April 6, 2015.
^ a b cPresidential History Network (2016). "UK Survey of US Presidents: Overall Ranking & Total Scores". Archived from the original on July 23, 2021. Retrieved July 23, 2021.
^ a b"UK Survey of US Presidents: Full dataset" (PDF). Presidential History Network. 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 30, 2021. Retrieved July 23, 2021.
^ a bRottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin S. (February 19, 2018). "Opinion: How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best—and Worst—Presidents?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 5, 2018. Retrieved February 19, 2018.
^ a bChappell, Bill (February 19, 2024). "In historians' Presidents Day survey, Biden vs. Trump is not a close call". NPR.
^Pengelly, Martin (February 20, 2024). "Trump ranked as worst US president in history, with Biden 14th greatest". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved February 23, 2024.
^Vaughn, Justin; Rottinghaus, Brandon (February 18, 2024). "Opinion: We know how voters feel about Trump and Biden. But how do the experts rank their presidencies?". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 23, 2024.
^Benson, Samuel (February 19, 2024). "Presidential rankings by academics place Obama, Biden above Reagan, Trump". Deseret News. Retrieved February 20, 2024.
^"Siena's 6th Presidential Expert Poll 1982–2018". Siena College Research Institute. February 13, 2019. Archived from the original on July 19, 2019. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
^ a b"Presidential Historians Survey 2021". C-SPAN. Archived from the original on July 3, 2021. Retrieved June 30, 2021.
^Carter, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin (February 19, 2024). "How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best — and Worst — Presidents?". The New York Times. Retrieved July 25, 2024.
^"Siena College Research Institute: 2022 Survey of U.S. Presidents: Presidents Rank Over Time" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 7, 2023. Retrieved June 23, 2022.
^"Presidents 2018 Rank by Category" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on August 9, 2021. Retrieved February 19, 2019.
^"Total Scores/Overall Rankings". Presidential Historians Survey 2017. C-SPAN. Archived from the original on March 1, 2017. Retrieved February 17, 2017.
^ a bUnited States Presidency Centre, UK Survey of US Presidents: Results: Total Scores and Overall Ranking Archived September 29, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
^"Rushmore Plus One; FDR joins Mountainside Figures Washington, Jefferson, Teddy Roosevelt and Lincoln as Top Presidents" Archived July 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. Siena Research Institute. July 1, 2010.
^Thomas, G. Scott (July 1, 2010). "Clean sweep for the Roosevelts". Business First of Buffalo. Archived from the original on July 4, 2010. Retrieved September 1, 2010.
^"Lincoln Wins: Honest Abe tops new presidential survey". CNN. February 16, 2009. Archived from the original on April 4, 2021. Retrieved October 30, 2010.
^Nico Hines (October 31, 2008). "The Greatest US Presidents: The Times US presidential rankings". The Times. Archived from the original on August 10, 2021. Retrieved August 10, 2021. Print version of top 14: Ben MacIntyre (1 November 2008) "The big question: who is the greatest president of all time?" The Times. London. p. 42.
^Rating the Presidents: A Ranking of U.S. leaders, from the Great and Honorable to the Dishonest and Incompetent Archived January 3, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. 2000. ISBN 0806521511.
^Murray and Blessing. p. 135.
^"Rushmore Plus One; FDR joins Mountainside Figures Washington, Jefferson, Teddy Roosevelt and Lincoln as Top Presidents". Siena College. July 1, 2010. Archived from the original on July 6, 2010. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
^"All Presidents". C-SPAN Survey on Presidents 2017. C-SPAN. Archived from the original on December 22, 2017. Retrieved December 14, 2017.
^"Siena's 6th Presidential Expert Poll 1982–2018". Archived from the original on July 19, 2019. Retrieved February 27, 2019.
^"All Presidents". C-SPAN Survey on Presidents 2021. C-SPAN. Archived from the original on July 3, 2021. Retrieved June 30, 2021.
^"American Presidents: Greatest and Worst. Siena's 7th Presidential Expert Poll 1982–2022". Archived from the original on July 15, 2022. Retrieved June 23, 2022.
^"Graphics for American Presidents: Greatest and Worst" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 23, 2022. Retrieved June 23, 2022.
^ a bCox, Tony (February 19, 2007). "Race and Ranking the Best and Worst Presidencies". NPR - News and Notes.
^Walton, Hanes; Smith, Robert C.; Wallace, Sherri L. (December 30, 2020). American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom (9 ed.). 9th edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2021.: Routledge. p. 262. doi:10.4324/9781003028321. ISBN 978-1-003-02832-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
^ a b c dHanes Walton Jr & Robert C. Smith, eds. (2017) American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom. Taylor & Francis. 8th edition.
