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Provincia de Punjab (India británica)

La provincia de Punjab era una provincia de la India británica . La mayor parte de la región de Punjab fue anexada por la Compañía Británica de las Indias Orientales el 29 de marzo de 1849 ; fue una de las últimas áreas del subcontinente indio en caer bajo control británico. En 1858, Punjab , junto con el resto de la India británica, quedó bajo el dominio de la Corona británica . Tenía una superficie de 358.355 kilómetros cuadrados.

La provincia comprendía cuatro regiones geográficas naturales ( la llanura indogangética occidental , el Himalaya , el subhimalaya y la zona seca del noroeste) , junto con cinco divisiones administrativas ( Delhi , Jullundur , Lahore , Multan y Rawalpindi ) y varios estados principescos . [1] En 1947, la Partición de la India condujo a la división de la provincia en Punjab Oriental y Punjab Occidental , en los nuevos dominios independientes de la Unión India y Pakistán respectivamente.

Etimología

La región se llamó originalmente Sapta Sindhu Rivers , [2] la tierra védica de los siete ríos originalmente: Saraswati, Indus, Sutlej, Jehlum, Chenab, Ravi y Beas. [3] El nombre sánscrito de la región, como se menciona en el Ramayana y el Mahabharata , por ejemplo, era Pañcanada , que significa literalmente "Cinco Aguas", y se tradujo del sánscrito al farsi como Panj-Âb después de las conquistas islámicas . [4] [5] El nombre posterior Punjab es, por tanto, un compuesto de dos palabras farsi [6] [7] Panj (cinco) y āb (agua) y fue introducido en la región por los conquistadores turco-persas [8] de la India y popularizado más formalmente durante el Imperio mogol . [9] [10] Punjab significa literalmente "(La Tierra de) Cinco Aguas" refiriéndose a los ríos: Jhelum , Chenab , Ravi , Sutlej y Beas . [11] Todos son afluentes del río Indo , siendo el Chenab el más grande.

Geografía

Geográficamente, la provincia era una extensión triangular de país de la cual el río Indo y su afluente el Sutlej formaban los dos lados hasta su confluencia, siendo la base del triángulo en el norte la Cordillera del Himalaya Inferior entre esos dos ríos. Además, la provincia tal como se constituyó bajo el dominio británico también incluía una gran extensión fuera de estos límites. A lo largo de la frontera norte, las cordilleras del Himalaya la dividían de Cachemira y el Tíbet . Al oeste estaba separada de la Provincia de la Frontera Noroeste por el Indo, hasta que alcanzaba la frontera del Distrito de Dera Ghazi Khan , que estaba dividido de Baluchistán por la Cordillera de Sulaiman . Al sur se encontraban Sindh y Rajputana , mientras que al este los ríos Jumna y Tons la separaban de las Provincias Unidas . [1] En total, Punjab tenía una superficie de aproximadamente 357 000 km cuadrados, aproximadamente el mismo tamaño que la Alemania actual, siendo una de las provincias más grandes del Raj británico.

Comprendía los actuales estados indios de Punjab , Haryana , Chandigarh , Delhi y algunas partes de Himachal Pradesh , que los británicos fusionaron con Punjab con fines administrativos (pero excluyendo los antiguos estados principescos que luego se combinaron en la Unión de Estados de Patiala y Punjab Oriental ) y las regiones paquistaníes de Punjab , el Territorio de la Capital Islamabad y Khyber Pakhtunkhwa .

En 1901, los distritos fronterizos más allá del Indo se separaron de Punjab y se convirtieron en una nueva provincia: la Provincia de la Frontera Noroeste . Posteriormente, los funcionarios coloniales dividieron Punjab en cuatro divisiones geográficas naturales según los datos del censo decenal: [12] : 2  [13] : 4 

  1. División geográfica de la llanura indogangética occidental (incluye el distrito de Hisar , el estado de Loharu , el distrito de Rohtak ,, el distrito de Gurgaon , el estado de Pataudi , Delhi , el distrito de Karnal ,, el estado de Kapurthala , el distrito de Ludhiana , el estado de Malerkotla , el distrito de Firozpur , el estado de Faridkot , el estado de Patiala , el estado de Jind , el estado de Nabha , el distrito de Lahore , el distrito de Amritsar , el distrito de Gujranwala y el distrito de Sheikhupura );
  2. División geográfica del Himalaya (incluye el estado de Sirmoor , el distrito de Simla , los estados de Simla Hill , el estado de Bilaspur , el distrito de Kangra , el estado de Mandi , el estado de Suket y el estado de Chamba );
  3. División geográfica del Subhimalaya (incluye el distrito de Ambala , el estado de Kalsia , el distrito de Hoshiarpur , el, el distrito de Sialkot , el distrito de Gujrat , el distrito de Jhelum , el distrito de Rawalpindi y el distrito de Attock ;
  4. División geográfica del Área Seca del Noroeste (incluye el distrito de Montgomery , el distrito de Shahpur ,, el distrito de Lyallpur , el distrito de Jhang , el distrito de Multan , el estado de Bahawalpur , el distrito de Muzaffargarh , el distrito de Dera Ghazi Khan y el área transfronteriza de Biloch).

