Subfamily of Athabaskan languages
El athabaskan del sur (también apache ) es una subfamilia de lenguas athabaskan habladas principalmente en el suroeste de los Estados Unidos (incluidos Arizona , Nuevo México , Colorado y Utah ), con dos valores atípicos en Oklahoma y Texas . Las lenguas se hablan en los estados del norte de México de Sonora , Chihuahua , Coahuila y en mucho menor grado en Durango y Nuevo León . Esos idiomas son hablados por varios grupos de pueblos apaches y navajos . En otros lugares, muchos grupos indígenas de pueblos indígenas de Alaska, Canadá, Oregón y el norte de California hablan athabaskan.
Las autodesignaciones para los apaches occidentales y los navajos son N'dee biyat'i y Diné bizaad o Naabeehó bizaad , respectivamente.
Hay varios personajes históricos conocidos cuya primera lengua fue el atabasco del sur. Gerónimo (Goyaałé), que hablaba chiricahua, era un famoso asaltante y líder de guerra. Manuelito hablaba navajo y es famoso por su liderazgo durante y después de la Larga Caminata de los Navajo .
División familiar
Las siete lenguas atabascanas del sur se pueden dividir en dos grupos según la clasificación de Harry Hoijer : (I) Llanuras y (II) Suroeste. Plains Apache es el único miembro del grupo Plains Apache. El grupo suroeste se puede dividir a su vez en dos subgrupos (A) occidental y (B) oriental. El subgrupo occidental está formado por apaches occidentales , navajos , mescaleros y chiricahuas . El subgrupo oriental está formado por Jicarilla y Lipan .
- Atabasco del Sur
- Apache de las llanuras ( también conocido como Kiowa–Apache) (en apache: Naishan )
- Del suroeste
- occidental
- Chiricahua-Mescalero (en apache: Ndee Bizaa )
- Chiricahua (en apache: N'nee biyat'i )
- Chiricahua propiamente dicha
- manantiales cálidos
- Mescalero (en apache: Ndé Bizaa' )
- Navajo (también conocido como Navahu˙) (en navajo: Naabeehó bizaad , Diné bizaad )
- Apache occidental (también conocido como Coyotero Apache) (en Apache: N'dee biyát'i )
- Oriental
- Jicarilla (también conocido como Hikariya Apache) (en apache: Abáachi, Abáachi mizaa )
- Lipan (en apache: Ndé miizaa )
La clasificación de Hoijer se basa principalmente en las diferencias en la pronunciación de la consonante inicial de las raíces del sustantivo y del verbo. Su clasificación anterior de 1938 tenía sólo dos ramas con el apache de las llanuras agrupado junto con las otras lenguas orientales (es decir, con jicarilla y lipan).
El mescalero y el chiricahua se consideran lenguas diferentes aunque son mutuamente inteligibles. El apache occidental (especialmente la variedad Dilzhe'e ) y el navajo están más cerca uno del otro que cualquiera de los dos del mescalero/chiricahua. Los apaches lipan y los apaches de las llanuras están casi extintos y el chiricahua está gravemente amenazado. El mescalero, el jicarilla y el apache occidental también se consideran en peligro de extinción, y algunos niños todavía aprenden los idiomas a pesar de que el número de niños hablantes sigue disminuyendo. El navajo es uno de los idiomas más vigorosos de América del Norte, pero aún enfrenta un declive: su uso entre los estudiantes de primer grado disminuyó del 90% en 1968 al 30% en 1998. [1]
Las lenguas atabascas del sur que se hablan en México están reguladas por el Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (INALI) y tienen el estatus oficial de lenguas nacionales de México. Para revitalizar los idiomas, el instituto creó un Consejo de Planificación Lingüística de base comunitaria con hablantes nativos para establecer y desarrollar reglas gramaticales y la normalización del sistema de escritura; desde entonces se ha validado un alfabeto oficial mientras que otros temas gramaticales aún están en desarrollo. [2]
Fonología
Todas las lenguas del sur de Athabaskan son algo similares en su fonología . La siguiente descripción se concentrará en Apache occidental . Se pueden esperar variaciones menores para otros idiomas relacionados (como navajo , jicarilla , chiricahua ).
