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Conteo de transistores

El recuento de transistores es el número de transistores en un dispositivo electrónico (normalmente en un único sustrato o chip de silicio ). Es la medida más común de la complejidad de los circuitos integrados (aunque la mayoría de los transistores en los microprocesadores modernos están contenidos en memorias caché , que consisten principalmente en los mismos circuitos de celdas de memoria replicados muchas veces). La velocidad a la que han aumentado los recuentos de transistores MOS generalmente sigue la ley de Moore , que observa que el recuento de transistores se duplica aproximadamente cada dos años. Sin embargo, al ser directamente proporcional al área de un chip, el recuento de transistores no representa cuán avanzada es la tecnología de fabricación correspondiente. Una mejor indicación de esto es la densidad de transistores, que es la relación entre el recuento de transistores de un semiconductor y su área de chip.

Archivos

A partir de 2023 , el mayor recuento de transistores en memoria flash es el chip de memoria flash V-NAND de 232 capas y 16 matrices de 2 terabytes ( apilado en 3D ) de Micron , con 5,3 billones de MOSFET de puerta flotante ( 3 bits por transistor ).   

El procesador de aprendizaje profundo Wafer Scale Engine 2 de Cerebras , con el mayor número de transistores en un solo chip hasta 2020 , tiene 2,6  billones de MOSFET en 84 campos expuestos (die) en una oblea, fabricados con el proceso FinFET de 7 nm de TSMC . [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

A partir de 2024 , la GPU con el mayor número de transistores será el acelerador B100 basado en Blackwell de Nvidia , construido sobre el nodo de proceso 4NP personalizado de TSMC y con un total de 208 mil millones de MOSFET.

El recuento más alto de transistores en un microprocesador de consumo a junio de 2023 es de 134  mil millones de transistores, en el SoC M2 Ultra de doble matriz basado en ARM de Apple , que se fabrica utilizando el proceso de fabricación de semiconductores de 5 nm de TSMC . [6]

En términos de sistemas informáticos que consisten en numerosos circuitos integrados, la supercomputadora con el mayor recuento de transistores en 2016 fue la Sunway TaihuLight , diseñada por China , que tiene para todas las CPU/nodos combinados "alrededor de 400 billones de transistores en la parte de procesamiento del hardware" y "la DRAM incluye alrededor de 12 cuatrillones de transistores, y eso es aproximadamente el 97 por ciento de todos los transistores". [7] Para comparar, la computadora más pequeña , a partir de 2018 empequeñecida por un grano de arroz, tenía del orden de 100.000 transistores. Las primeras computadoras experimentales de estado sólido tenían tan solo 130 transistores, pero usaban grandes cantidades de lógica de diodos . La primera computadora de nanotubos de carbono tenía 178 transistores y era una computadora de un conjunto de instrucciones de 1 bit , mientras que una posterior es de 16 bits (aunque su conjunto de instrucciones es RISC-V de 32 bits ).

Los chips de transistores iónicos (procesadores analógicos limitados "basados ​​en agua" ) tienen hasta cientos de estos transistores. [8]

Estimaciones del número total de transistores fabricados:

Conteo de transistores

Gráfico de recuento de transistores MOS para microprocesadores en función de las fechas de introducción. La curva muestra que los recuentos se duplican cada dos años, según la ley de Moore .

Microprocesadores

Un microprocesador incorpora las funciones de la unidad central de procesamiento de una computadora en un solo circuito integrado . Es un dispositivo programable y multipropósito que acepta datos digitales como entrada, los procesa según instrucciones almacenadas en su memoria y proporciona resultados como salida.

El desarrollo de la tecnología de circuitos integrados MOS en la década de 1960 condujo al desarrollo de los primeros microprocesadores. [11] El MP944 de 20 bits , desarrollado por Garrett AiResearch para el caza F-14 Tomcat de la Armada de los EE. UU . en 1970, es considerado por su diseñador Ray Holt como el primer microprocesador. [12] Era un microprocesador multichip, fabricado en seis chips MOS. Sin embargo, fue clasificado por la Armada hasta 1998. El Intel 4004 de 4 bits , lanzado en 1971, fue el primer microprocesador de un solo chip.

Los microprocesadores modernos suelen incluir memorias caché en el chip . La cantidad de transistores utilizados para estas memorias caché suele superar con creces la cantidad de transistores utilizados para implementar la lógica del microprocesador (es decir, sin contar la caché). Por ejemplo, el último chip DEC Alpha utiliza el 90 % de sus transistores para la caché. [13]

GPU

Una unidad de procesamiento gráfico (GPU) es un circuito electrónico especializado diseñado para manipular y alterar rápidamente la memoria para acelerar la construcción de imágenes en un búfer de cuadros destinado a ser enviado a una pantalla.