Historia

Regla de la empresa

El Durbar, o asamblea de príncipes y nobles nativos, convocado por Sir John Lawrence en Lahore

El 21  de febrero de 1849, la Compañía de las Indias Orientales derrotó decisivamente al Imperio sij en la batalla de Gujrat, poniendo fin a la segunda guerra anglo-sij . Tras la victoria, la Compañía de las Indias Orientales anexó el Punjab el 2  de abril de 1849 y lo incorporó a la India británica . La provincia, aunque nominalmente estaba bajo el control de la presidencia de Bengala, era administrativamente independiente. Lord Dalhousie constituyó la Junta de Administración incorporando a ella a los oficiales británicos más experimentados y experimentados. La Junta estaba dirigida por Sir Henry Lawrence , que había trabajado anteriormente como residente británico en el Lahore Durbar y también estaba formada por su hermano menor John Lawrence y Charles Grenville Mansel . [14] Por debajo de la Junta, un grupo de oficiales aclamados conocidos colectivamente como los "Jóvenes" de Henry Lawrence ayudaron en la administración de la provincia recién adquirida. La Junta fue abolida por Lord Dalhousie en 1853; Sir Henry fue asignado a la Agencia Rajputana y su hermano John lo sucedió como primer Comisionado Jefe.

Reconociendo la diversidad cultural del Punjab, la Junta mantuvo una estricta política de no interferencia en lo que respecta a asuntos religiosos y culturales. [15] Se concedió patrocinio y pensiones a los aristócratas sikhs y se permitió que los grupos que controlaban lugares de culto históricos siguieran teniendo el control. [15]

Durante la rebelión india de 1857 , el Punjab permaneció relativamente pacífico, aparte de la rebelión liderada por Ahmad Khan Kharral . [16] En mayo, John Lawrence tomó medidas rápidas para desarmar a los cipayos potencialmente amotinados y redesplegar la mayoría de las tropas europeas en la cordillera de Delhi. [17] Finalmente, reclutó nuevos regimientos de punjabis para reemplazar la fuerza reducida, y se le proporcionó mano de obra y apoyo de los estados principescos circundantes como Jind, Patiala, Nabha y Kapurthala y jefes tribales en las tierras fronterizas con Afganistán. Para 1858, se estima que se habían reclutado 70.000 hombres adicionales para el ejército y la policía militarizada desde el interior del Punjab. [16]

Raj británico

El Punjab en 1880

En 1858, bajo los términos de la Proclamación de la Reina emitida por la Reina Victoria , el Punjab, junto con el resto de la India británica, quedó bajo el gobierno directo de la Corona británica. [18] El Territorio de Delhi fue transferido de las Provincias del Noroeste al Punjab en 1858, en parte para castigar a la ciudad por el importante papel que el último emperador mogol , Bahadur Shah II , y la ciudad en su conjunto, desempeñaron en la Rebelión de 1857. [19]

El 1 de enero de 1859, Sir John Lawrence, entonces Comisionado Jefe, fue nombrado primer Teniente Gobernador  . En 1866, el Comisionado Judicial fue reemplazado por un Jefe de Tribunales. Las funciones administrativas directas del Gobierno estaban a cargo del Teniente Gobernador a través de la Secretaría, que comprendía un Secretario Jefe, un Secretario y dos Subsecretarios. Por lo general, eran miembros del Servicio Civil Indio . [20] El territorio bajo el Teniente consistía en 29 Distritos, agrupados en 5 Divisiones, y 43 Estados Principescos . Cada Distrito estaba bajo la supervisión de un Comisionado Adjunto, que informaba al Comisionado de la División. Cada Distrito estaba subdividido en entre tres y siete tehsils , cada uno bajo la supervisión de un tahsildar , asistido por un naib (adjunto) tahsildar . [21]

En 1885, la administración de Punjab inició un ambicioso plan para transformar más de seis millones de acres de tierras baldías en el centro y oeste de Punjab en tierras agrícolas irrigables. La creación de colonias de canales fue diseñada para aliviar las presiones demográficas en las partes centrales de la provincia, aumentar la productividad y los ingresos y crear un apoyo leal entre los terratenientes campesinos. [22] La colonización resultó en una revolución agrícola en la provincia, un rápido crecimiento industrial y el reasentamiento de más de un millón de punjabis en las nuevas áreas. [23] Se crearon varias ciudades o vieron un desarrollo significativo en las colonias, como Lyallpur , Sargodha y Montgomery . La colonización llevó a que el área irrigada por canales del Punjab aumentara de tres a catorce millones de acres en el período de 1885 a 1947. [24]

