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Residuos radiactivos

Barriles de residuos de baja radiactividad del Instituto de Tecnología Nuclear de Tailandia (TINT)

Los residuos radiactivos son un tipo de residuos peligrosos que contienen material radiactivo . Los residuos radiactivos son el resultado de muchas actividades, entre ellas la medicina nuclear , la investigación nuclear , la generación de energía nuclear , el desmantelamiento nuclear , la minería de tierras raras y el reprocesamiento de armas nucleares . [1] El almacenamiento y la eliminación de residuos radiactivos están regulados por agencias gubernamentales con el fin de proteger la salud humana y el medio ambiente.

Los desechos radiactivos se clasifican en tres categorías generales: desechos de bajo nivel (LLW), como papel, trapos, herramientas y ropa, que contienen pequeñas cantidades de radiactividad, en su mayoría de vida corta; desechos de nivel intermedio (ILW), que contienen mayores cantidades de radiactividad y requieren algún tipo de protección; y desechos de alto nivel (HLW), que son altamente radiactivos y calientes debido al calor de desintegración, por lo que requieren refrigeración y protección.

En las plantas de reprocesamiento nuclear , aproximadamente el 96% del combustible nuclear gastado se recicla para convertirlo en combustibles a base de uranio y de óxido mixto (MOX) . [2] El 4% residual son actínidos menores y productos de fisión , estos últimos son una mezcla de elementos estables y de rápida descomposición (probablemente ya desintegrados en la piscina de combustible gastado ), productos de fisión de vida media como el estroncio-90 y el cesio-137 y, por último, siete productos de fisión de larga duración con vidas medias de cientos de miles a millones de años. Mientras tanto, los actínidos menores son elementos pesados ​​distintos del uranio y el plutonio que se crean por captura de neutrones . Sus vidas medias varían de años a millones de años y, como emisores alfa, son particularmente radiotóxicos. Si bien existen usos propuestos (y en mucha menor medida actuales) de todos esos elementos, el reprocesamiento a escala comercial mediante el proceso PUREX los elimina como desechos junto con los productos de fisión. Los residuos se convierten posteriormente en una cerámica similar al vidrio para su almacenamiento en un depósito geológico profundo .

El tiempo durante el cual los residuos radiactivos deben almacenarse depende del tipo de residuo y de los isótopos radiactivos que contienen. Los enfoques a corto plazo para el almacenamiento de residuos radiactivos han sido la segregación y el almacenamiento en la superficie o cerca de la superficie de la tierra. El enterramiento en un depósito geológico profundo es una solución preferida para el almacenamiento a largo plazo de residuos de alta actividad, mientras que la reutilización y la transmutación son soluciones preferidas para reducir el inventario de HLW. Los límites para el reciclado del combustible nuclear gastado son regulatorios y económicos, así como el problema de la contaminación radiactiva si los procesos de separación química no pueden lograr una pureza muy alta. Además, los elementos pueden estar presentes tanto en isótopos útiles como problemáticos, lo que requeriría una costosa y energética separación de isótopos para su uso, una perspectiva actualmente antieconómica.

En el marco de una convención conjunta del Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica (OIEA), se presenta y revisa periódicamente un resumen de las cantidades de desechos radiactivos y los enfoques de gestión para la mayoría de los países desarrollados . [3]

Naturaleza y significado

Una cantidad de residuos radiactivos suele estar formada por una serie de radionucleidos , que son isótopos inestables de elementos que se desintegran y emiten radiación ionizante , que es perjudicial para los seres humanos y el medio ambiente. Los distintos isótopos emiten distintos tipos y niveles de radiación, que duran distintos periodos de tiempo.

Física

La radiactividad de todos los residuos radiactivos se debilita con el tiempo. Todos los radionucleidos contenidos en los residuos tienen una vida media , es decir, el tiempo que tarda la mitad de los átomos en desintegrarse en otro nucleido . Finalmente, todos los residuos radiactivos se desintegran en elementos no radiactivos (es decir, nucleidos estables ). Dado que la desintegración radiactiva sigue la regla de la vida media, la velocidad de desintegración es inversamente proporcional a la duración de la desintegración. En otras palabras, la radiación de un isótopo de vida larga como el yodo-129 será mucho menos intensa que la de un isótopo de vida corta como el yodo-131 . [4] Las dos tablas muestran algunos de los principales radioisótopos, sus vidas medias y su rendimiento de radiación como proporción del rendimiento de la fisión del uranio-235.

La energía y el tipo de radiación ionizante emitida por una sustancia radiactiva también son factores importantes para determinar su amenaza para los seres humanos. [5] Las propiedades químicas del elemento radiactivo determinarán la movilidad de la sustancia y la probabilidad de que se propague al medio ambiente y contamine a los seres humanos. [6] Esto se complica aún más por el hecho de que muchos radioisótopos no se desintegran inmediatamente en un estado estable, sino que se convierten en productos de desintegración radiactiva dentro de una cadena de desintegración antes de alcanzar finalmente un estado estable.

Farmacocinética

La exposición a desechos radiactivos puede causar impactos en la salud debido a la exposición a la radiación ionizante. En humanos, una dosis de 1 sievert conlleva un riesgo del 5,5% de desarrollar cáncer, [7] y las agencias reguladoras suponen que el riesgo es linealmente proporcional a la dosis, incluso para dosis bajas. La radiación ionizante puede causar deleciones en cromosomas. [8] Si se irradia a un organismo en desarrollo, como un feto , es posible que se induzca un defecto congénito , pero es poco probable que este defecto se encuentre en un gameto o en una célula formadora de gametos . La incidencia de mutaciones inducidas por radiación en humanos es pequeña, como en la mayoría de los mamíferos, debido a los mecanismos naturales de reparación celular, muchos de los cuales recién están saliendo a la luz. Estos mecanismos van desde la reparación del ADN, ARNm y proteínas, hasta la digestión lisosómica interna de proteínas defectuosas, e incluso el suicidio celular inducido: la apoptosis [9].

Dependiendo del modo de desintegración y de la farmacocinética de un elemento (cómo lo procesa el cuerpo y con qué rapidez), la amenaza debida a la exposición a una actividad dada de un radioisótopo será diferente. Por ejemplo, el yodo-131 es un emisor beta y gamma de vida corta , pero debido a que se concentra en la glándula tiroides , es más capaz de causar lesiones que el cesio -137 que, al ser soluble en agua , se excreta rápidamente a través de la orina. De manera similar, los actínidos emisores alfa y el radio se consideran muy dañinos ya que tienden a tener vidas medias biológicas largas y su radiación tiene una alta efectividad biológica relativa , lo que la hace mucho más dañina para los tejidos por cantidad de energía depositada. Debido a tales diferencias, las reglas que determinan la lesión biológica difieren ampliamente según el radioisótopo, el tiempo de exposición y, a veces, también la naturaleza del compuesto químico que contiene el radioisótopo.