Consonantes
Las lenguas atabascanas del sur generalmente tienen un inventario de consonantes similar al conjunto de 33 consonantes a continuación (basado principalmente en el apache occidental):
- Sólo los navajos y los apaches occidentales tienen nasales glotalizadas.
Ortografía (consonantes)
La ortografía práctica se corresponde bastante bien con la pronunciación de las lenguas atabascanas del sur (a diferencia de los sistemas de escritura del inglés o del vietnamita). A continuación se muestra una tabla que combina la notación fonética con el símbolo ortográfico:
Algunas convenciones ortográficas:
- Las fricativas [h] y [x] se escriben ambas como h . (ver también el n.° 2 a continuación)
- La fricativa [x] generalmente se escribe como h , pero después de o puede escribirse como hw , especialmente en apache occidental (puede pronunciarse [xʷ] ).
- La fricativa [ɣ] se escribe gh la mayor parte del tiempo, pero antes de i y e se escribe como y (& puede pronunciarse [ʝ] ), y antes de o se escribe como w (& puede pronunciarse [ɣʷ] ).
- Todas las palabras que comienzan con vocal se pronuncian con oclusiva glotal ' [ʔ] . Esta oclusión glotal nunca se escribe al principio de una palabra.
- Some words are pronounced either as d or n or nd, depending on the dialect of the speaker. This is represented in the consonant table above as [ⁿd]. The same is true with b and m in a few words.
- In many words n can occur in a syllable by itself in which case it is a syllabic [n̩]. This is not indicated in the spelling.
Vowels
Southern Athabaskan languages have four vowels of contrasting tongue dimensions (as written in a general "practical" orthography):
These vowels may also be short or long and oral (non-nasal) or nasal. Nasal vowels are indicated by an ogonek (or nasal hook) diacritic ˛ in Western Apache, Navajo, Mescalero, and Chiricahua; in Jicarilla, the nasal vowels are indicated by underlining the vowel, results in 16 different vowels:
IPA equivalents for Western Apache oral vowels:
i = [ɪ],ii = [iː],e = [ɛ],ee = [ɛː],o = [o],oo = [ʊː],a = [ɐ],aa = [ɑː].
In Western Apache, there is a practice where orthographic vowels o and oo are written as u in certain contexts. These contexts do not include nasalized vowels, so nasal u never occurs in the orthography. This practice continues into the present (perhaps somewhat inconsistently).
However, in Harry Hoijer and other American linguists' work all o-vowels are written as o. Similarly, Navajo does not use orthographic u, consistently writing this vowel as o.
In Chiricahua and Mescalero, this vowel is written as u in all contexts (including nasalized ų).
Other practices may be used in other Apachean languages.
Tone
Southern Athabaskan languages are tonal languages. Hoijer and other linguists analyze Southern Athabaskan languages as having four tones (using Americanist transcription system):
- high (marked with acute accent ´, Example: á)
- low (marked with grave accent `, Example: à)
- rising (marked with háček ˇ, Example: ǎ)
- falling (marked with circumflex ˆ, Example: â)
Rising and falling tones are less common in the language (often occurring over morpheme boundaries) and often occur on long vowels. Vowels can carry tone as well as syllabic n (Example: ń).
The practical orthography has tried to simplify the Americanist transcription system by representing only high tone with an acute accent and leaving low tone unmarked:
Then, niziz is written instead of the previous nìzìz.
Additionally, rising tone on long vowels is indicated by an unmarked first vowel and an acute accent on the second. It is vice versa for falling tone:
- rising: aá (instead of Americanist: ǎ·)
- falling: áa (instead of Americanist: â·)
Nasal vowels carry tone as well, resulting in a two diacritics on vowels with high tone: ą́ (presenting problems for computerization). Recently, de Reuse (2006) has found that Western Apache also has a mid tone, which he indicates with a macron diacritic ¯, as in ō, ǭ. In Chiricahua, a falling tone can occur on a syllabic n: n̂.