A principios del siglo XX se produjo un aumento de la agitación en el Punjab. Las condiciones en la colonia Chenab, junto con las reformas agrarias como la Ley de Alienación de Tierras del Punjab de 1900 y la Ley de Colonización de 1906, contribuyeron a los disturbios del Punjab de 1907. Los disturbios no se parecían a ninguna agitación anterior en la provincia, ya que el gobierno había agraviado por primera vez a una gran parte de la población rural. [25] Se organizaron manifestaciones masivas, encabezadas por Lala Lajpat Rai , un líder de la secta revivalista hindú Arya Samaj . [25] Los disturbios dieron como resultado la revocación de la Ley de Colonización y el fin de las políticas paternalistas en las colonias. [25]

Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial , la mano de obra punjabi contribuyó en gran medida al ejército indio . De un total de 683.149 tropas de combate, 349.688 procedían de la provincia. [26] En 1918, estalló una epidemia de gripe en la provincia, que provocó la muerte de unas 962.937 personas, es decir, el 4,77 por ciento de la población total estimada. [27] En marzo de 1919 se aprobó la Ley Rowlatt, que ampliaba las medidas de emergencia de detención y encarcelamiento en respuesta a la amenaza percibida de terrorismo por parte de organizaciones nacionalistas revolucionarias. [28] Esto condujo a la infame masacre de Jallianwala Bagh en abril de 1919, donde el coronel Reginald Edward Harry Dyer ordenó a destacamentos del 9.º Regimiento de Fusileros Gorkha y del 59.º Regimiento de Fusileros Scinde bajo su mando que dispararan contra un grupo de unos 10.000 manifestantes desarmados y peregrinos Baisakhi , matando a 379. [29]

Reformas administrativas

Las reformas de Montagu-Chelmsford promulgadas mediante la Ley de Gobierno de la India de 1919 ampliaron el Consejo Legislativo de Punjab e introdujeron el principio de diarquía , por el cual ciertas responsabilidades como la agricultura, la salud, la educación y el gobierno local se transfirieron a ministros electos. El primer Consejo Legislativo de Punjab según la Ley de 1919 se constituyó en 1921, integrado por 93 miembros, el setenta por ciento de los cuales eran elegidos y el resto nominados. [30] Algunos de los ministros británicos indios bajo el esquema de diarquía fueron Sir Sheikh Abdul Qadir , Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk y Lala Hari Kishen Lal. [31] [32]

La Ley de Gobierno de la India de 1935 introdujo la autonomía provincial en Punjab, reemplazando el sistema de diarquía. Previó la constitución de una Asamblea Legislativa de Punjab de 175 miembros presidida por un Portavoz y un gobierno ejecutivo responsable ante la Asamblea. El Partido Unionista, dirigido por Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan, formó el gobierno en 1937. Sir Sikandar fue sucedido por Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana en 1942, quien permaneció como Primer Ministro hasta la partición en 1947. Aunque el mandato de la Asamblea era de cinco años, continuó durante unos ocho años y su última sesión se celebró el 19 de marzo de 1945. [33]

Dividir

La lucha por la independencia de la India fue testigo de intereses contrapuestos y conflictivos en el Punjab. Las élites terratenientes de las comunidades musulmana, hindú y sikh habían colaborado lealmente con los británicos desde la anexión, apoyaban al Partido Unionista y eran hostiles al movimiento independentista liderado por el Partido del Congreso. [34] Entre el campesinado y las clases medias urbanas, los hindúes eran los partidarios más activos del Congreso Nacional , los sikhs se unieron al movimiento Akali mientras que los musulmanes finalmente apoyaron a la Liga Musulmana Pan-India . [34]

Una vez que se había decidido la partición del subcontinente, el 23 de junio de 1947 se celebraron reuniones especiales de las secciones occidental y oriental de la Asamblea Legislativa para decidir si se dividiría o no la provincia del Punjab. Tras la votación de ambas partes, se decidió la partición y la Asamblea Legislativa del Punjab existente también se dividió en la Asamblea Legislativa del Punjab occidental y la Asamblea Legislativa del Punjab oriental. Esta última Asamblea antes de la independencia celebró su última sesión el 4 de julio de 1947. [35]

Demografía

El primer censo británico del Punjab se llevó a cabo en 1855. Abarcó únicamente el territorio británico, con exclusión de los estados principescos locales, y situó la población en 17,6 millones. El primer censo regular de la India británica, realizado en 1881, registró una población de 20,8 millones de personas. El censo británico final de 1941 registró 34,3 millones de personas en el Punjab, que comprendía 29 distritos dentro del territorio británico, 43 estados principescos, 52.047 aldeas y 283 ciudades. [37]

En 1881, sólo Amritsar y Lahore tenían una población de más de 100.000 habitantes. La ciudad comercial e industrial de Amritsar (152.000) era ligeramente más grande que la capital cultural de Lahore (149.000). Durante los siguientes sesenta años, la población de Lahore se multiplicó por cuatro, mientras que la de Amritsar se duplicó. En 1941, la provincia tenía siete ciudades con una población de más de 100.000 habitantes, con el surgimiento y crecimiento de Rawalpindi, Multan, Sialkot, Jullundur y Ludhiana. [37]