Fuentes

Los desechos radiactivos provienen de diversas fuentes. En los países con centrales nucleares, armamento nuclear o plantas de tratamiento de combustible nuclear, la mayoría de los desechos provienen del ciclo del combustible nuclear y del reprocesamiento de armas nucleares. Otras fuentes incluyen desechos médicos e industriales, así como materiales radiactivos naturales (NORM) que pueden concentrarse como resultado del procesamiento o consumo de carbón, petróleo y gas, y algunos minerales, como se analiza a continuación.

Ciclo del combustible nuclear

Interfaz

Los desechos de la primera parte del ciclo del combustible nuclear suelen ser desechos que emiten partículas alfa, provenientes de la extracción de uranio. A menudo contienen radio y sus productos de desintegración.

El concentrado de dióxido de uranio (UO 2 ) procedente de la minería es unas mil veces más radiactivo que el granito utilizado en los edificios. Se refina a partir de torta amarilla (U 3 O 8 ) y luego se convierte en gas hexafluoruro de uranio (UF 6 ). Como gas, se somete a un enriquecimiento para aumentar el contenido de U-235 del 0,7 % a aproximadamente el 4,4 % (LEU). Luego se convierte en un óxido cerámico duro (UO 2 ) para su montaje como elementos combustibles de reactores. [15]

El principal subproducto del enriquecimiento es el uranio empobrecido (DU), principalmente el isótopo U-238 , con un contenido de U-235 de ~0,3%. Se almacena, ya sea como UF6 o como U3O8 . Parte se utiliza en aplicaciones donde su densidad extremadamente alta lo hace valioso, como proyectiles antitanque y, al menos en una ocasión, incluso en la quilla de un velero . [16] También se utiliza con plutonio para fabricar combustible de óxido mixto (MOX) y para diluir o mezclar uranio altamente enriquecido de los arsenales de armas que ahora se está redirigiendo para convertirse en combustible para reactores.

Parte trasera

La parte final del ciclo del combustible nuclear, en su mayoría barras de combustible gastado , contiene productos de fisión que emiten radiación beta y gamma, y ​​actínidos que emiten partículas alfa , como el uranio-234 (vida media de 245 mil años), el neptunio-237 (2,144 millones de años), el plutonio-238 (87,7 años) y el americio-241 (432 años), e incluso a veces algunos emisores de neutrones como el californio (vida media de 898 años para el californio-251). Estos isótopos se forman en los reactores nucleares .

Es importante distinguir el procesamiento del uranio para fabricar combustible del reprocesamiento del combustible usado. El combustible usado contiene productos altamente radiactivos de la fisión (véase más adelante los residuos de alto nivel). Muchos de ellos son absorbentes de neutrones, denominados venenos neutrónicos en este contexto. Estos acaban acumulándose hasta un nivel en el que absorben tantos neutrones que la reacción en cadena se detiene, incluso si se han retirado por completo las barras de control del reactor. En ese momento, el combustible tiene que sustituirse en el reactor por combustible nuevo, aunque todavía haya una cantidad sustancial de uranio-235 y plutonio presente. En los Estados Unidos, este combustible usado suele "almacenarse", mientras que en otros países como Rusia, el Reino Unido, Francia, Japón y la India, el combustible se reprocesa para eliminar los productos de fisión y, a continuación, se puede reutilizar. [17] Los productos de fisión eliminados del combustible son una forma concentrada de residuos de alto nivel, al igual que los productos químicos utilizados en el proceso. Mientras que la mayoría de los países reprocesan el combustible llevando a cabo ciclos únicos de plutonio, India está planeando múltiples esquemas de reciclaje de plutonio [18] y Rusia busca un ciclo cerrado. [19]

Composición del combustible y radiactividad a largo plazo

Actividad del U-233 para tres tipos de combustible. En el caso del MOX, el U-233 aumenta durante los primeros 650 mil años, ya que se produce por la desintegración del Np-237 , que se creó en el reactor por absorción de neutrones por el U-235.
Actividad total de los tres tipos de combustible. En la región 1, hay radiación de nucleidos de vida corta, en la región 2, de Sr-90 y Cs-137 y, en el extremo derecho, la desintegración de Np-237 y U-233.

El uso de distintos combustibles en los reactores nucleares da lugar a una composición de combustible nuclear gastado (SNF) diferente, con curvas de actividad variables. El material más abundante es el U-238 junto con otros isótopos de uranio, otros actínidos, productos de fisión y productos de activación. [20]

Los residuos radiactivos de larga duración que se generan al final del ciclo del combustible son especialmente relevantes a la hora de diseñar un plan completo de gestión de residuos para el SNF. Al analizar la desintegración radiactiva a largo plazo, los actínidos del SNF tienen una influencia significativa debido a sus vidas medias característicamente largas. Dependiendo de con qué se alimente un reactor nuclear , la composición de actínidos en el SNF será diferente.

Un ejemplo de este efecto es el uso de combustibles nucleares con torio . El Th-232 es un material fértil que puede sufrir una reacción de captura de neutrones y dos desintegraciones beta negativas, lo que da como resultado la producción de U-233 fisible . El SNF de un ciclo con torio contendrá U-233. Su desintegración radiactiva influirá fuertemente en la curva de actividad a largo plazo del SNF durante alrededor de un millón de años. En la figura de la parte superior derecha se puede ver una comparación de la actividad asociada al U-233 para tres tipos diferentes de SNF. Los combustibles quemados son torio con plutonio de grado reactor (RGPu), torio con plutonio de grado armamentístico (WGPu) y combustible de óxido mixto (MOX, sin torio). Para RGPu y WGPu, se puede ver la cantidad inicial de U-233 y su desintegración durante alrededor de un millón de años. Esto tiene un efecto en la curva de actividad total de los tres tipos de combustible. La ausencia inicial de U-233 y sus productos derivados en el combustible MOX da como resultado una actividad menor en la región 3 de la figura en la parte inferior derecha, mientras que para RGPu y WGPu la curva se mantiene más alta debido a la presencia de U-233 que no se ha desintegrado completamente. El reprocesamiento nuclear puede eliminar los actínidos del combustible gastado para que puedan usarse o destruirse (ver Producto de fisión de larga duración § Actínidos ).