Here are some vowel contrasts involving nasalization, tone, and length from Chiricahua Apache:
- cha̧a̧ 'feces'
- chaa 'beaver'
- shiban 'my buckskin'
- shibán 'my bread'
- bik’ai’ 'his hip'
- bík’ai’ 'his stepmother'
- hah’aał 'you two are going to chew it'
- hah’ał 'you two are chewing it'
Comparative phonology
The Southern Athabascan branch was defined by Harry Hoijer primarily according to its merger of stem-initial consonants of the Proto-Athabascan series *k̯ and *c into *c (in addition to the widespread merger of *č and *čʷ into *č also found in many Northern Athabascan languages).
Hoijer (1938) divided the Apachean sub-family into an Eastern branch consisting of Jicarilla, Lipan, and Plains Apache and a Western branch consisting of Navajo, Western Apache (San Carlos), Chiricahua, and Mescalero based on the merger of Proto-Apachean *t and *k to k in the Eastern branch. Thus, as can be seen in the example below, when the Western languages have noun or verb stems that start with t, the related forms in the Eastern languages will start with a k:
He later revised his proposal in 1971 when he found that Plains Apache did not participate in the *k̯/*c merger, to consider Plains Apache to be equidistant from the other languages, now called Southwestern Apachean. Thus, some stems that originally started with *k̯ in Proto-Athabascan start with ch in Plains Apache, but the other languages start with ts.
Morris Opler (1975) has suggested that Hoijer's original formulation that Jicarilla and Lipan in an Eastern branch was more in agreement with the cultural similarities between both and their differences from the other Western Apachean groups. Other linguists, particularly Michael Krauss (1973), have noted that a classification based only on the initial consonants of noun and verb stems is arbitrary and when other sound correspondences are considered the relationships between the languages appear to be more complex. Additionally, it has been pointed out by Martin Huld (1983) that since Plains Apache does not merge Proto-Athabascan *k̯/*c, Plains Apache cannot be considered an Apachean language as defined by Hoijer.
Other differences and similarities among the Southern Athabaskan languages can be observed in the following modified and abbreviated Swadesh list:
Grammar
References
- ^ https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/09/us/indians-striving-to-save-their-languages.html Brooke, James. "Indians Striving to Save Their Languages." New York Times, p. A1, April 9, 1998.
- ^ "Lengua N'dee/N'nee/Ndé".
Further reading
- Cremony, John Carey. 1868. Life Among the Apaches. A. Roman, 1868. Length 322 pages. Chapter XX discusses the Apache language, number system, and grammar.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1938). The southern Athapaskan languages. American Anthropologist, 40 (1), 75-87.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1945). Classificatory verb stems in the Apachean languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 11 (1), 13-23.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1945). The Apachean verb, part I: Verb structure and pronominal prefixes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 11 (4), 193-203.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1946). The Apachean verb, part II: The prefixes for mode and tense. International Journal of American Linguistics, 12 (1), 1-13.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1946). The Apachean verb, part III: The classifiers. International Journal of American Linguistics, 12 (2), 51-59.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1948). The Apachean verb, part IV: Major form classes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 14 (4), 247–259.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1949). The Apachean verb, part V: The theme and prefix complex. International Journal of American Linguistics, 15 (1), 12–22.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1956). The Chronology of the Athapaskan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 22 (4), 219-232.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1963). The Athapaskan languages. In H. Hoijer (Ed.), Studies in the Athapaskan languages (pp. 1–29). University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Hoijer, Harry (Ed.). (1963). Studies in the Athapaskan languages. University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1971). The position of the Apachean languages in the Athapaskan stock. In K. H. Basso & M. E. Opler (Eds.), Apachean culture history and ethnology (pp. 3–6). Anthropological papers of the University of Arizona (No. 21). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
- Hymes, Dell H. (1957). A note on Athapaskan glottochronology. International Journal of American Linguistics, 22 (4), 291-297.
- Liebe-Harkot, Marie-Louise. (1984). A comparison of Apachean languages, exemplified by the verb system for handling verbs. In H. Krenn, J. Niemeyer, & U. Eberhardt (Eds.), Sprache und Text: Akten des 18: Linguistischen Kolloquiums, Linz 1983. Linguistische Arbeiten (Max Niemeyer Verlag) (Nos. 145-146). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. ISBN 3-484-30145-7 (Bd. 1); ISBN 3-484-30146-5 (Bd. 2).