El término "diseñador" hace referencia a la empresa tecnológica que diseña la lógica del chip del circuito integrado (como Nvidia y AMD ). El término "fabricante" ("Fab.") hace referencia a la empresa de semiconductores que fabrica el chip utilizando su proceso de fabricación de semiconductores en una fundición (como TSMC y Samsung Semiconductor ). La cantidad de transistores en un chip depende del proceso de fabricación del fabricante, y los nodos de semiconductores más pequeños suelen permitir una mayor densidad de transistores y, por lo tanto, una mayor cantidad de transistores.

La memoria de acceso aleatorio (RAM) que viene con las GPU (como VRAM , SGRAM o HBM ) aumenta en gran medida el recuento total de transistores, y la memoria generalmente representa la mayoría de los transistores en una tarjeta gráfica . Por ejemplo, Tesla P100 de Nvidia tiene 15 mil millones de FinFET (16 nm) en la GPU además de 16 GB de memoria HBM2 , lo que suma un total de aproximadamente 150 mil millones de MOSFET en la tarjeta gráfica. [194] La siguiente tabla no incluye la memoria. Para conocer los recuentos de transistores de memoria, consulte la sección Memoria a continuación.   

FPGA

Una matriz de puertas programables en campo (FPGA) es un circuito integrado diseñado para ser configurado por un cliente o un diseñador después de la fabricación.

Memoria

La memoria semiconductora es un dispositivo electrónico de almacenamiento de datos , a menudo utilizado como memoria de computadora , implementado en circuitos integrados . Casi todas las memorias semiconductoras desde la década de 1970 han utilizado MOSFET (transistores MOS), reemplazando a los anteriores transistores de unión bipolar . Existen dos tipos principales de memoria semiconductora: memoria de acceso aleatorio (RAM) y memoria no volátil (NVM). A su vez, existen dos tipos principales de RAM: memoria dinámica de acceso aleatorio (DRAM) y memoria estática de acceso aleatorio (SRAM), así como dos tipos principales de NVM: memoria flash y memoria de solo lectura (ROM).

La SRAM CMOS típica consta de seis transistores por celda. Para DRAM, es común la estructura 1T1C, que significa un transistor y un capacitor. El capacitor cargado o no [ aclaración necesaria ] se usa para almacenar 1 o 0. En la memoria flash, los datos se almacenan en compuertas flotantes y se detecta la resistencia del transistor [ aclaración necesaria ] para interpretar los datos almacenados. Dependiendo de qué tan fina sea la escala en la que se pueda separar la resistencia [ aclaración necesaria ] , un transistor podría almacenar hasta tres bits , lo que significa ocho niveles distintivos de resistencia posibles por transistor. Sin embargo, una escala más fina tiene el costo de problemas de repetibilidad y, por lo tanto, confiabilidad. Por lo general, se usa flash MLC de 2 bits de grado bajo para unidades flash , por lo que una unidad flash de 16  GB contiene aproximadamente 64 mil millones de transistores.

Para los chips SRAM, las celdas de seis transistores (seis transistores por bit) eran el estándar. [293] Los chips DRAM durante la década de 1970 tenían celdas de tres transistores (tres transistores por bit), antes de que las celdas de un solo transistor (un transistor por bit) se volvieran estándar desde la era de la DRAM de 4 Kb a mediados de la década de 1970. [294] [295] En la memoria flash de un solo nivel , cada celda contiene un MOSFET de puerta flotante (un transistor por bit), [296] mientras que la flash multinivel contiene 2, 3 o 4 bits por transistor. 

Los chips de memoria flash se suelen apilar en capas, hasta 128 capas en producción, [297] y 136 capas administradas, [298] y disponibles en dispositivos de usuario final de hasta 69 capas de los fabricantes.

Computadoras de transistores

Parte de una caja de tarjetas IBM 7070 llena de tarjetas del sistema modular estándar

Antes de que se inventaran los transistores, los relés se utilizaban en máquinas tabuladoras comerciales y en los primeros ordenadores experimentales. El primer ordenador digital programable y totalmente automático del mundo , [357] el ordenador Z3 de 1941 con una longitud de palabra de 22 bits , tenía 2600 relés y funcionaba a una frecuencia de reloj de unos 4-5  Hz . El ordenador de números complejos de 1940 tenía menos de 500 relés, [358] pero no era totalmente programable. Los primeros ordenadores prácticos utilizaban tubos de vacío y lógica de diodos de estado sólido . ENIAC tenía 18 000 tubos de vacío, 7200 diodos de cristal y 1500 relés, y muchos de los tubos de vacío contenían dos elementos de triodo .

