Greek Americans (Greek: ΕλληνοαμερικανοίEllinoamerikanoí[eliˌno.amerikaˈni]orΕλληνοαμερικάνοιEllinoamerikánoi[eliˌno.ameriˈkani])[17] are Americans of full or partial Greek ancestry. The lowest estimate is that 1.2 million Americans are of Greek descent while the highest estimate suggests over 3 million.[3] According to the US census, 264,066 people older than five spoke Greek at home in 2019.[18]
Greek Americans have the highest concentrations in the New York City,[4][19][20]Boston,[5] and Chicago[6] regions, but have settled in major metropolitan areas across the United States. In 2000, Tarpon Springs, Florida, was home to the highest per capita representation of Greek Americans in the country (just over 10%). The United States is home to the largest number of Greeks outside of Greece, followed by Cyprus and Australia.
History
Early history
The first Greek to ever set foot in America was Johan Griego (lit.'John the Greek'), in 1492. He was a member of Christopher Columbus's first expedition.[21] At least two other Greeks followed soon; they were brothers who sailed with Columbus in his second (1493) and third (1498) expeditions.[22] Spanish and English historians mention three Greeks who sailed with Ferdinand Magellan in 1520 on his voyage to Patagonia. Their names are listed as: Nikolao, Ioanni, and Mattheo.[21]
Another Greek, Don Doroteo Teodoro, was a sailor who landed in Boca Ciega Bay at the Jungle Prada site in present-day St. Petersburg, Florida with the Narváez expedition in 1528.[23][24] He was instrumental in building the rafts that the expedition survivors built and sailed from present-day St. Mark's River in Florida until they were shipwrecked near Galveston Island, Texas. Teodoro had been captured by natives as they sailed along the Gulf coast shoreline toward the west, and was never seen again.[25] He was presumably killed by the natives.[26] Don Doroteo Teodoro is regarded as the first Greek to have set foot on soil which is today part of the United States.[21]Pedro de Candia (lit.'Petros the Cretan', a Greek adventurer and soldier from Crete, is known for being a lieutenant of Francisco Pizarro who conquered the empire of Peru and founded the city of Lima.[21]
When Francis Drake reached Valparaiso, Chile in 1578 he found there a Greek pilot, whose name was Ioannis. loannis acted as Drake's pilot as far as Lima, Peru.[21] Ten years later, Thomas Cavendish met a Greek pilot by the name of Georgio, who knew the waters of Chile. Both of these Greek pilots must have been in the area for many years in order to have sufficient knowledge of the waters to act as pilots for visiting ships.[21]
There is a report that a Cretan Greek named Konopios operated a coffeehouse in New England in 1652.[27] Records show that a Greek, Michael Dry (Youris), became a naturalized citizen by act of the General Assembly of Maryland in 1725. This makes Dry the first Greek positively known to reside permanently in what is today the United States.[26]
About 500 Greeks from Smyrna, Crete, and Mani settled in New Smyrna Beach, Florida in 1768. The colony was unsuccessful, and the settlers moved to St. Augustine in 1776. In November 1777, a Greek chapel was established in St. Augustine, where Greeks could pray with their own rites.[26] Almost 200 years later, the chapel was designated the St. Photios Greek Orthodox National Shrine by the Greek Orthodox Church, and it exists today as a remnant of their presence, having been built atop the site of the Avero House, itself believed to be the first site of Greek Orthodox worship in the United States.[28][29]
The first noted Greek American scholar was John Paradise.[26] He was persuaded to immigrate to America by Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, whom he met in Europe. Paradise married into the notable Ludwell family, one of the most prominent colonial families in Virginia.[26]
Early records show Michel Dragon (Michalis Dracos) and Andrea Dimitry (Andrea Drussakis Demetrios) settled in New Orleans around 1799. Michel Dragon was a lieutenant in the American Revolution and Andrea Dimitry participated in the War of 1812. Andrea married Michel Dragon's daughter, Marianne Celeste Dragon, and established a small community in New Orleans. The marriage between them in 1799 was the first known marriage between Greeks in America.[26] His son was United States ambassador to Costa Rica& NicaraguaAlexander Dimitry.[31] Another Greek refugee named George Marshall also came to the United States around this period. He was born in Rhodes in 1782. Marshall joined the United States Navy in 1809 and he wrote Marshall's Practical Marine Gunnery.[32] Marshall had a successful naval career and became master gunner. His son George J Marshall also served in the navy. His son-in-law was George Sirian. Due to problems with the strait of Gibraltar, America was desperate for trade with Europe. Pirates ransomed Americans which led to two Barbary wars. America eventually formed the Mediterranean Squadron.