Preocupaciones por la proliferación

Como el uranio y el plutonio son materiales para armas nucleares , existen preocupaciones por su proliferación. Por lo general (en el combustible nuclear gastado), el plutonio es plutonio apto para reactores . Además del plutonio-239 , que es muy adecuado para construir armas nucleares, contiene grandes cantidades de contaminantes indeseables: plutonio-240 , plutonio-241 y plutonio-238 . Estos isótopos son extremadamente difíciles de separar, y existen formas más rentables de obtener material fisible (por ejemplo, enriquecimiento de uranio o reactores dedicados a la producción de plutonio). [21]

Los desechos de alto nivel están llenos de productos de fisión altamente radiactivos , la mayoría de los cuales tienen una vida relativamente corta. Esto es un problema ya que si los desechos se almacenan, tal vez en un almacenamiento geológico profundo, durante muchos años los productos de fisión se desintegran, disminuyendo la radiactividad de los desechos y haciendo que el plutonio sea más fácil de acceder. El contaminante indeseable Pu-240 se desintegra más rápido que el Pu-239, y por lo tanto la calidad del material de la bomba aumenta con el tiempo (aunque su cantidad también disminuye durante ese tiempo). Por lo tanto, algunos han argumentado que, a medida que pasa el tiempo, estas áreas de almacenamiento profundo tienen el potencial de convertirse en "minas de plutonio", de las que se puede adquirir material para armas nucleares con relativamente poca dificultad. Los críticos de esta última idea han señalado que la dificultad de recuperar material útil de áreas de almacenamiento profundo selladas hace que sean preferibles otros métodos. En concreto, la alta radiactividad y el calor (80 °C en la roca circundante) aumentan en gran medida la dificultad de explotar un área de almacenamiento, y los métodos de enriquecimiento necesarios tienen altos costos de capital. [22]

El Pu-239 se desintegra en U-235, un compuesto adecuado para la fabricación de armas y que tiene una vida media muy larga (aproximadamente 10 9 años). Por lo tanto, el plutonio puede desintegrarse y dar lugar al uranio-235. Sin embargo, los reactores modernos sólo están moderadamente enriquecidos con U-235 en relación con el U-238, por lo que el U-238 sigue sirviendo como agente desnaturalizante para cualquier U-235 producido por la desintegración del plutonio.

Una solución a este problema es reciclar el plutonio y utilizarlo como combustible, por ejemplo en reactores rápidos . En los reactores pirometalúrgicos rápidos , el plutonio y el uranio separados están contaminados por actínidos y no pueden utilizarse para armas nucleares.

Desmantelamiento de armas nucleares

Es poco probable que los desechos provenientes del desmantelamiento de armas nucleares contengan mucha actividad beta o gamma aparte del tritio y el americio . Es más probable que contengan actínidos emisores de rayos alfa, como el Pu-239, que es un material fisible utilizado en bombas nucleares, además de algún material con actividades específicas mucho más altas, como el Pu-238 o el Po.

En el pasado, el detonador de neutrones de una bomba atómica solía ser el berilio y un emisor alfa de alta actividad como el polonio ; una alternativa al polonio es el Pu-238 . Por razones de seguridad nacional, los detalles del diseño de las bombas nucleares modernas normalmente no se hacen públicos.

Algunos diseños podrían contener un generador termoeléctrico de radioisótopos que utiliza Pu-238 para proporcionar una fuente duradera de energía eléctrica para los componentes electrónicos del dispositivo.

Es probable que el material fisible de una bomba nuclear vieja, que se va a reacondicionar, contenga productos de desintegración de los isótopos de plutonio utilizados en ella. Es probable que estos productos incluyan U-236 proveniente de impurezas de Pu-240, más algo de U-235 proveniente de la desintegración del Pu-239; debido a la vida media relativamente larga de estos isótopos de Pu, estos desechos provenientes de la desintegración radiactiva del material del núcleo de la bomba serían muy pequeños y, en cualquier caso, mucho menos peligrosos (incluso en términos de simple radiactividad) que el propio Pu-239.

La desintegración beta del Pu-241 forma Am-241 ; es probable que la proliferación de americio sea un problema mayor que la desintegración del Pu-239 y el Pu-240, ya que el americio es un emisor gamma (que aumenta la exposición externa de los trabajadores) y es un emisor alfa que puede generar calor . El plutonio se podría separar del americio mediante varios procesos diferentes; estos incluirían procesos piroquímicos y extracción con disolventes acuosos/orgánicos . Un proceso de extracción de tipo PUREX truncado sería un método posible para realizar la separación. El uranio natural no es fisible porque contiene un 99,3% de U-238 y solo un 0,7% de U-235.

Residuos heredados

Debido a las actividades históricas típicamente relacionadas con la industria del radio, la minería de uranio y los programas militares, numerosos sitios contienen o están contaminados con radiactividad. Solo en los Estados Unidos, el Departamento de Energía (DOE) afirma que hay "millones de galones de desechos radiactivos", así como "miles de toneladas de combustible nuclear gastado y material" y también "enormes cantidades de suelo y agua contaminados". [23] A pesar de las copiosas cantidades de desechos, en 2007, el DOE declaró el objetivo de limpiar con éxito todos los sitios actualmente contaminados para 2025. [23] El sitio de Fernald , Ohio , por ejemplo, tenía "31 millones de libras de producto de uranio", "2.5 mil millones de libras de desechos", "2,75 millones de yardas cúbicas de suelo y escombros contaminados", y una "porción de 223 acres del Gran Acuífero de Miami subyacente tenía niveles de uranio por encima de los estándares de bebida". [23] Estados Unidos tiene al menos 108 sitios designados como áreas contaminadas e inutilizables, a veces muchos miles de acres. [23] [24] El DOE desea limpiar o mitigar muchos o todos los sitios antes de 2025, utilizando el método recientemente desarrollado de geofusión , [ cita requerida ] sin embargo, la tarea puede ser difícil y reconoce que algunos nunca podrán ser completamente remediados. En solo una de estas 108 designaciones más grandes, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), hubo, por ejemplo, al menos "167 sitios conocidos de liberación de contaminantes" en una de las tres subdivisiones del sitio de 37,000 acres (150 km 2 ). [23] Algunos de los sitios de EE. UU. eran de naturaleza más pequeña, sin embargo, los problemas de limpieza fueron más simples de abordar, y el DOE ha completado con éxito la limpieza, o al menos el cierre, de varios sitios. [23]

Medicamento

Los desechos médicos radiactivos tienden a contener emisores de partículas beta y rayos gamma . Se pueden dividir en dos clases principales. En la medicina nuclear diagnóstica se utilizan varios emisores gamma de vida corta, como el tecnecio-99m . Muchos de ellos se pueden eliminar dejándolos desintegrarse durante un breve período antes de desecharlos como desechos normales. Otros isótopos utilizados en medicina, con sus vidas medias entre paréntesis, son:

Industria

Los desechos de origen industrial pueden contener emisores alfa, beta , de neutrones o gamma. Los emisores gamma se utilizan en radiografía, mientras que las fuentes emisoras de neutrones se utilizan en una variedad de aplicaciones, como el registro de pozos petrolíferos . [25]

Material radiactivo de origen natural

La liberación anual de radioisótopos de uranio y torio de la combustión de carbón, prevista por el ORNL en 1993, ascendería en total a 2,9 Mt durante el período 1937-2040, a partir de la combustión de aproximadamente 637 Gt de carbón en todo el mundo. [26]

Las sustancias que contienen radiactividad natural se conocen como NORM (material radiactivo de origen natural). Después del procesamiento humano que expone o concentra esta radiactividad natural (como la minería que lleva carbón a la superficie o la quema para producir cenizas concentradas), se convierte en material radiactivo de origen natural mejorado tecnológicamente (TENORM). [27] Gran parte de estos desechos son materia emisora ​​de partículas alfa de las cadenas de desintegración del uranio y el torio. La principal fuente de radiación en el cuerpo humano es el potasio -40 ( 40 K ), típicamente 17 miligramos en el cuerpo a la vez y 0,4 miligramos/día de ingesta. [28] La mayoría de las rocas, especialmente el granito , tienen un bajo nivel de radiactividad debido al potasio-40, el torio y el uranio que contienen.