El período colonial vio una migración a gran escala dentro del Punjab debido a la creación de colonias del canal en el Punjab occidental . La mayoría de los colonos provenían de los siete distritos más densamente poblados de Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Jullundur, Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, Ambala y Sialkot, y consistían principalmente en Khatris , Brahmanes , Jats , Arains , Sainis , Kambohs y Rajputs . El movimiento de muchos agricultores altamente calificados del este y centro de Punjab a las nuevas colonias, llevó a que el Punjab occidental se convirtiera en la región agrícola más progresista y avanzada de la provincia. El período también vio un número significativo de punjabis emigrar a otras regiones del Imperio Británico . Los principales destinos fueron África Oriental - Kenia , Uganda y Tanzania , Sudeste Asiático - Malasia y Birmania , Hong Kong y Canadá . [37]

Religión

El Punjab era una provincia religiosamente ecléctica, compuesta por tres grupos principales: musulmanes , hindúes y sikhs . En 1941, los musulmanes religiosos constituían una mayoría absoluta con un 53,2%, mientras que la población hindú era del 30,1%. [g] El período entre 1881 y 1941 vio un aumento significativo en las poblaciones sikh y cristiana , creciendo del 8,2% y el 0,1% respectivamente. [37] La ​​disminución de la población hindú se ha atribuido a la conversión de los hindúes principalmente al sijismo y al islam, y también al cristianismo. [37]

En 1941, los hindúes, musulmanes y sikhs constituían el 30,1, [g] 53,2 y 14,9 por ciento de la población total de Punjab, pero representaban el 37,9, 51,4 y 8,4 por ciento de su población urbana respectivamente. [37]

División geográfica de la llanura indogangética occidental

Incluyendo el distrito de Hisar , el estado de Loharu , el distrito de Rohtak , el estado de Dujana , el distrito de Gurgaon , el estado de Pataudi , Delhi , el distrito de Karnal , el distrito de Jalandhar , el estado de Kapurthala , el distrito de Ludhiana , el estado de Malerkotla , el distrito de Firozpur , el estado de Faridkot , el estado de Patiala , el estado de Jind , el estado de Nabha , el distrito de Lahore , el distrito de Amritsar , el distrito de Gujranwala y el distrito de Sheikhupura . [13] : 48  [12] : 2 

División geográfica del Himalaya

Incluidos el estado de Sirmoor , el distrito de Simla , los estados de Simla Hill , el estado de Bilaspur , el distrito de Kangra , el estado de Mandi , el estado de Suket y el estado de Chamba . [13] : 48  [12] : 2 

División geográfica del subhimalaya

Incluye el distrito de Ambala , el estado de Kalsia , el distrito de Hoshiarpur , el distrito de Gurdaspur , el distrito de Sialkot , el distrito de Gujrat , el distrito de Jhelum , el distrito de Rawalpindi y el distrito de Attock . [13] : 48  [12] : 2 

División geográfica de la zona seca del noroeste

Incluye el distrito de Montgomery , el distrito de Shahpur , el distrito de Mianwali , el distrito de Lyallpur , el distrito de Jhang , el distrito de Multan , el estado de Bahawalpur , el distrito de Muzaffargarh , el distrito de Dera Ghazi Khan y el tramo transfronterizo de Biloch. [13] : 48  [12] : 2 

Idioma

Al igual que en el caso de la religión, el Punjab era una provincia y una región lingüísticamente eclécticamente diversas . En 1837, el persa había sido abolido como lengua oficial de la administración de la Compañía y reemplazado por las lenguas vernáculas indias locales. En el Imperio sij, el persa siguió siendo la lengua oficial del estado. [48] Poco después de anexionarse el Punjab en 1849, la Junta de Administración sondeó a los funcionarios locales de cada una de las seis divisiones de la provincia para decidir qué lengua era "la más adecuada para los tribunales y los asuntos públicos". [49] Los funcionarios de las divisiones occidentales recomendaron el persa, mientras que los funcionarios orientales sugirieron un cambio al urdu. [49] En septiembre de 1849 se instituyó una política de dos idiomas en toda la provincia. La política lingüística en el Punjab se diferenciaba de otras provincias indias en que el urdu no era una lengua vernácula local generalizada. En 1849, John Lawrence señaló "que el urdu no es la lengua de estos distritos y tampoco lo es el persa". [49]

En 1854, la Junta de Administración puso fin abruptamente a la política bilingüe y el urdu fue designado como el idioma oficial del gobierno en toda la provincia. La decisión fue motivada por las nuevas reglas del servicio civil que exigían que todos los funcionarios aprobaran un examen en el idioma oficial de su tribunal local. Por temor a perder sus puestos de trabajo, los funcionarios de los distritos persas solicitaron a la junta que reemplazara el persa por el urdu, creyendo que el urdu era el idioma más fácil de dominar. [50] El urdu siguió siendo el idioma administrativo oficial hasta 1947.