19th century
Many American ships traveled to the Ottoman Empire, namely Ayvalık. The Greek War of Independence began in 1821 and lasted until 1830. Americans established missionaries in Greece. The missionaries included Jonas King. Prominent American abolitionists Samuel Gridley Howe and Jonathan Peckham Miller participated in the Greek War. Jonathan Peckham Miller adopted Greek orphan Lucas M. Miller. Samuel Gridley Howe also collected a number of refugees and brought them back to Boston. Some of the refugees he brought included John Celivergos Zachos and author Christophorus Plato Castanis.[33]
The Greek Slave Movement started in the 1820s during the influx of young refugees to New England. The movement contributed to countless paintings, sculptures, poems, essays, and songs. The death of Greek slave Garafilia Mohalbi was a trigger for sympathy. She was featured in many poems and songs. The Greek Slave Movement was so popular in American media that sculptor Hiram Powers created The Greek Slave. The Greek Slave Movement was an abolitionist tool to abolish slavery in the United States. The theme eventually exploded some examples include: The Slave Market (Gérôme painting), The Slave Market (Boulanger painting), and the slave Market Otto Pilny.[35] Some of the young Greek refugees became abolitionists.
John Celivergos Zachos became a prominent educator. He was also a woman's rights activist and abolitionist. Photius Fisk was another abolitionist who fought for the anti-slavery cause. Gregory Anthony Perdicaris was a wealthy millionaire who created the framework for gas and electric companies. George Colvocoresses was a captain in the United States Navy. Colvos Passage is named after him. George Sirian was another seaman in the United States Navy. The George Sirian Meritorious Service Award is named after him. Harvard created an entire department for Evangelinos Apostolides Sophocles. Greek orphan Lucas Miltiades Miller became a U.S. Congressman.
After the Civil War, the Greek community continued to flourish in New Orleans, Louisiana. By 1866, the community was numerous and prosperous enough to have a Greek consulate and the first official Greek Orthodox Church in the United States.[38] During that period, most Greek immigrants to the New World came from Asia Minor and those Aegean Islands still under Ottoman rule. By 1890, there were almost 15,000 Greeks living in the U.S.
Immigration picked up again in the 1890s and early 20th century, due largely to economic opportunity in the U.S., displacement caused by the hardships of Ottoman rule, the Balkan Wars, and World War I. Most of these immigrants had come from southern Greece, especially from the Peloponnesian provinces of Laconia and Arcadia.[39] 450,000 Greeks arrived to the States between 1890 and 1917, most working in the cities of the northeastern United States; others labored on railroad construction and in mines of the western United States; another 70,000 arrived between 1918 and 1924. Each wave of immigration contributed to the growth of Hellenism in the U.S.
Greek immigration at this time was over 90% male, contrasted with most other European immigration to the U.S., such as Italian and Irish immigration, which averaged 50% to 60% male. Many Greek immigrants expected to work and return to their homeland after earning capital and dowries for their families. However, the loss of their homeland due to the Greek genocide and the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, which displaced 1,500,000 Greeks from Anatolia, Eastern Thrace, and Pontus caused the initial economic immigrants to reside permanently in America. The Greeks were de juredenaturalized from their homelands and lost the right to return, and their families were made refugees. Additionally, the first widely implemented U.S. immigration limits against non Western European immigrants were made in 1924, creating an impetus for immigrants to apply for citizenship, bring their families and permanently settle in the U.S. Fewer than 30,000 Greek immigrants arrived in the U.S. between 1925 and 1945, most of whom were "picture brides" for single Greek men and family members coming over to join relatives.[40][41]
The events of the early 1920s also provided the stimulus for the first permanent national Greek American religious and civic organizations. In 1922, as a response to the anti-Greek campaign and actions of the Ku Klux Klan, the American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association was founded, which sought to organize and Americanize the Greek immigrant in America.[42] Anti-immigrant sentiment, particularly among newspapers owned by William Randolph Hearst, provided the background to sensational trials in the 1920s, including the conviction of Alexander Pantages, Greek immigrant and movie theater pioneer, in 1929. His 50-year prison sentence was later overturned.[43]
Greeks again began to arrive in large numbers after 1945, fleeing the economic devastation caused by World War II and the Greek Civil War. From 1945 until 1982, approximately 211,000 Greeks immigrated to the United States. These later immigrants were less influenced by the powerful assimilation pressures of the 1920s and 1930s and revitalized Greek American identity, especially in areas such as Greek-language media.