La exposición media a la radiación de los radioisótopos naturales, que suele oscilar entre 1 milisievert (mSv) y 13 mSv al año según la ubicación, es de 2,0 mSv por persona al año en todo el mundo. [29] Esto constituye la mayor parte de la dosis total típica (la exposición media anual de otras fuentes asciende a 0,6 mSv de pruebas médicas promediadas en toda la población, 0,4 mSv de rayos cósmicos , 0,005 mSv del legado de pruebas nucleares atmosféricas pasadas, 0,005 mSv de exposición ocupacional, 0,002 mSv del desastre de Chernóbil y 0,0002 mSv del ciclo del combustible nuclear). [29]

El TENORM no está regulado de forma tan restrictiva como los residuos de reactores nucleares, aunque no hay diferencias significativas en los riesgos radiológicos de estos materiales. [30]

Carbón

El carbón contiene una pequeña cantidad de uranio, bario, torio y potasio radiactivos, pero, en el caso del carbón puro, esto es significativamente menor que la concentración promedio de esos elementos en la corteza terrestre . Los estratos circundantes, si son de esquisto o lutita, a menudo contienen un poco más de lo promedio y esto también puede reflejarse en el contenido de cenizas de los carbones "sucios". [26] [31] Los minerales de ceniza más activos se concentran en las cenizas volantes precisamente porque no arden bien. [26] La radiactividad de las cenizas volantes es aproximadamente la misma que la del esquisto negro y es menor que la de las rocas de fosfato , pero es más preocupante porque una pequeña cantidad de las cenizas volantes termina en la atmósfera, donde puede ser inhalada. [32] Según los informes del Consejo Nacional de Protección y Medición de la Radiación (NCRP) de Estados Unidos, la exposición de la población a las centrales eléctricas de 1000 MWe asciende a 490 rem-persona/año en el caso de las centrales eléctricas de carbón, 100 veces más que la de las centrales nucleares (4,8 rem-persona/año). La exposición a lo largo del ciclo completo del combustible nuclear, desde la minería hasta la eliminación de los residuos, es de 136 rem-persona/año; el valor correspondiente al uso de carbón desde la minería hasta la eliminación de los residuos es "probablemente desconocido". [26]

Petróleo y gas

Los residuos de la industria del petróleo y el gas suelen contener radio y sus productos de descomposición. Las incrustaciones de sulfato de un pozo petrolero pueden ser ricas en radio, mientras que el agua, el petróleo y el gas de un pozo suelen contener radón . El radón se descompone para formar radioisótopos sólidos que forman revestimientos en el interior de las tuberías. En una planta de procesamiento de petróleo, el área de la planta donde se procesa el propano es a menudo una de las áreas más contaminadas de la planta, ya que el radón tiene un punto de ebullición similar al del propano. [33]

Los elementos radiactivos son un problema industrial en algunos pozos petrolíferos, donde los trabajadores que operan en contacto directo con el petróleo crudo y la salmuera pueden estar expuestos a dosis que tienen efectos negativos para la salud. Debido a la concentración relativamente alta de estos elementos en la salmuera, su eliminación también es un desafío tecnológico. Sin embargo, desde la década de 1980, en los Estados Unidos, la salmuera está exenta de las regulaciones sobre residuos peligrosos y puede eliminarse independientemente del contenido de sustancias radiactivas o tóxicas. [34]

Minería de tierras raras

Debido a la presencia natural de elementos radiactivos como el torio y el radio en minerales de tierras raras , las operaciones mineras también generan desechos y depósitos minerales que son ligeramente radiactivos. [35]

Clasificación

La clasificación de los residuos radiactivos varía según el país. El OIEA, que publica las Normas de seguridad de los residuos radiactivos (RADWASS), también desempeña un papel importante. [36] La proporción de los distintos tipos de residuos generados en el Reino Unido: [37]

Relaves de molino

Eliminación de residuos de muy baja actividad

Los relaves de uranio son materiales de desecho derivados del procesamiento bruto del mineral que contiene uranio . No son significativamente radiactivos. A veces se hace referencia a los relaves de molienda como desechos 11(e)2 , de la sección de la Ley de Energía Atómica de los EE. UU. de 1946 que los define. Los relaves de molienda de uranio generalmente también contienen metales pesados ​​químicamente peligrosos, como plomo y arsénico . En muchos sitios mineros antiguos, especialmente en Colorado , Nuevo México y Utah , quedan grandes montículos de relaves de molienda de uranio .

Aunque los relaves de las plantas de procesamiento no son muy radiactivos, tienen una vida media prolongada. Los relaves de las plantas de procesamiento a menudo contienen radio, torio y trazas de uranio. [38]

Residuos de baja actividad

Los residuos de bajo nivel (LLW) se generan en hospitales e industrias, así como en el ciclo del combustible nuclear . Los residuos de bajo nivel incluyen papel, trapos, herramientas, ropa, filtros y otros materiales que contienen pequeñas cantidades de radiactividad, en su mayoría de corta duración. Los materiales que se originan en cualquier región de un área activa se designan comúnmente como LLW como medida de precaución, incluso si solo existe una posibilidad remota de estar contaminados con materiales radiactivos. Dichos LLW normalmente no exhiben una radiactividad mayor que la que se esperaría del mismo material desechado en un área no activa, como un bloque de oficinas normal. Los ejemplos de LLW incluyen trapos de limpieza, fregonas, tubos médicos, cadáveres de animales de laboratorio y más. [39] Los LLW representan el 94% de todo el volumen de residuos radiactivos en el Reino Unido. La mayor parte se elimina en Cumbria , primero en zanjas estilo vertedero y ahora utilizando contenedores de metal lechados que se apilan en bóvedas de hormigón. Un nuevo sitio en el norte de Escocia es el sitio de Dounreay , que está preparado para soportar un tsunami de 4 metros. [1] [1]

Algunos residuos de bajo nivel de actividad requieren protección durante su manipulación y transporte, pero la mayoría de ellos son aptos para enterrarse en terrenos poco profundos. Para reducir su volumen, a menudo se compactan o incineran antes de su eliminación. Los residuos de bajo nivel se dividen en cuatro clases: clase A , clase B , clase C y mayores que la clase C ( GTCC ).