- de Reuse, Willem J. (2001). Prototypes and fuzziness in the system and usage of Apachean classificatory verb stems. In S. Tuttle & G. Holton (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2001 Athabaskan Languages Conference (No. 1, pp. 75–94). Fairbanks, AK: Alaska Native Language Center.
- Sapir, Edward. (1936). Linguistic evidence suggestive of the northern origin of the Navaho. American Anthropologist, 38 (2), 224-235.
- Young, Robert W. (1983). Apachean languages. In A. Ortiz, W. C. Sturtevant (Eds.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 10, pp. 393–400). Washington: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-004579-7.
- Chiricahua
- Hoijer, Harry. (n.d.). Chiricahua Apache stems. (Unpublished manuscript).
- Hoijer, Harry. (1938). Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-404-15783-1.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1939). Chiricahua loan-words from Spanish. Language, 15 (2), 110-115.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1946). Chiricahua Apache. In C. Osgood (Ed.), Linguistic structures in North America. New York: Wenner-Green Foundation for Anthropological Research.
- Opler, Morris E., & Hoijer, Harry. (1940). The raid and war-path language of the Chiricahua Apache. Language, 42 (4), 617-634.
- Pinnow, Jürgen. (1988). Die Sprache der Chiricahua-Apachen: Mit Seitenblicken auf das Mescalero [The language of the Chiricahua Apache: With side glances at the Mescalero]. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.
- Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Sam Kenoi's "Coyote and the Whiteman": Contact in and out of a Chiricahua narrative. In A. Trefzer & R. L. Murray (Eds.), Reclaiming Native American cultures, proceedings of the Native American Symposium (pp. 67–80). Durant, OK: Southeastern Oklahoma State University.
- Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Sam Kenoi's coyote stories: Poetics and rhetoric in some Chiricahua Apache narratives[dead link]. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 23, 137-163.
- Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Lisandro Medez's "Coyote and Deer": On reciprocity, narrative structures, and interactions. American Indian Quarterly, 23, 1-24.
- Webster, Anthony K. (2006). On Speaking to Him (Coyote): The Discourse Function of the yi-/bi- Alternation in Some Chiricahua Apache Narratives. Southwest Journal of Linguistics, 25(2), 143-160.
- Mescalero
- Breunginger, Evelyn; Hugar, Elbys; & Lathan, Ellen Ann. (1982). Mescalero Apache dictionary. Mescalero: NM: Mescalero Apache Tribe.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1938). Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-404-15783-1.
- Pinnow, Jürgen. (1988). Die Sprache der Chiricahua-Apachen: Mit Seitenblicken auf das Mescalero [The language of the Chiricahua Apache: With side glances at the Mescalero]. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.
- Rushforth, Scott. (1991). Uses of Bearlake and Mescalero (Athapaskan) classificatory verbs. International Journal of American Linguistics, 57, 251-266.
- Jicarilla
- Goddard, Pliny Earle (1911). Jicarilla Apache texts. The Trustees. Retrieved 24 August 2012. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History (Vol. 8). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
- Phone, Wilhelmina; Olson, Maureen; & Martinez, Matilda. (forthcoming). Abáachi mizaa łáo iłkee’ shijai: Dictionary of Jicarilla Apache. Axelrod, Melissa; Gómez de García, Jule; Lachler, Jordan; & Burke, Sean (Eds.). UNM Press. (Estimated publication date: summer 2006).
- Phone, Wilma; & Torivio, Patricia. (1981). Jicarilla mizaa medaóołkai dáłáéé. Albuquerque: Native American Materials Development Center.
- Tuttle, Siri G.; & Sandoval, Merton. (2002). Jicarilla Apache. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 32, 105-112.
- Vicenti, Carson. (1981). Jicarilla Apache dictionary. Native American Materials Development Center, Ramah Navajo School Board.
- Wilson, Alan, & Vigil Martine, Rita. (1996). Apache (Jicarilla). Guilford, CT: Audio-Forum. ISBN 0-88432-903-8. (Includes book and cassette recording).