Greek immigrants founded more than 600 diners in the New York metropolitan area in the 1950s through the 1970s. Immigration to the United States from Greece peaked between the 1950s and 1970.[44][45] After the 1981 admission of Greece to the European Union, annual U.S. immigration numbers fell to less than 2,000. In recent years, Greek immigration to the United States has been minimal; in fact, net migration has been towards Greece. Over 72,000 U.S. citizens currently live in Greece (1999); most of them are Greek Americans.
In the aftermath of the Greek financial crisis, there has been a resurgence of Greek immigration to New York City since 2010, accelerating in 2015, and centered upon the traditional Greek enclave of Astoria, Queens.[46] According to The New York Times, this new wave of Greek migration to New York City is not being driven as much by opportunities in New York City as it is by a lack of economic options in Greece itself.[46] In December 2022, the $85 million, newly rebuilt St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church opened in Lower Manhattan, 21 years after being destroyed in the September 11 attacks.[47]
Greek-born population in the U.S. since 2010 (ACS 1 Tear Estimates):[60]
Print media
The Atlantis (1894–1973) was the first successful Greek-language daily newspaper published in the United States.[61] The newspaper was founded in 1894 by Solon J. and Demetrius J. Vlasto, descendants of the Greek noble family, Vlasto.[i][62] The paper was headed by a member of the Vlasto family until it closed in 1973. Published in New York City, it had a national circulation and influence. Atlantis supported the royalist faction in Greek politics until the mid-1960s. Atlantis editorial themes included naturalization, war relief, Greek-American business interests, and Greek religious unity.[61]
As of 2020[update], Ethnikos Kyrix (Greek: Εθνικός Κήρυξ, 1915–) is the only Greek-language daily publication based in the United States. Headquartered in New York City, its articles focus on the Greek diaspora in the United States as well as current events in Greece and Cyprus. In contrast to its competitor Atlantis, Ethnikos Kyrix historically supported liberal causes in Greece and America, including the progressive forces of Eleftherios Venizelos in Greece and the New Deal stateside.[61][63] A companion weekly edition The National Herald (1997–) is in circulation and features similar content presented in English.[64] The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America publishes the monthly Orthodox Observer (1934–) in both Greek and English for news and information regarding the Greek Orthodox Church as a whole, as well as its American parishes.[65]
In 1967, Academy Award-winning film-director Elia Kazan published a novel, The Arrangement: A Novel, about a conflicted Greek American living a double life as an advertising executive and muckraking journalist. Kazan, who died in September 2003, was a Greek American.
The popular 1970s show Kojak, featured Telly Savalas as Greek American police detective Theo Kojak, and his brother George as detective Stavros. Kojak was originally supposed to be Polish (hence the name), but this was changed to match Savalas' profile.
The Famous Teddy Z was an acclaimed but short-lived TV series about a fictional talent agent named Teddy Zakalakis, portrayed by Jon Cryer.
The TV series Full House was about a family that included Greek American Uncle Jesse Katsopolis, portrayed by Greek American actor John Stamos. Jesse's surname was changed from Cochran to Katsopolis after the first season because Stamos wanted to portray his Greek American heritage. Jesse's Greek dad was also a recurring character. Stamos reprises the role of Jesse in the 2016 sequel sitcom, Fuller House.
The Olympia Cafe was a recurring sketch in the early years of Saturday Night Live. More recently, Tina Fey has often joked about her Greek heritage on the show.