Residuos de nivel intermedio

Los recipientes para combustible gastado se transportan por ferrocarril en el Reino Unido. Cada recipiente está fabricado con acero macizo de 14 pulgadas (360 mm) de espesor y pesa más de 50 toneladas.
Sección transversal de un contenedor de residuos de nivel intermedio, que muestra residuos (simulados) encapsulados en hormigón

Los residuos de nivel intermedio (ILW) contienen mayores cantidades de radiactividad en comparación con los residuos de nivel bajo. Por lo general, requieren protección, pero no enfriamiento. [40] Los residuos de nivel intermedio incluyen resinas , lodos químicos y revestimiento de combustible nuclear de metal , así como materiales contaminados del desmantelamiento de reactores. Pueden solidificarse en hormigón o betún o mezclarse con arena de sílice y vitrificarse para su eliminación. Como regla general, los residuos de vida corta (principalmente materiales no combustibles de reactores) se entierran en depósitos poco profundos, mientras que los residuos de vida larga (de combustible y reprocesamiento de combustible) se depositan en depósitos geológicos. Las regulaciones en los Estados Unidos no definen esta categoría de residuos; el término se utiliza en Europa y en otros lugares. Los ILW representan el 6% de todo el volumen de residuos radiactivos en el Reino Unido. [1]

Residuos de alto nivel

Los residuos de alto nivel (HLW) son producidos por los reactores nucleares y el reprocesamiento del combustible nuclear. [41] La definición exacta de HLW difiere internacionalmente. Después de que una barra de combustible nuclear sirve un ciclo de combustible y se retira del núcleo, se considera HLW. [42] Las barras de combustible gastado contienen principalmente uranio con productos de fisión y elementos transuránicos generados en el núcleo del reactor . El combustible gastado es altamente radiactivo y a menudo caliente. Los HLW representan más del 95% de la radiactividad total producida en el proceso de generación de electricidad nuclear , pero contribuyen a menos del 1% del volumen de todos los residuos radiactivos producidos en el Reino Unido. En general, el programa nuclear de 60 años de duración en el Reino Unido hasta 2019 produjo 2150 m 3 de HLW. [1]

Los residuos radiactivos de las barras de combustible gastado están compuestos principalmente de cesio-137 y estroncio-90, pero también pueden incluir plutonio, que puede considerarse un residuo transuránico. [38] Las vidas medias de estos elementos radiactivos pueden variar bastante. Algunos elementos, como el cesio-137 y el estroncio-90, tienen vidas medias de aproximadamente 30 años. Mientras tanto, el plutonio tiene una vida media que puede extenderse hasta 24.000 años. [38]

The amount of HLW worldwide is increasing by about 12,000 tonnes per year.[43] A 1000-megawatt nuclear power plant produces about 27 tonnes of spent nuclear fuel (unreprocessed) every year.[44] For comparison, the amount of ash produced by coal power plants in the United States is estimated at 130,000,000 t per year[45] and fly ash is estimated to release 100 times more radiation than an equivalent nuclear power plant.[46]

The current locations across the United States where nuclear waste is stored

In 2010, it was estimated that about 250,000 t of nuclear HLW were stored globally.[47] This does not include amounts that have escaped into the environment from accidents or tests. Japan is estimated to hold 17,000 t of HLW in storage in 2015.[48] As of 2019, the United States has over 90,000 t of HLW.[49] HLW have been shipped to other countries to be stored or reprocessed and, in some cases, shipped back as active fuel.

The ongoing controversy over high-level radioactive waste disposal is a major constraint on nuclear power global expansion.[50] Most scientists agree that the main proposed long-term solution is deep geological burial, either in a mine or a deep borehole.[51][52] As of 2019, no dedicated civilian high-level nuclear waste site is operational[50] as small amounts of HLW did not justify the investment in the past. Finland is in the advanced stage of the construction of the Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository, which is planned to open in 2025 at 400–450 m depth. France is in the planning phase for a 500 m deep Cigeo facility in Bure. Sweden is planning a site in Forsmark. Canada plans a 680 m deep facility near Lake Huron in Ontario. The Republic of Korea plans to open a site around 2028.[1] The site in Sweden enjoys 80% support from local residents as of 2020.[53]

The Morris Operation in Grundy County, Illinois, is currently the only de facto high-level radioactive waste storage site in the United States.

Transuranic waste

Transuranic waste (TRUW) as defined by U.S. regulations is, without regard to form or origin, waste that is contaminated with alpha-emitting transuranic radionuclides with half-lives greater than 20 years and concentrations greater than 100 nCi/g (3.7 MBq/kg), excluding high-level waste. Elements that have an atomic number greater than uranium are called transuranic ("beyond uranium"). Because of their long half-lives, TRUW is disposed of more cautiously than either low- or intermediate-level waste. In the United States, it arises mainly from nuclear weapons production, and consists of clothing, tools, rags, residues, debris, and other items contaminated with small amounts of radioactive elements (mainly plutonium).

Under U.S. law, transuranic waste is further categorized into "contact-handled" (CH) and "remote-handled" (RH) on the basis of the radiation dose rate measured at the surface of the waste container. CH TRUW has a surface dose rate not greater than 200 mrem per hour (2 mSv/h), whereas RH TRUW has a surface dose rate of 200 mrem/h (2 mSv/h) or greater. CH TRUW does not have the very high radioactivity of high-level waste, nor its high heat generation, but RH TRUW can be highly radioactive, with surface dose rates up to 1,000,000 mrem/h (10,000 mSv/h). The United States currently disposes of TRUW generated from military facilities at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in a deep salt formation in New Mexico.[54]

Prevention

A future way to reduce waste accumulation is to phase out current reactors in favor of Generation IV reactors, which output less waste per power generated. Fast reactors such as BN-800 in Russia are also able to consume MOX fuel that is manufactured from recycled spent fuel from traditional reactors.[55]

The UK's Nuclear Decommissioning Authority published a position paper in 2014 on the progress on approaches to the management of separated plutonium, which summarises the conclusions of the work that the NDA shared with the UK government.[56]

Management

Modern medium- to high-level transport container for nuclear waste

Of particular concern in nuclear waste management are two long-lived fission products, Tc-99 (half-life 220,000 years) and I-129 (half-life 15.7 million years), which dominate spent fuel radioactivity after a few thousand years. The most troublesome transuranic elements in spent fuel are Np-237 (half-life two million years) and Pu-239 (half-life 24,000 years).[57] Nuclear waste requires sophisticated treatment and management to successfully isolate it from interacting with the biosphere. This usually necessitates treatment, followed by a long-term management strategy involving storage, disposal or transformation of the waste into a non-toxic form.[58] Governments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, though there has been limited progress toward long-term waste management solutions.[59]

The Onkalo is a planned deep geological repository for the final disposal of spent nuclear fuel[60][61] near the Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant in Eurajoki, on the west coast of Finland. Picture of a pilot cave at final depth in Onkalo.

Several methods of disposal of radioactive waste have been investigated:[62]

In the United States, waste management policy broke down with the ending of work on the incomplete Yucca Mountain Repository.[64] At present there are 70 nuclear power plant sites where spent fuel is stored. A Blue Ribbon Commission was appointed by U.S. President Obama to look into future options for this and future waste. A deep geological repository seems to be favored.[64]

Ducrete, Saltcrete, and Synroc are methods for immobilizing nuclear waste.