- Navajo
- Western Apache
- Basso, Keith H. (1979). Portraits of "the whiteman": Linguistic play and cultural symbols among the Western Apache. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29593-9.
- Basso, Keith H. (1990). Western Apache language and culture: Essays in linguistic anthropology. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1323-6.
- Basso, Keith H. (1996). Wisdom sits in places: Landscape and language among the Western Apache. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1724-3.
- Bray, Dorothy, & White Mountain Apache Tribe. (1998). Western Apache-English dictionary: A community-generated bilingual dictionary. Tempe, AZ: Bilingual Press. ISBN 0-927534-79-7.
- Durbin, Marshall. (1964). A componential analysis of the San Carlos dialect of Western Apache: A study based on the analysis of the phonology, morphophonics, and morphemics. (Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York, Buffalo).
- Goddard, Pliny Earle (1919). San Carlos Apache texts. American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 24 August 2012. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part 3). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
- Goddard, Pliny Earle (1920). White Mountain Apache texts. The Trustees. Retrieved 24 August 2012. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part 4). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
- Goodwin, Grenville. (1939). Myth and tales of the White Mountain Apache. New York: American Folk-Lore Society (J. J. Augustin). ISBN 0-8165-1451-8
- Gordon, Matthew; Potter, Brian; Dawson, John; de Reuse, Willem; & Ladefoged, Peter. (2001). Phonetic structures of Western Apache. International Journal of American Linguistics, 67 (4), 415-481.
- Greenfeld, Philip J. (1971). Playing card names in Western Apache. International Journal of American Linguistics, 37 (3), 195-196.
- Greenfeld, Philip J. (1972). The phonological hierarchy of the White Mountain dialect of Western Apache. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona, Tucson).
- Greenfeld, Philip J. (1978). Some special phonological characteristics of the White Mountain dialect of Apachean. Anthropological Linguistics, 20 (1), 150-157.
- Greenfeld, Philip J. (1984). A treatment for stress in Apache. International Journal of American Linguistics, 50 (1), 105-111.
- Hill, Faith. (1963). Some comparisons between the San Carlos and White Mountain dialects of Western Apache. In H. Hoijer (Ed.), Studies in the Athapaskan languages (pp. 149–154). University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Mierau, Eric. (1963). Concerning Yavapai-Apache bilingualism. International Journal of American Linguistics, 29 (1), 1-3.
- Potter, Brian. (1997). Wh/indefinites and the structure of the clause in Western Apache. (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.
- de Reuse, Willem J. (1993). Stylistic and dialectal variation in Western Apache phonology. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.
- de Reuse, Willem J. (2006). A practical grammar of the San Carlos Apache language. Lincom Studies in Native American Linguistics 51. Lincom. ISBN 3-89586-861-2.
- White Mountain Apache Culture Center. (1972). Western Apache dictionary. Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Culture Center.
- White Mountain Apache Culture Center. (1983). New! keys to reading and writing Apache (rev. ed.). Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Culture Center.
- Other
- Hoijer, Harry. (1975). The history and customs of the Lipan, as told by Augustina Zuazua. Linguistics, 161, 5-38.
- Bittle. 1963. “Kiowa–Apache.” In Studies in the Athapaskan Languages. (Ed. Hoijer, Harry). University of California Studies in Linguistics vol. 29. Berkeley: California UP. 76-101.
External links
- How Different can Languages be?: The grammatical mosaic of Navajo
- Simplified Apache Pronunciation
- Chiricahua and Mescalero Texts
- Grammatical Sketch of Chiricahua/Mescalero
- Other Apache Ethnographical Sources
- Apache texts
- Goddard's Jicarilla Texts (translation only)
- Issues in Language Textbook Development: The Case of Western Apache
- White Mountain Apache Language: Issues in Language Shift, Textbook Development, and Native Speaker-University Collaboration
- Phonetic Structures of Western Apache (318 kb PDF: technical work on acoustic phonetics)
- EtymOnline.com Archived 2012-04-23 at the Wayback Machine, Apache Online Etymology Dictionary
- Language-Museum.com, Apache Language Sample