Los funcionarios, aunque sabían que el punjabi era la lengua coloquial de la mayoría, favorecieron el uso del urdu por varias razones. Las críticas al punjabi incluían la creencia de que era simplemente una forma de dialecto , carente de cualquier forma de estandarización, y que "sería inflexible y estéril, e incapaz de expresar agradables matices de significado e ideas lógicas exactas con la precisión tan esencial en los procedimientos locales". [50] Anteriormente se habían presentado argumentos similares sobre el bengalí , el oriya y el indostánico ; sin embargo, esas lenguas se adoptaron más tarde para la administración local. En cambio, se cree que las ventajas del urdu sirvieron más a la administración. El urdu, e inicialmente el persa, permitieron a la Compañía reclutar administradores experimentados de otras partes de la India que no hablaban punjabi, para facilitar una mayor integración con otros territorios indios que se administraban con urdu, y para ayudar a fomentar los vínculos con las élites locales que hablaban persa y urdu y podían actuar como intermediarios con la población en general. [50]

Según el censo de 1911, los hablantes de los dialectos y lenguas punjabíes , incluido el punjabí estándar junto con el lahnda [w], formaban poco más de las tres cuartas partes (75,93 por ciento) de la población provincial total.

División geográfica de la llanura indogangética occidental

Incluyendo el distrito de Hisar, el estado de Loharu, el distrito de Rohtak, el estado de Dujana, el distrito de Gurgaon, el estado de Pataudi, Delhi, el distrito de Karnal, el distrito de Jalandhar, el estado de Kapurthala, el distrito de Ludhiana, el estado de Malerkotla, el distrito de Firozpur, el estado de Faridkot, el estado de Patiala, el estado de Jind, el estado de Nabha, el distrito de Lahore, el distrito de Amritsar y el distrito de Gujranwala.

División geográfica del Himalaya

Incluidos el estado de Nahan, el distrito de Simla, los estados de Simla Hill, el distrito de Kangra, el estado de Mandi, el estado de Suket y el estado de Chamba.

División geográfica del subhimalaya

Incluidos el distrito de Ambala, el estado de Kalsia, el distrito de Hoshiarpur, el distrito de Gurdaspur, el distrito de Sialkot, el distrito de Gujrat, el distrito de Jhelum, el distrito de Rawalpindi y el distrito de Attock.

División geográfica de la zona seca del noroeste

Incluidos el distrito de Montgomery, el distrito de Shahpur, el distrito de Mianwali, el distrito de Lyallpur, el distrito de Jhang, el distrito de Multan, el estado de Bahawalpur, el distrito de Muzaffargarh y el distrito de Dera Ghazi Khan.

Tribus

Jats en Delhi (1868).
Rajputs en Delhi (1868).
Brahmán en Lahore ( c.  1799–1849 ).
De izquierda a derecha: Gurkha, Brahmin y Shudra (Chuhra-Chamar) en Shimla (1868).
Arains en Lahore (1868).
Tarkhans en Lahore ( c.  1862-72) .
Gujjars en Delhi ( c.  1859–69) .
Arora en Lahore ( c.  1862–72) .
Kumhars en Lahore ( c.  1859–69) .

La provincia de Punjab era diversa, con las castas principales representadas junto con numerosas subcastas y tribus (también conocidas como Jāti o Barādarī ), formando partes de los diversos grupos étnicos de la provincia, conocidos contemporáneamente como Punjabis , Saraikis , Haryanvis , Hindkowans , Dogras , Paharis y otros.

Literacy

Administrative divisions

Districts of Punjab with Muslim (green) and non-Muslim (pink) majorities, as per 1941 census

Agriculture

Within a few years of its annexation, the Punjab was regarded as British India's model agricultural province. From the 1860s onwards, agricultural prices and land values soared in the Punjab. This stemmed from increasing political security and improvements in infrastructure and communications. New cash crops such as wheat, tobacco, sugar cane and cotton were introduced. By the 1920s the Punjab produced a tenth of India's total cotton crop and a third of its wheat crop. Per capita output of all the crops in the province increased by approximately 45 percent between 1891 and 1921, a growth contrasting to agricultural crises in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa during the period.[55]

The Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute became the first higher educational agricultural institution in the Punjab when established in 1906. Rapid agricultural growth, combined with access to easy credit for landowners, led to a growing crisis of indebtedness.[56] When landowners were unable to pay down their loans, urban based moneylenders took advantage of the law to foreclose debts of mortgaged land.[56] This led to a situation where land increasingly passed to absentee moneylenders who had little connection to the villages were the land was located. The colonial government recognised this as a potential threat to the stability of the province, and a split emerged in the government between paternalists who favoured intervention to ensure order, and those who opposed state intervention in private property relations.[55] The paternalists emerged victorious and the Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 prevented urban commercial castes, who were overwhelmingly Hindu, from permanently acquiring land from statutory agriculturalist tribes, who were mainly Muslim and Sikh.[57]