Initial treatment

Vitrification

The Waste Vitrification Plant at Sellafield

Long-term storage of radioactive waste requires the stabilization of the waste into a form that will neither react nor degrade for extended periods. It is theorized that one way to do this might be through vitrification.[65] Currently at Sellafield, the high-level waste (PUREX first cycle raffinate) is mixed with sugar and then calcined. Calcination involves passing the waste through a heated, rotating tube. The purposes of calcination are to evaporate the water from the waste and de-nitrate the fission products to assist the stability of the glass produced.[66]

The 'calcine' generated is fed continuously into an induction heated furnace with fragmented glass.[67] The resulting glass is a new substance in which the waste products are bonded into the glass matrix when it solidifies. As a melt, this product is poured into stainless steel cylindrical containers ("cylinders") in a batch process. When cooled, the fluid solidifies ("vitrifies") into the glass. After being formed, the glass is highly resistant to water.[68]

After filling a cylinder, a seal is welded onto the cylinder head. The cylinder is then washed. After being inspected for external contamination, the steel cylinder is stored, usually in an underground repository. In this form, the waste products are expected to be immobilized for thousands of years.[69]

The glass inside a cylinder is usually a black glossy substance. All this work (in the United Kingdom) is done using hot cell systems. Sugar is added to control the ruthenium chemistry and to stop the formation of the volatile RuO4 containing radioactive ruthenium isotopes. In the West, the glass is normally a borosilicate glass (similar to Pyrex), while in the former Soviet Union it is normal to use a phosphate glass.[70] The amount of fission products in the glass must be limited because some (palladium, the other Pt group metals, and tellurium) tend to form metallic phases which separate from the glass. Bulk vitrification uses electrodes to melt soil and wastes, which are then buried underground.[71] In Germany, a vitrification plant is treating the waste from a small demonstration reprocessing plant which has since been closed.[66][72]

Phosphate ceramics

Vitrification is not the only way to stabilize the waste into a form that will not react or degrade for extended periods. Immobilization via direct incorporation into a phosphate-based crystalline ceramic host is also used.[73] The diverse chemistry of phosphate ceramics under various conditions demonstrates a versatile material that can withstand chemical, thermal, and radioactive degradation over time. The properties of phosphates, particularly ceramic phosphates, of stability over a wide pH range, low porosity, and minimization of secondary waste introduces possibilities for new waste immobilization techniques.

Ion exchange

It is common for medium active wastes in the nuclear industry to be treated with ion exchange or other means to concentrate the radioactivity into a small volume. The much less radioactive bulk (after treatment) is often then discharged. For instance, it is possible to use a ferric hydroxide floc to remove radioactive metals from aqueous mixtures.[74] After the radioisotopes are absorbed onto the ferric hydroxide, the resulting sludge can be placed in a metal drum before being mixed with cement to form solid waste.[75] In order to get better long-term performance (mechanical stability) from such forms, they may be made from a mixture of fly ash, or blast furnace slag, and portland cement, instead of normal concrete (made with portland cement, gravel and sand).

Synroc

The Australian Synroc (synthetic rock) is a more sophisticated way to immobilize such waste, and this process may eventually come into commercial use for civil wastes (it is currently being developed for U.S. military wastes). Synroc was invented by Ted Ringwood, a geochemist at the Australian National University.[76] The Synroc contains pyrochlore and cryptomelane type minerals. The original form of Synroc (Synroc C) was designed for the liquid high-level waste (PUREX raffinate) from a light-water reactor. The main minerals in this Synroc are hollandite (BaAl2Ti6O16), zirconolite (CaZrTi2O7) and perovskite (CaTiO3). The zirconolite and perovskite are hosts for the actinides. The strontium and barium will be fixed in the perovskite. The caesium will be fixed in the hollandite. A Synroc waste treatment facility began construction in 2018 at ANSTO.[77]

Long-term management

The time frame in question when dealing with radioactive waste ranges from 10,000 to 1,000,000 years,[78] according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses.[79] Researchers suggest that forecasts of health detriment for such periods should be examined critically.[80][81] Practical studies only consider up to 100 years as far as effective planning[82] and cost evaluations[83] are concerned. Long term behavior of radioactive wastes remains a subject for ongoing research projects in geoforecasting.[84]

Remediation

Algae has shown selectivity for strontium in studies, where most plants used in bioremediation have not shown selectivity between calcium and strontium, often becoming saturated with calcium, which is present in greater quantities in nuclear waste. Strontium-90 with a half life around 30 years, is classified as high-level waste.[85]

Researchers have looked at the bioaccumulation of strontium by Scenedesmus spinosus (algae) in simulated wastewater. The study claims a highly selective biosorption capacity for strontium of S. spinosus, suggesting that it may be appropriate for use of nuclear wastewater.[86] A study of the pond alga Closterium moniliferum using non-radioactive strontium found that varying the ratio of barium to strontium in water improved strontium selectivity.[85]

Above-ground disposal

Dry cask storage typically involves taking waste from a spent fuel pool and sealing it (along with an inert gas) in a steel cylinder, which is placed in a concrete cylinder which acts as a radiation shield. It is a relatively inexpensive method which can be done at a central facility or adjacent to the source reactor. The waste can be easily retrieved for reprocessing.[87]

Geologic disposal

Diagram of an underground low-level radioactive waste disposal site
On Feb. 14, 2014, radioactive materials at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant leaked from a damaged storage drum due to the use of incorrect packing material. Analysis showed the lack of a "safety culture" at the plant since its successful operation for 15 years had bred complacency.[88]

The process of selecting appropriate deep final repositories for high-level waste and spent fuel is now underway in several countries with the first expected to be commissioned sometime after 2010.[citation needed] The basic concept is to locate a large, stable geologic formation and use mining technology to excavate a tunnel, or use large-bore tunnel boring machines (similar to those used to drill the Channel Tunnel from England to France) to drill a shaft 500 to 1,000 metres (1,600 to 3,300 ft) below the surface where rooms or vaults can be excavated for disposal of high-level radioactive waste. The goal is to permanently isolate nuclear waste from the human environment. Many people remain uncomfortable with the immediate stewardship cessation of this disposal system, suggesting perpetual management and monitoring would be more prudent.[citation needed]

Because some radioactive species have half-lives longer than one million years, even very low container leakage and radionuclide migration rates must be taken into account.[89] Moreover, it may require more than one half-life until some nuclear materials lose enough radioactivity to cease being lethal to living things. A 1983 review of the Swedish radioactive waste disposal program by the National Academy of Sciences found that country's estimate of several hundred thousand years—perhaps up to one million years—being necessary for waste isolation "fully justified."[90]

The proposed land-based subductive waste disposal method disposes of nuclear waste in a subduction zone accessed from land and therefore is not prohibited by international agreement. This method has been described as the most viable means of disposing of radioactive waste,[91] and as the state-of-the-art as of 2001 in nuclear waste disposal technology.[92]

Another approach termed Remix & Return[93] would blend high-level waste with uranium mine and mill tailings down to the level of the original radioactivity of the uranium ore, then replace it in inactive uranium mines. This approach has the merits of providing jobs for miners who would double as disposal staff, and of facilitating a cradle-to-grave cycle for radioactive materials, but would be inappropriate for spent reactor fuel in the absence of reprocessing, due to the presence of highly toxic radioactive elements such as plutonium within it.