^ a bHanes Walton Jr, Robert C. Smith & Sherri L. Wallace, eds. (2021) American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom. Pearson Longman. 9th edition, p 195–197
^ a bTillery Jr., Alvin B. (May 31, 2019). "The First-Ever Expert Survey on Presidential Leadership on Diversity and Inclusion" (PDF). Center for the Study of Diversity and Democracy. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 2, 2019. Retrieved June 25, 2019.
^"Kennedy Still Highest-Rated Modern President, Nixon Lowest". Gallup. December 6, 2010. Archived from the original on March 14, 2012. Retrieved March 16, 2012.
^"JFK, Reagan, Clinton most popular recent ex-presidents" Archived October 12, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. September 15, 2011.
^"Kennedy and Reagan Lead List of Good Presidents for Americans". Angus Reid Public Opinion. Archived August 22, 2012, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved August 22, 2012.
^"Americans Rate JFK as Top Modern President". Gallup. Archived from the original on August 1, 2016.
^ a bThe weights were 5 for "Outstanding", 4 for "Above Average", 3 for "Average", 2 for "Below Average" and 1 for "Poor".
^"National (US) Poll – July 2, 2014 – Obama Is First as Worst President Since WWII, Quinnipiac University National Poll Finds; More Voters Say Romney Would Have Been Better". Quinnipiac University. Archived from the original on July 3, 2014. Retrieved July 3, 2014.
^"Trump Starts In The Hole As U.S. Voters Disapprove, Quinnipiac University National Poll Finds; Reagan, Obama Are Best Presidents In 70 Years". Quinnipiac University. Archived from the original on January 26, 2017. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
^"Morning Consult National Tracking Poll February 09–10,2017". Politico. Archived from the original on February 16, 2017. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
^"Poll: Trump and Obama Are America's Worst Presidents Since World War II". Morning Consult. February 15, 2017. Archived from the original on October 19, 2017. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
^"QU Poll Release Detail". Quinnipiac University. March 7, 2018. Archived from the original on November 4, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2018.
^Jones, Jeffrey (January 19, 2021). "Americans Expect History to Judge Trump Harshly". Gallup. Archived from the original on January 19, 2021. Retrieved January 20, 2021.
^Roediger, Henry L.; DeSoto, K. Andrew (November 28, 2014), "Forgetting the Presidents", Science, 346 (6213): 1106–1109, Bibcode:2014Sci...346.1106R, doi:10.1126/science.1259627, PMID 25430768, S2CID 6951497
^Carey, Benedict (November 27, 2014). "Study on Cultural Memory Confirms: Chester A. Arthur, We Hardly Knew Ye". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 27, 2015. Retrieved September 11, 2015.
^Putnam, Adam L.; Drake, Sarah Madison; Wang, Serene Y.; DeSoto, K. Andrew (July 26, 2021). "Collective memory for American leaders: Measuring recognition for the names and faces of the US presidents". PLOS ONE. 16 (7): e0255209. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1655209P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0255209. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 8313295. PMID 34311467.
^Hines, Nico; Griffin, Jeremy (October 28, 2008). "Who's the greatest? The Times US presidential rankings". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Archived from the original on July 30, 2021. Retrieved March 17, 2022.
^Skidmore. 2001. p. 496-497
^Donald, David H. Lincoln. 1995. p. 13.
^Zelizer, Julian E. (February 21, 2011). Opinion: "What's wrong with presidential rankings" Archived December 8, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. CNN Opinion.
^Mengisen, Annika (October 31, 2008). "The Presidents Ranked and Graded: A Q&A With the Author of The Leaders We Deserved". Freakonomics.com. Archived from the original on April 15, 2020. Retrieved April 3, 2020.
^Walters, Ronald (July 8, 2002)."Presidency: How Do African-American Scholars Rank Presidents?" Archived March 12, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. History News Network.
^Taylor, Mark Zachary (October 2012). "An Economic Ranking of the US Presidents, 1789–2009: A Data-Based Approach". PS: Political Science and Politics. 45 (4): 596–604. doi:10.1017/S1049096512000698. JSTOR 41691393. S2CID 154631454.
^Michael Genovese (2010) "The Leaders We Deserved (And a Few We Didn't): Rethinking the Presidential Rating Game." Presidential Studies Quarterly 40.4: 799–800.
Further reading
Bailey, Thomas A. (1966). Presidential Greatness: The Image and the Man from George Washington to the Present. New York: Appleton-Century. → A non-quantitative appraisal by leading historian.
Murray, Robert K.; Blessing, Tim H. (1994). Greatness in the White House: Rating the Presidents, from Washington Through Ronald Reagan (2., updated ed.). University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0271010892.
Nichols, Curt (2012). "The Presidential Ranking Game: Critical Review and Some New Discoveries". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 42 (2): 275–299. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2012.03966.x. ISSN 0360-4918.
Pfiffner, James P. (2003). "Ranking the Presidents: Continuity and Volatility". White House Studies. 3. Nova Science Publishers: 23. ISSN 1535-4768.
.jpg/1280px-Mount_Rushmore_detail_view_(100MP).jpg)