Accompanied by the increasing franchise of the rural population, this interventionist approach led to a long lasting impact on the political landscape of the province. The agricultural lobby remained loyal to the government, and rejected communalism in common defence of its privileges against urban moneylenders.[55] This position was entrenched by the Unionist Party. The Congress Party's opposition to the Act led to it being marginalised in the Punjab, reducing its influence more so than in any other province, and inhibiting its ability to challenge colonial rule locally. The political dominance of the Unionist Party would remain until partition, and significantly it was only on the collapse of its power on the eve of independence from Britain, that communal violence began to spread in rural Punjab.[55]

Army

In the immediate aftermath of annexation, the Sikh Khalsa Army was disbanded, and soldiers were required to surrender their weapons and return to agricultural or other pursuits.[15] The Bengal Army, keen to utilise the highly trained ex-Khalsa army troops began to recruit from the Punjab for Bengal infantry units stationed in the province. However opposition to the recruitment of these soldiers spread and resentment emerged from sepoys of the Bengal Army towards the incursion of Punjabis into their ranks. In 1851, the Punjab Irregular Force also known as the 'Piffars' was raised. Initially they consisted of one garrison and four mule batteries, four regiments of cavalry, eleven of infantry and the Corps of Guides, totalling approximately 13,000 men.[58] The gunners and infantry were mostly Punjabi, many from the Khalsa Army, whilst the cavalry had a considerable Hindustani presence.[58]

During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, eighteen new regiments were raised from the Punjab which remained loyal to the East India Company throughout the crisis in the Punjab and United Provinces.[59] By June 1858, of the 80,000 native troops in the Bengal Army, 75,000 were Punjabi of which 23,000 were Sikh.[60] In the aftermath of the rebellion, a thorough re-organisation of the army took place. Henceforth recruitment into the British Indian Army was restricted to loyal peoples and provinces. Punjabi Sikhs emerged as a particularly favoured martial race to serve the army.[61] In the midst of The Great Game, and fearful of a Russian invasion of British India, the Punjab was regarded of significant strategic importance as a frontier province. In addition to their loyalty and a belief in their suitability to serve in harsh conditions, Punjabi recruits were favoured as they could be paid at the local service rate, whereas soldiers serving on the frontier from more distant lands had to be paid extra foreign service allowances.[62] By 1875, of the entire Indian army, a third of recruits hailed from the Punjab.[63]

In 1914, three fifths of the Indian army came from the Punjab, despite the region constituting approximately one tenth of the total population of British India.[63] During the First World War, Punjabi Sikhs alone accounted for one quarter of all armed personnel in India.[61] Military service provided access to the wider world, and personnel were deployed across the British Empire from Malaya, the Mediterranean and Africa.[61] Upon completion of their terms of service, these personnel were often amongst the first to seek their fortunes abroad.[61] At the outbreak of the Second World War, 48 percent of the Indian army came from the province.[64] In Jhelum, Rawalpindi and Attock, the percentage of the total male population who enlisted reached fifteen percent.[65] The Punjab continued to be the main supplier of troops throughout the war, contributing 36 percent of the total Indian troops who served in the conflict.[66]

The huge proportion of Punjabis in the army meant that a significant amount of military expenditure went to Punjabis and in turn resulted in an abnormally high level of resource input in the Punjab.[67] It has been suggested that by 1935 if remittances of serving officers were combined with income from military pensions, more than two thirds of Punjab's land revenue could have been paid out of military incomes.[67] Military service further helped reduce the extent of indebtedness across the Province. In Hoshiarpur, a notable source of military personnel, in 1920 thirty percent of proprietors were debt free compared to the region's average of eleven percent.[67] In addition, the benefits of military service and the perception that the government was benevolent towards soldiers, affected the latter's attitudes towards the British.[60] The loyalty of recruited peasantry and the influence of military groups in rural areas across the province limited the reach of the nationalist movement in the province.[60]

Communications and transport

In 1853, the Viceroy Lord Dalhousie issued a minute stressing the military importance of railways across India.[68] In the Punjab, however, it was initially strategic commercial interests which drove investment in railways and communications from 1860.[68]

Independent railway companies emerged, such as the Scinde, Punjab and Delhi railways to build and operate new lines. In 1862, the first section of railway in the Punjab was constructed between Lahore and Amritsar, and Lahore Junction railway station opened. Lines were opened between Lahore and Multan in 1864, and Amritsar and Delhi in 1870.[68] The Scinde, Punjab and Delhi railways merged to form the Scinde, Punjab & Delhi Railway in 1870, creating a link between Karachi and Lahore via Multan. The Punjab Northern State Railway linked Lahore and Peshawar in 1883. By 1886, the independent railways had amalgamated into North Western State Railway.[68]

The construction of railway lines and the network of railway workshops generated employment opportunities, which in turn led to increased immigration into cantonment towns.[68] As connectivity increased across the province, it facilitated the movement of goods, and increased human interaction. It has been observed that the Ferozpur, Lahore and Amritsar began to develop into one composite cultural triangle due to the ease of connectivity between them.[68] Similarly barriers of spoken dialects eroded over time, and cultural affinities were increasingly fostered.[68]