Deep borehole disposal is the concept of disposing of high-level radioactive waste from nuclear reactors in extremely deep boreholes. Deep borehole disposal seeks to place the waste as much as 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) beneath the surface of the Earth and relies primarily on the immense natural geological barrier to confine the waste safely and permanently so that it should never pose a threat to the environment. The Earth's crust contains 120 trillion tons of thorium and 40 trillion tons of uranium (primarily at relatively trace concentrations of parts per million each adding up over the crust's 3 × 1019 ton mass), among other natural radioisotopes.[94][95][96] Since the fraction of nuclides decaying per unit of time is inversely proportional to an isotope's half-life, the relative radioactivity of the lesser amount of human-produced radioisotopes (thousands of tons instead of trillions of tons) would diminish once the isotopes with far shorter half-lives than the bulk of natural radioisotopes decayed.

In January 2013, Cumbria county council rejected UK central government proposals to start work on an underground storage dump for nuclear waste near to the Lake District National Park. "For any host community, there will be a substantial community benefits package and worth hundreds of millions of pounds" said Ed Davey, Energy Secretary, but nonetheless, the local elected body voted 7–3 against research continuing, after hearing evidence from independent geologists that "the fractured strata of the county was impossible to entrust with such dangerous material and a hazard lasting millennia."[97][98]

Horizontal drillhole disposal describes proposals to drill over one km vertically, and two km horizontally in the earth's crust, for the purpose of disposing of high-level waste forms such as spent nuclear fuel, Caesium-137, or Strontium-90. After the emplacement and the retrievability period,[clarification needed] drillholes would be backfilled and sealed. A series of tests of the technology were carried out in November 2018 and then again publicly in January 2019 by a U.S. based private company.[99] The test demonstrated the emplacement of a test-canister in a horizontal drillhole and retrieval of the same canister. There was no actual high-level waste used in the test.[100][101]

The European Commission Joint Research Centre report of 2021 (see above) concluded:[102]

Management of radioactive waste and its safe and secure disposal is a necessary step in the lifecycle of all applications of nuclear science and technology (nuclear energy, research, industry, education, medical, and others). Radioactive waste is therefore generated in practically every country, the largest contribution coming from the nuclear energy lifecycle in countries operating nuclear power plants. Presently, there is broad scientific and technical consensus that disposal of high-level, long-lived radioactive waste in deep geologic formations is, at the state of today’s knowledge, considered as an appropriate and safe means of isolating it from the biosphere for very long time scales.

Ocean floor disposal

From 1946 through 1993, thirteen countries used ocean disposal or ocean dumping as a method to dispose of nuclear/radioactive waste with an approximation of 200,000 tons sourcing mainly from the medical, research and nuclear industry.[103]

Ocean floor disposal of radioactive waste has been suggested by the finding that deep waters in the North Atlantic Ocean do not present an exchange with shallow waters for about 140 years based on oxygen content data recorded over a period of 25 years.[104] They include burial beneath a stable abyssal plain, burial in a subduction zone that would slowly carry the waste downward into the Earth's mantle,[105][106] and burial beneath a remote natural or human-made island. While these approaches all have merit and would facilitate an international solution to the problem of disposal of radioactive waste, they would require an amendment of the Law of the Sea.[107]

Nuclear submarines have been lost and these vessels reactors must also be counted in the amount of radioactive waste deposited at sea.

Article 1 (Definitions), 7., of the 1996 Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, (the London Dumping Convention) states:

""Sea" means all marine waters other than the internal waters of States, as well as the seabed and the subsoil thereof; it does not include sub-seabed repositories accessed only from land."

Transmutation

There have been proposals for reactors that consume nuclear waste and transmute it to other, less-harmful or shorter-lived, nuclear waste. In particular, the integral fast reactor was a proposed nuclear reactor with a nuclear fuel cycle that produced no transuranic waste and, in fact, could consume transuranic waste. It proceeded as far as large-scale tests but was eventually canceled by the U.S. Government. Another approach, considered safer but requiring more development, is to dedicate subcritical reactors to the transmutation of the left-over transuranic elements.

An isotope that is found in nuclear waste and that represents a concern in terms of proliferation is Pu-239. The large stock of plutonium is a result of its production inside uranium-fueled reactors and of the reprocessing of weapons-grade plutonium during the weapons program. An option for getting rid of this plutonium is to use it as a fuel in a traditional light-water reactors (LWR). Several fuel types with differing plutonium destruction efficiencies are under study.

Transmutation was banned in the United States in April 1977 by U. S. President Carter due to the danger of plutonium proliferation,[108] but President Reagan rescinded the ban in 1981.[109] Due to economic losses and risks, the construction of reprocessing plants during this time did not resume. Due to high energy demand, work on the method has continued in the European Union (EU). This has resulted in a practical nuclear research reactor called Myrrha in which transmutation is possible. Additionally, a new research program called ACTINET has been started in the EU to make transmutation possible on an industrial scale. According to U. S. President Bush's Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) of 2007, the United States is actively promoting research on transmutation technologies needed to markedly reduce the problem of nuclear waste treatment.[110]

There have also been theoretical studies involving the use of fusion reactors as so-called "actinide burners" where a fusion reactor plasma such as in a tokamak, could be "doped" with a small amount of the "minor" transuranic atoms which would be transmuted (meaning fissioned in the actinide case) to lighter elements upon their successive bombardment by the very high energy neutrons produced by the fusion of deuterium and tritium in the reactor. A study at MIT found that only 2 or 3 fusion reactors with parameters similar to that of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) could transmute the entire annual minor actinide production from all of the light-water reactors presently operating in the United States fleet while simultaneously generating approximately 1 gigawatt of power from each reactor.[111]

2018 Nobel Prize for Physics-winner Gérard Mourou has proposed using chirped pulse amplification to generate high-energy and low-duration laser pulses either to accelerate deuterons into a tritium target causing fusion events yielding fast neutrons, or accelerating protons for neutron spallation, with either method intended for transmutation of nuclear waste.[112][113][114]

Re-use

Spent nuclear fuel contains abundant fertile uranium and traces of fissile materials.[20] Methods such as the PUREX process can be used to remove useful actinides for the production of active nuclear fuel.

Another option is to find applications for the isotopes in nuclear waste so as to re-use them.[115] Already, caesium-137, strontium-90 and a few other isotopes are extracted for certain industrial applications such as food irradiation and radioisotope thermoelectric generators. While re-use does not eliminate the need to manage radioisotopes, it can reduce the quantity of waste produced.

The Nuclear Assisted Hydrocarbon Production Method,[116] Canadian patent application 2,659,302, is a method for the temporary or permanent storage of nuclear waste materials comprising the placing of waste materials into one or more repositories or boreholes constructed into an unconventional oil formation. The thermal flux of the waste materials fractures the formation and alters the chemical and/or physical properties of hydrocarbon material within the subterranean formation to allow removal of the altered material. A mixture of hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other formation fluids is produced from the formation. The radioactivity of high-level radioactive waste affords proliferation resistance to plutonium placed in the periphery of the repository or the deepest portion of a borehole.