Tom's Restaurant, a Greek American owned business, has become one of the symbols of urban New York life.
Writer, performer and radio-commentator David Sedaris satirizes growing up in a Greek American household in suburbanNorth Carolina in several of his essays.
New Greek Television Inc., NGTV on Time Warner Cable a rebranding of the 25 year old Greek Television Channel of New York[66]
Greek nationality
Any person who is ethnically Greek born outside of Greece may become a Greek citizen through naturalization by proving that a parent or grandparent was born as a national of Greece. The Greek ancestor's birth certificate and marriage certificate are required, along with the applicant's birth certificate and the birth certificates of all generations in between until the relation between the applicant and the person with Greek citizenship is proven.
Organizations
There are hundreds of regional, religious and professional Greek American organizations. Some of the largest and most notable include:
The American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association (AHEPA) is the largest community organization of Greek Americans. It was founded in Atlanta, Georgia in 1922 to counter the anti-Greek attacks by the Ku Klux Klan during that time period. Its current membership exceeds 28,000. 385 active chapters are located in the United States with additional chapters in Canada, and Europe. AHEPA maintains a full-time staff at the AHEPA Global Headquarters located in Washington, DC www.ahepa.org
The Next Generation Initiative, a foundation that works with prominent Greek American leaders and executives to offer educational opportunities such as internships and master classes through a network of more than 5,500 Greek American students and 2,500 professors on 200+ college campuses.
The Council of Hellenes Abroad is a Greek government sponsored umbrella organization for Greek immigrant organizations worldwide.
The Hellenic Society Paideia has been promoting Hellenism and Orthodoxy since 1977 by placing Greek and Byzantium classes in high schools and universities, offering study abroad programs to Greece year round, and with various building projects throughout the country. Anywhere from 200 to 500 students travel to Greece with Paideia per year. Information specifically for the study abroad programs can be found at www.hellenicstudiespaideia.org Currently "Paideia" is constructing a Classical Greek Amphitheater at the University of Connecticut and a Center for Hellenic Studies at the University of Rhode Island.[67]
The National Hellenic Student Association (NHSA)[68] is the independent network of the Hellenic Student Associations (HSAs) across the United States. By linking all the Greek, Greek-American and Cypriot students of the American educational institutions, the organization can promote ideas and projects and enrich the Hellenic spirit on campuses nationwide.
Many topika somatéa (local councils) or clubs representing the local regional homeland of Greeks in America. Among the scores of such clubs, larger "umbrella" organizations include the Pan Macedonian Association (one example is the Drosopigi Society, in Rochester, New York, hailing from the village of Drosopigi in Northern Greece outside of the city of Florina) the Panepirotic Federation, the Pan Cretan Association, the Pan-Icarian Brotherhood, the Pan Pontian Federation of U.S.A-Canada, the Chios Societies of America & Canada, the Cyprus Federation of America, the Pan-Laconian Federation of the USA & Canada, the Pan-Messinian Federation of the USA & Canada, the Pan-Arcadian Federation of America and several associations of refugees from areas in the former Ottoman territories.
^"Table B04006 - People Reporting Ancestry - 2019 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimatestrue". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved February 5, 2021.
^ a b"Total Ancestry Reported". United States Census Bureau. 2010. Archived from the original on January 18, 2015. Retrieved December 4, 2014.
^ a b c"Selected Population Profile in the United States 2010-2012 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
^ a b"Selected Population Profile in the United States 2010-2012 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
^ a b"Selected Population Profile in the United States 2010-2012 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
^"Greeks". The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. May 11, 2018. Retrieved February 27, 2021.
^"Selected Population Profile in the United States 2010-2012 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
^"Selected Population Profile in the United States 2010-2012 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
^"Selected Population Profile in the United States 2010-2012 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
^"Selected Population Profile in the United States 2010-2012 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
^"Selected Population Profile in the United States 2010-2012 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
^"Selected Population Profile in the United States 2011-2013 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
^"Selected Population Profile in the United States 2010-2012 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
^"Selected Population Profile in the United States 2010-2012 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
^"Utah History Encyclopedia".