Education

In 1854, the Punjab education department was instituted with a policy to provide secular education in all government managed institutions.[69] Privately run institutions would only receive grants-in-aid in return for providing secular instruction.[69] By 1864 this had resulted in a situation whereby all grants-in-aid to higher education schools and colleges were received by institutions under European management, and no indigenous owned schools received government help.[69]

In the early 1860s, a number of educational colleges were established, including Lawrence College, Murree, King Edward Medical University, Government College, Lahore,Glancy Medical College and Forman Christian College. In 1882, Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner published a damning report on the state of education in the Punjab. He lamented the failure to reconcile government run schools with traditional indigenous schools, and noted a steady decline in the number of schools across the province since annexation.[70] He noted in particular how Punjabi Muslim's avoided government run schools due to the lack of religious subjects taught in them, observing how at least 120,000 Punjabis attended schools unsupported by the state and describing it as 'a protest by the people against our system of education.'[71] Leitner had long advocated the benefits of oriental scholarship, and the fusion of government education with religious instruction. In January 1865 he had established the Anjuman-i-Punjab, a subscription based association aimed at using a European style of learning to promote useful knowledge, whilst also reviving traditional scholarship in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit.[72] In 1884, a reorganisation of the Punjab education system occurred, introducing measures tending towards decentralisation of control over education and the promotion of an indigenous education agency. As a consequence several new institutions were encouraged in the province. The Arya Samaj opened a college in Lahore in 1886, the Sikhs opened the Khalsa College whilst the Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam stepped in to organise Muslim education.[73] In 1886, the Punjab Chiefs' College, later renamed Aitchison College, was opened to further the education of the elite classes.

Government

Early administration

In 1849, a Board of Administration was put in place to govern the newly annexed province. The Board was led by a President and two assistants. Beneath them Commissioners acted as Superintendents of revenue and police and exercised the civil appellate and the original criminal powers of Sessions Judges, whilst Deputy Commissioners were given subordinate civil, criminal and fiscal powers.[74] In 1853, the Board of Administration was abolished, and authority was invested in a single Chief Commissioner. The Government of India Act 1858 led to further restructuring and the office of Lieutenant-Governor replaced that of Chief Commissioner.

Although The Indian Councils Act, 1861 laid the foundation for the establishment of a local legislature in the Punjab, the first legislature was constituted in 1897. It consisted of a body of nominated officials and non-officials and was presided over by the Lieutenant-Governor. The first council lasted for eleven years until 1909. The Morley-Minto Reforms led to an elected members complementing the nominated officials in subsequent councils.[75]

Punjab Legislative Council and Assembly

The Government of India Act 1919 introduced the system of dyarchy across British India and led to the implementation of the first Punjab Legislative Council in 1921. At the same time the office of lieutenant governor was replaced with that of governor. The initial Council had ninety three members, seventy per cent of which were elected and the rest nominated.[75] A president was elected by the Council to preside over the meetings. Between 1921 and 1936, there were four terms of the Council.[75]

In 1935, the Government of India Act 1935 replaced dyarchy with increased provincial autonomy. It introduced direct elections, and enabled elected Indian representatives to form governments in the provincial assemblies. The Punjab Legislative Council was replaced by a Punjab Legislative Assembly, and the role of President with that of a Speaker. Membership of the Assembly was fixed at 175 members, and it was intended to sit for five years.[75]

First Assembly Election

The first election was held in 1937 and was won outright by the Unionist Party. Its leader, Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan was asked by the Governor, Sir Herbert Emerson to form a Ministry and he chose a cabinet consisting of three Muslims, two Hindus and a Sikh.[76] Sir Sikandar died in 1942 and was succeeded as Premier by Khizar Hayat Khan Tiwana.

Second Assembly Election

The next election was held in 1946. The Muslim League won the most seats, winning 73 out of a total of 175. However a coalition led by the Unionist Party and consisting of the Congress Party and Akali Party were able to secure an overall majority. A campaign of civil disobedience by the Muslim League followed, lasting six weeks, and led to the resignation of Sir Khizar Tiwana and the collapse of the coalition government on 2 March 1947.[77] The Muslim League however were unable to attract the support of other minorities to form a coalition government themselves.[78] Amid this stalemate the Governor Sir Evan Jenkins assumed control of the government and remained in charge until the independence of India and Pakistan.[78]