Breeder reactors can run on U-238 and transuranic elements, which comprise the majority of spent fuel radioactivity in the 1,000–100,000-year time span.

Space disposal

Space disposal is attractive because it removes nuclear waste from the planet. It has significant disadvantages, such as the potential for catastrophic failure of a launch vehicle, which could spread radioactive material into the atmosphere and around the world. A high number of launches would be required because no individual rocket would be able to carry very much of the material relative to the total amount that needs to be disposed. This makes the proposal economically impractical and increases the risk of one or more launch failures.[117] To further complicate matters, international agreements on the regulation of such a program would need to be established.[118] Costs and inadequate reliability of modern rocket launch systems for space disposal has been one of the motives for interest in non-rocket spacelaunch systems such as mass drivers, space elevators, and other proposals.[119]

National management plans

Anti-nuclear protest near a nuclear waste disposal centre at Gorleben in northern Germany

Sweden and Finland are furthest along in committing to a particular disposal technology, while many others reprocess spent fuel or contract with France or Great Britain to do it, taking back the resulting plutonium and high-level waste. "An increasing backlog of plutonium from reprocessing is developing in many countries... It is doubtful that reprocessing makes economic sense in the present environment of cheap uranium."[120]

In many European countries (e.g., Britain, Finland, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland) the risk or dose limit for a member of the public exposed to radiation from a future high-level nuclear waste facility is considerably more stringent than that suggested by the International Commission on Radiation Protection or proposed in the United States. European limits are often more stringent than the standard suggested in 1990 by the International Commission on Radiation Protection by a factor of 20, and more stringent by a factor of ten than the standard proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository for the first 10,000 years after closure.[121]

The U.S. EPA's proposed standard for greater than 10,000 years is 250 times more permissive than the European limit.[121] The U.S. EPA proposed a legal limit of a maximum of 3.5 millisieverts (350 millirem) each annually to local individuals after 10,000 years, which would be up to several percent of[vague] the exposure currently received by some populations in the highest natural background regions on Earth, though the United States Department of Energy (DOE) predicted that received dose would be much below that limit.[122] Over a timeframe of thousands of years, after the most active short half-life radioisotopes decayed, burying U.S. nuclear waste would increase the radioactivity in the top 2000 feet of rock and soil in the United States (10 million km2) by approximately 1 part in 10 million over the cumulative amount of natural radioisotopes in such a volume, but the vicinity of the site would have a far higher concentration of artificial radioisotopes underground than such an average.[123]

Mongolia

After serious opposition about plans and negotiations between Mongolia with Japan and the United States to build nuclear-waste facilities in Mongolia, Mongolia stopped all negotiations in September 2011. These negotiations had started after U.S. Deputy Secretary of Energy Daniel Poneman visited Mongolia in September 2010. Talks took place in Washington, D.C. between officials of Japan, the United States, and Mongolia in February 2011. After this the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which wanted to buy nuclear fuel from Mongolia, joined in the negotiations. The talks were kept secret and, although the Mainichi Daily News reported on them in May, Mongolia officially denied the existence of these negotiations. Alarmed by this news, Mongolian citizens protested against the plans and demanded the government withdraw the plans and disclose information. The Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj issued a presidential order on September 13 banning all negotiations with foreign governments or international organizations on nuclear-waste storage plans in Mongolia.[124] The Mongolian government has accused the newspaper of distributing false claims around the world. After the presidential order, the Mongolian president fired the individual who was supposedly involved in these conversations.

Illegal dumping

Authorities in Italy are investigating a 'Ndrangheta mafia clan accused of trafficking and illegally dumping nuclear waste. According to a whistleblower, a manager of the Italy state energy research agency Enea paid the clan to get rid of 600 drums of toxic and radioactive waste from Italy, Switzerland, France, Germany, and the United States, with Somalia as the destination, where the waste was buried after buying off local politicians. Former employees of Enea are suspected of paying the criminals to take waste off their hands in the 1980s and 1990s. Shipments to Somalia continued into the 1990s, while the 'Ndrangheta clan also blew up shiploads of waste, including radioactive hospital waste, sending them to the sea bed off the Calabrian coast.[125] According to the environmental group Legambiente, former members of the 'Ndrangheta have said that they were paid to sink ships with radioactive material for the last 20 years.[126]

In 2008, Afghan authorities accused Pakistan of illegally dumping nuclear waste in the southern parts of Afghanistan when the Taliban were in power between 1996 and 2001.[127] The Pakistani government denied the allegation.

Accidents

A few incidents have occurred when radioactive material was disposed of improperly, shielding during transport was defective, or when it was simply abandoned or even stolen from a waste store.[128] In the Soviet Union, waste stored in Lake Karachay was blown over the area during a dust storm after the lake had partly dried out.[129] In Italy, several radioactive waste deposits let material flow into river water, thus contaminating water for domestic use.[130] In France in the summer of 2008, numerous incidents happened:[131] in one, at the Areva plant in Tricastin, it was reported that, during a draining operation, liquid containing untreated uranium overflowed out of a faulty tank and about 75 kg of the radioactive material seeped into the ground and, from there, into two rivers nearby;[132] in another case, over 100 staff were contaminated with low doses of radiation.[133] There are ongoing concerns around the deterioration of the nuclear waste site on the Enewetak Atoll of the Marshall Islands and a potential radioactive spill.[134]

Scavenging of abandoned radioactive material has been the cause of several other cases of radiation exposure, mostly in developing nations, which may have less regulation of dangerous substances (and sometimes less general education about radioactivity and its hazards) and a market for scavenged goods and scrap metal. The scavengers and those who buy the material are almost always unaware that the material is radioactive and it is selected for its aesthetics or scrap value.[135] Irresponsibility on the part of the radioactive material's owners, usually a hospital, university, or military, and the absence of regulation concerning radioactive waste, or a lack of enforcement of such regulations, have been significant factors in radiation exposures. For an example of an accident involving radioactive scrap originating from a hospital, see the Goiânia accident.[135]

Transportation accidents involving spent nuclear fuel from power plants are unlikely to have serious consequences due to the strength of the spent nuclear fuel shipping casks.[136]

On 15 December 2011, top government spokesman Osamu Fujimura of the Japanese government admitted that nuclear substances were found in the waste of Japanese nuclear facilities. Although Japan did commit itself in 1977 to inspections in the safeguard agreement with the IAEA, the reports were kept secret for the inspectors of the International Atomic Energy Agency.[citation needed] Japan did start discussions with the IAEA about the large quantities of enriched uranium and plutonium that were discovered in nuclear waste cleared away by Japanese nuclear operators.[citation needed] At the press conference Fujimura said: "Based on investigations so far, most nuclear substances have been properly managed as waste, and from that perspective, there is no problem in safety management," but according to him, the matter was at that moment still being investigated.[137]

Associated hazard warning signs

See also

References

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Cited sources

External links