La segunda generación de computadoras fueron computadoras de transistores que presentaban placas llenas de transistores discretos, diodos de estado sólido y núcleos de memoria magnética . Se cree ampliamente que la Computadora de Transistores de 48 bits experimental de 1953 , desarrollada en la Universidad de Manchester , fue la primera computadora de transistores en entrar en funcionamiento en cualquier parte del mundo (el prototipo tenía 92 transistores de contacto puntual y 550 diodos). [359] Una versión posterior, la máquina de 1955, tenía un total de 250 transistores de unión y 1300 diodos de contacto puntual. La Computadora también usó una pequeña cantidad de tubos en su generador de reloj, por lo que no fue la primera completamente transistorizada. El ETL Mark III, desarrollado en el Laboratorio Electrotécnico en 1956, puede haber sido la primera computadora electrónica basada en transistores que utilizó el método de programa almacenado . Tenía alrededor de "130 transistores de contacto puntual y alrededor de 1.800 diodos de germanio que se usaban como elementos lógicos, y estos estaban alojados en 300 paquetes enchufables que se podían introducir y extraer". [360] El IBM 7070 de arquitectura decimal de 1958 fue el primer ordenador de transistores en ser totalmente programable. Tenía alrededor de 30.000 transistores de germanio de unión de aleación y 22.000 diodos de germanio, en aproximadamente 14.000 tarjetas de Sistema Modular Estándar (SMS). El MOBIDIC de 1959 , abreviatura de "MOBIle DIgital Computer", de 12.000 libras (6,0 toneladas cortas) montado en el remolque de un camión semirremolque , era un ordenador transistorizado para datos de campo de batalla.

La tercera generación de computadoras utilizaba circuitos integrados (CI). [361] La computadora de guía Apollo de 15 bits de 1962 utilizaba "alrededor de 4000 circuitos "Tipo-G" (puerta NOR de 3 entradas)" para aproximadamente 12 000 transistores más 32 000 resistencias. [362] El IBM System/360 , presentado en 1964, utilizaba transistores discretos en paquetes de circuitos híbridos . [361] La CPU PDP-8 de 12 bits de 1965 tenía 1409 transistores discretos y más de 10 000 diodos, en muchas tarjetas. Las versiones posteriores, comenzando con la PDP-8/I de 1968, utilizaban circuitos integrados. La PDP-8 fue reimplementada más tarde como un microprocesador como el Intersil 6100 , véase más abajo. [363]

La siguiente generación de computadoras fueron las microcomputadoras , comenzando con la Intel 4004 de 1971 , que utilizaba transistores MOS . Estas se utilizaban en computadoras domésticas o computadoras personales (PC).

Esta lista incluye las primeras computadoras transistorizadas (segunda generación) y las computadoras basadas en circuitos integrados (tercera generación) de las décadas de 1950 y 1960.

Funciones lógicas

El recuento de transistores para funciones lógicas genéricas se basa en la implementación de CMOS estática . [382]

Sistemas paralelos

Históricamente, cada elemento de procesamiento en los primeros sistemas paralelos (como todas las CPU de la época) era una computadora en serie construida a partir de múltiples chips. A medida que aumenta la cantidad de transistores por chip, cada elemento de procesamiento podría construirse a partir de menos chips y, más adelante, cada chip de procesador multinúcleo podría contener más elementos de procesamiento. [385]

Goodyear MPP : (1983?) Procesadores de 8 píxeles por chip, entre 3.000 y 8.000 transistores por chip. [385]

Brunel University Scape (elemento de procesamiento de matriz de un solo chip): (1983) 256 procesadores de píxeles por chip, 120.000 a 140.000 transistores por chip. [385]

Cell Broadband Engine : (2006) con 9 núcleos por chip, tenía 234 millones de transistores por chip. [386]

Otros dispositivos

Densidad de transistores

La densidad de transistores es la cantidad de transistores que se fabrican por unidad de área, medida típicamente en términos de la cantidad de transistores por milímetro cuadrado (mm2 ) . La densidad de transistores generalmente se correlaciona con la longitud de la compuerta de un nodo semiconductor (también conocido como proceso de fabricación de semiconductores ), que generalmente se mide en nanómetros (nm). A partir de 2019 , el nodo semiconductor con la mayor densidad de transistores es el nodo de 5 nanómetros de TSMC , con 171,3  millones de transistores por milímetro cuadrado (tenga en cuenta que esto corresponde a un espaciado transistor-transistor de 76,4 nm, mucho mayor que el relativo sin sentido "5 nm") [393]

Nodos MOSFET

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Declassified 1998
  2. ^ The TMS1000 is a microcontroller, the transistor count includes memory and input/output controllers, not just the CPU.
  3. ^ 3,510 without depletion mode pull-up transistors
  4. ^ 6,813 without depletion mode pull-up transistors
  5. ^ 3,900,000,000 core chiplet die, 2,090,000,000 I/O die
  6. ^ a b Estimate
  7. ^ Versal Premium are confirmed to be shipping in 1H 2021 but nothing was mentioned about the VP1802 in particular. Usually Xilinx makes separate news for the release of its biggest devices so the VP1802 is likely to be released later.
  8. ^ "Intelligence Processing Unit"

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