Coat of arms

Arms of British Punjab

Crescat e Fluviis meaning, Let it grow from the rivers was the Latin motto used in the coat of arms for Punjab Province. As per the book History of the Sikhs written by Khushwant Singh, it means Strength from the Rivers.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Including Attock District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Shahpur District
  2. ^ Including Amritsar District, Gujranwala District, Gujrat District, Gurdaspur District, Lahore District, Lyallpur District, Montgomery District, Sheikhupura District, and Sialkot District
  3. ^ Including Dera Ghazi Khan District, Jhang District, Mianwali District, Multan District, and Muzaffargarh District
  4. ^ Including Firozpur district, Hoshiarpur district, Jalandhar district, Kangra district, and Ludhiana district
  5. ^ Including Ambala district, Delhi district, Gurgaon district, Hisar district, Karnal district, Rohtak district, and Shimla. Later renamed Ambala Division in 1911, following separation of Delhi district from Punjab Province.
  6. ^ Including Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Bahawalpur State, Sirmur State, Loharu State, Dujana, Pataudi State, Kalsia, Simla Hill States, Kapurthala State, Mandi State, Malerkotla State, Suket State, Faridkot State, Siba State, Chamba State, and Kahlur (Bilaspur)
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r 1931 & 1941 censuses: Including Ad-Dharmis
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i Including Delhi district, which was later made into a separate province in 1912, following the transfer from Calcutta to Delhi as capital of India in 1911.
  9. ^ 1881 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Lahore, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Gujrat, Shahpur, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Montgomery, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), and one princely state (Bahawalpur) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1881 census data here: [38][39][40]
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan.
  10. ^ 1901 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Lahore, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Gujrat, Shahpur, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Mianwali, Montgomery, Lyallpur (inscribed as the Chenab Colony on the 1901 census), Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1901 census data here: [41]: 34 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan.
  11. ^ 1911 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Lahore, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Gujrat, Shahpur, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Attock, Mianwali, Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1911 census data here: [42]: 27 [43]: 27 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan.
  12. ^ 1921 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Lahore, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Sheikhupura, Gujrat, Shahpur, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Attock, Mianwali, Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1921 census data here: [44]: 29 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan.
  13. ^ 1931 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Lahore, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Sheikhupura, Gujrat, Shahpur, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Attock, Mianwali, Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1931 census data here: [45]: 277 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan.
  14. ^ 1941 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Lahore, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Sheikhupura, Gujrat, Shahpur, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Attock, Mianwali, Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1941 census data here: [13]: 42 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan.
  15. ^ 1881 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Hisar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal, Sirsa, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Firozpur, Amritsar, Simla, Kangra, Ambala, Hoshiarpur, and Gurdaspur (minus Shakargarh Tehsil)), and princely states (Loharu, Dujana, Pataudi, Kalsia, Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Faridkot, Patiala, Jind, Nabha, and Simla Hill) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1881 census data here: [38][39][40]
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh.
  16. ^ 1901 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Hisar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Firozpur, Amritsar, Simla, Kangra, Ambala, Hoshiarpur, and Gurdaspur (minus Shakargarh Tehsil)), and princely states (Loharu, Dujana, Pataudi, Kalsia, Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Faridkot, Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Nahan, Simla Hill, Mandi, Suket, and Chamba) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1901 census data here: [41]: 34 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh.
  17. ^ 1911 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Hisar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Firozpur, Amritsar, Simla, Kangra, Ambala, Hoshiarpur, and Gurdaspur (minus Shakargarh Tehsil)), and princely states (Loharu, Dujana, Pataudi, Kalsia, Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Faridkot, Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Nahan, Simla Hill, Mandi, Suket, and Chamba) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1911 census data here: [42]: 27 [43]: 27 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh.
  18. ^ 1921 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Hisar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Karnal, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Firozpur, Amritsar, Simla, Kangra, Ambala, Hoshiarpur, and Gurdaspur (minus Shakargarh Tehsil)), and princely states (Loharu, Dujana, Pataudi, Kalsia, Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Faridkot, Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Nahan, Simla Hill, Bilaspur, Mandi, Suket, and Chamba) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1921 census data here: [44]: 29 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh.
  19. ^ 1931 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Hisar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Karnal, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Firozpur, Amritsar, Simla, Kangra, Ambala, Hoshiarpur, and Gurdaspur (minus Shakargarh Tehsil)), and princely states (Loharu, Dujana, Pataudi, Kalsia, Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Faridkot, Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Sirmoor, Simla Hill, Bilaspur, Mandi, Suket, and Chamba) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1931 census data here: [45]: 277 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh.
  20. ^ 1941 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Hisar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Karnal, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Firozpur, Amritsar, Simla, Kangra, Ambala, Hoshiarpur, and Gurdaspur (minus Shakargarh Tehsil)), and princely states (Loharu, Dujana, Pataudi, Kalsia, Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Faridkot, Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Sirmoor, Simla Hill, Bilaspur, Mandi, Suket, and Chamba) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1941 census data here: [13]: 42 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh.
  21. ^ a b c d See total breakdowns in tables below.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Including Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Tribals, others, or not stated
  23. ^ a b c d e Western Punjabi languages and dialects including Saraiki, Hindko and Pahari-Pothwari, and other related languages or dialects
  24. ^ Standard Punjabi: 58.34%
    Lahnda:[w] 17.59%
  25. ^ a b c d e Including Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), Braj Bhasha, Haryanvi, and other related languages or dialects
  26. ^ Standard Punjabi: 63.49%
    Lahnda:[w] 1.0%
  27. ^ Standard Punjabi: 74.01%
    Lahnda:[w] 14.76%
  28. ^ Lahnda:[w] 60.31%
    Standard Punjabi: 36.14%

References

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