^"ελληνοαμερικάνος in Λεξικό της κοινής νεοελληνικής". Dictionary of Standard Modern Greek. Institute of Modern Greek Studies (Manolis Triantafyllidis Foundation). 1998. Retrieved February 5, 2021.
^ a bDietrich, Sandy; Hernandez, Erik (September 1, 2022). "Language Use in the United States: 2019". United States Census Bureau.
^ a b"Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2012 Supplemental Table 2". U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Retrieved April 1, 2013.
^"Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2009 - Supplemental Table 2". Retrieved April 24, 2010.
^ a b c d e f gLeber, George J. (1972) "The First Greeks in the New World" In: The Greeks in the New World, and Immigration to the United States, Order of AHEPA, Washington, D.C.
^Gil Fernández, Juan (2007). "Marineros griegos en las naves de Cristóbal Colón". Erytheia: Revista de estudios bizantinos y neogriegos (28): 127–138. ISSN 0213-1986.
^"Cabeza de Vaca's La Relacion". Retrieved March 17, 2015.
^"Cabeza de Vaca's La Relacion". Retrieved March 17, 2015.
^Adorno, Rolena; Pautz, Patrick (September 15, 1999). Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca: His Account, His Life, and the Expedition of Panfilo de Narváez. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1463-7., 3 vols.
^ a b c d e f g h iMoskos, Peter C. (July 5, 2017). Greek Americans: Struggle and Success. Routledge. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-1-351-51669-3.
^Melvin Hecker and Heike Fenton. eds., The Greeks in America 1528-1977 (Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceana Publications. Inc., 1978). p. 1.
^Leonard, M. C. Bob. "The Floridians: British Colonialism in Florida 1763-1783". floridahistory.org. Retrieved March 24, 2017.
^Polopolus, Leonidas C. "A Brief History of Hellenism in Florida". University of Florida, Center for Greek Studies. Archived from the original on February 24, 2002.
^Frangos, Steve (2005). "Long-Forgotten Greek Alaskan". The National Herald. Retrieved June 17, 2022.
^"Louise Pecquet du Bellet" Some Prominent Virginia Slaves J.P. Bell Company Lynchburg Virginia 1907: p. 167
^"George Marshall" Marshall's Practical Marine Gunnery Norfolk Published by C. Hall 1822: p. 1
^Manny Paraschos (November 18, 2016). "The Greeks of Boston". Emerson College, Boston. Retrieved March 29, 2021.
^"The Slave Market at Constantinople" (PDF). Vermont Gazette Volume 20 No 39 September 8, 1829 Page 1. Genealogy Bank. September 8, 1829. Retrieved January 13, 2021.
^Lazos, Chrēstos D. (2001). Έλληνες στα Λαϊκά Απελευθερωτικά Κινήματα (in Greek). Aiolos. p. 120. ISBN 978-960-521-095-3.
^Kalymniou, Dean (December 8, 2014). "Greeks who whistle dixie". Neos Kosmos. Retrieved June 17, 2022.
^"History of the Holy Trinity Cathedral". greekfestnola.com. Archived from the original on May 20, 2007.
^Barkan, Elliott Robert (1999). A Nation of Peoples: A Sourcebook on America's Multicultural Heritage. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 252–253. ISBN 978-0-313-29961-2.
^Κατατρεγμένοι Έλληνες από τη Μ. Ασία στις ΗΠΑ [Persecuted Greeks from Asia Minor in the USA] (in Greek). mpa.gr. Archived from the original on August 7, 2004.
^Frangos, Steve (March 12, 2005). "Picture Bride Era in Greek American History". The National Herald. Retrieved March 24, 2017 – via Preservation of American Hellenic History.
^Gerontakis, Steven (November 2012). "AHEPA vs. the KKK: Greek-Americans on the Path to Whiteness" (PDF). University of North Carolina at Asheville. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 21, 2014.
^Lagos, Taso G. (January 13, 2018). American Zeus: The Life of Alexander Pantages, Theater Mogul. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Press. ISBN 978-1-4766-6838-3.
^Berger, Joseph (March 16, 2008). "Diners in Changing Hands; Greek Ownership on the Wane". New York Times. Retrieved March 24, 2017.
^Kleiman, Dena (February 27, 1991). "Greek Diners, Where Anything Is Possible". New York Times. Retrieved May 27, 2009.
^ a bAnnie Correal and Colleen Wright (July 5, 2015). "Greeks in New York Talk and Cheer, Then Debate Future After Referendum". The New York Times. Retrieved July 5, 2015.
^Jane Margolies (December 24, 2022). "St. Nicolas (the Church) Has Come to Town". The New York Times. Retrieved December 25, 2022.
^"Rank of States for Selected Ancestry Groups with 100,00 or more persons: 1980" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
^"1990 Census of Population Detailed Ancestry Groups for States" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. September 18, 1992. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
^"Ancestry: 2000". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
^ a b"Total ancestry categories tallied for people with one or more ancestry categories reported 2010 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on January 18, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2024.
^"2011-2015 American Community Survey Selected Population Tables". Retrieved August 10, 2018.
^"2020 American Community Survey Selected Population Tables". American FactFinder. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved March 3, 2022.
^"Ancestry Map of Greek Communities". Epodunk.com. Archived from the original on February 20, 2007. Retrieved August 12, 2008.
^"Appendix Table 2. Languages Spoken at Home: 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2007". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved August 6, 2012.
^"Detailed Language Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for Persons 5 Years and Over --50 Languages with Greatest Number of Speakers: United States 1990". United States Census Bureau. 1990. Retrieved July 22, 2012.
^"Language Spoken at Home: 2000". United States Bureau of the Census. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved August 8, 2012.
^"Detailed Languages Spoken at Home by English-Speaking Ability for the Population 5 Years and Over: 2011" (PDF). census.gov. US Census Bureau. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 8, 2019.
^"Mother Tongue of the Foreign-Born Population: 1910 to 1940, 1960, and 1970". United States Census Bureau. March 9, 1999. Retrieved August 6, 2012.
^Bureau, U.S. Census. "American FactFinder - Results". factfinder.census.gov. Archived from the original on February 14, 2020. Retrieved April 23, 2018. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
^ a b cJudith Felsten "Atlantis, National Daily Newspaper 1894-1973", Atlantis, National Daily Newspaper 1894-1973, The Research Library of the Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies, December 1982
^Magny, Claude Drigon. Livre D'or De La Noblesse Européenne, Ed. 2. Paris: Aubry, 1856, pg. 441.
^Northrup, Mary, "The Greek press in America", Cobblestone, Dec 1996, Vol. 17 Issue 9, p. 17.
^"The National Herald – About Us". The National Herald. Retrieved April 17, 2020.
^"Page 56287 – The National Herald". thenationalherald.com.
^"paideiausa". Retrieved March 17, 2015.
^"NHSA". nhsaofamerica.org. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
Further reading
Callinicos, Constance. American Aphrodite: Becoming Female in Greek America (Pella, 1990).
Georgakas, Dan. My Detroit: Growing Up Greek and American in Motor City (Pella, 2006)."
Georgiou, Leonidas V., "Conversations with F.D.R. at his AHEPA Initiation: Frigates, Battleships, Espionage and a Sentimental Bond with Greece," (Knollwood Press, 2019). Available through Abebooks.com.
Jurgens, Jane. "Greek Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 2, Gale, 2014), pp. 237–253. Online
Jusdanis, Gregory. "Greek Americans and the diaspora." Diaspora: a journal of transnational studies 1#2 (1991): 209–223. Excerpt
Kunkelman, Gary. The Religion of Ethnicity: Belief and Belonging in a Greek-American Community (Garland, 1990).
Moskos, Peter C. Greek Americans: struggle and success (Routledge, 2017).
Orfanos, Spyros D. Reading Greek America: Studies in the Experience of Greeks in the United States (Pella, 2002).
Rouvelas, Marilyn. A Guide to Greek Traditions and Customs in America (Attica, 1993).
Scourby, Alice. "Three generations of Greek Americans: A study in ethnicity." International Migration Review 14.1 (1980): 43–52. Online
Schultz, Sandra L. "Adjusting Marriage Tradition: Greeks to Greek-Americans." Journal of Comparative Family Studies 12.2 (1981): 205–218.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Greek diaspora in the United States.