Relación potencia-peso

Calculation commonly applied to engines and mobile power sources

La relación potencia-peso ( PWR , también llamada potencia específica o relación potencia-masa ) es un cálculo que se aplica comúnmente a los motores y a las fuentes de energía móviles para permitir la comparación de una unidad o diseño con otro. La relación potencia-peso es una medida del rendimiento real de cualquier motor o fuente de energía. También se utiliza como una medida del rendimiento de un vehículo en su conjunto, dividiendo la potencia de salida del motor por el peso (o masa ) del vehículo, para dar una métrica que es independiente del tamaño del vehículo. Los fabricantes suelen citar la relación potencia-peso en el valor máximo, pero el valor real puede variar en el uso y las variaciones afectarán al rendimiento.

La relación peso-potencia (carga de potencia) es un cálculo que se aplica comúnmente a aeronaves, automóviles y vehículos en general, para poder comparar el rendimiento de un vehículo con el de otro. La relación peso-potencia es igual al empuje por unidad de masa multiplicado por la velocidad de cualquier vehículo.

Relación potencia-peso (potencia específica)

La relación potencia-peso (potencia específica) se define como la potencia generada por el motor o los motores dividida por la masa. En este contexto, el término "peso" puede considerarse un nombre inapropiado, ya que coloquialmente se refiere a la masa. En un entorno de gravedad cero (sin gravedad), la relación potencia-peso no se consideraría infinita.

Un motor diésel V8 turboalimentado típico puede tener una potencia de 250 kW (340 hp) y una masa de 380 kg (840 lb), ^[1] lo que le da una relación potencia-peso de 0,65 kW/kg (0,40 hp/lb).

Ejemplos de altas relaciones potencia-peso se pueden encontrar a menudo en turbinas. Esto se debe a su capacidad para funcionar a velocidades muy altas. Por ejemplo, los motores principales del transbordador espacial utilizaban turbobombas (máquinas que consisten en una bomba impulsada por un motor de turbina) para introducir los propulsores (oxígeno líquido e hidrógeno líquido ) en la cámara de combustión del motor. La turbobomba de hidrógeno líquido original es similar en tamaño a un motor de automóvil (pesa aproximadamente 352 kilogramos (775 lb)) y produce 72.000 hp (54 MW) ^[2] para una relación potencia-peso de 153 kW/kg (93 hp/lb).

Interpretación física

En mecánica clásica , la potencia instantánea es el valor límite del trabajo promedio realizado por unidad de tiempo cuando el intervalo de tiempo Δ t se acerca a cero (es decir, la derivada con respecto al tiempo del trabajo realizado).

${\displaystyle P=\lim _{\Delta t\rightarrow 0}{\tfrac {\Delta W(t)}{\Delta t}}=\lim _{\Delta t\rightarrow 0}P_{\mathrm {avg} }={\frac {d}{dt}}W(t)\,}$

La unidad métrica que se utiliza habitualmente para la relación potencia-peso es , que equivale a . Este hecho permite expresar la relación potencia-peso únicamente con unidades básicas del SI . La relación potencia-peso de un vehículo es igual a su aceleración multiplicada por su velocidad; por lo tanto, al doble de velocidad, experimenta la mitad de la aceleración, si todo lo demás permanece igual. ${\displaystyle {\tfrac {\text{W}}{\text{kg}}}\;}$ ${\displaystyle {\tfrac {{\text{m}}^{2}}{{\text{s}}^{3}}}\;}$

Potencia propulsiva

Si el trabajo a realizar es el movimiento rectilíneo de un cuerpo con masa constante , cuyo centro de masa se debe acelerar a lo largo de una línea (posiblemente no recta) hasta una velocidad y un ángulo con respecto al centro y el radial de un campo gravitacional mediante un motor a bordo , entonces la energía cinética asociada es ${\displaystyle m\;}$ ${\displaystyle |\mathbf {v} (t)|\;}$ ${\displaystyle \phi \;}$

${\displaystyle E_{K}={\tfrac {1}{2}}m|\mathbf {v} (t)|^{2}}$

dónde:

${\displaystyle m\;}$es la masa del cuerpo

${\displaystyle |\mathbf {v} (t)|\;}$es la velocidad del centro de masa del cuerpo, que cambia con el tiempo.

El principio de trabajo-energía establece que el trabajo realizado sobre el objeto durante un período de tiempo es igual a la diferencia en su energía total durante ese período de tiempo, por lo que la tasa a la que se realiza el trabajo es igual a la tasa de cambio de la energía cinética (en ausencia de cambios de energía potencial).

El trabajo realizado desde el tiempo t hasta el tiempo t + Δ t a lo largo de la trayectoria C se define como la integral de línea , por lo que el teorema fundamental del cálculo tiene que la potencia está dada por . ${\displaystyle \int _{C}\mathbf {F} \cdot d\mathbf {x} =\int _{t}^{t+\Delta t}\mathbf {F} \cdot \mathbf {v} (t)dt}$ ${\displaystyle \mathbf {F} (t)\cdot \mathbf {v} (t)=m\mathbf {a} (t)\cdot \mathbf {v} (t)=\mathbf {\tau } (t)\cdot \mathbf {\omega } (t)}$

dónde:

${\displaystyle \mathbf {a} (t)={\frac {d}{dt}}\mathbf {v} (t)\;}$es la aceleración del centro de masa del cuerpo, que cambia con el tiempo.

${\displaystyle \mathbf {F} (t)\;}$es una fuerza lineal –o empuje– aplicada sobre el centro de masa del cuerpo y que cambia con el tiempo.

${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} (t)\;}$es la velocidad del centro de masa del cuerpo, que cambia con el tiempo.

${\displaystyle \mathbf {\tau } (t)\;}$es el torque aplicado sobre el centro de masa del cuerpo, el cual cambia con el tiempo.

${\displaystyle \mathbf {\omega } (t)\;}$es la velocidad angular del centro de masa del cuerpo, que cambia con el tiempo.

En la propulsión , la potencia solo se entrega si el motor está en movimiento y se transmite para hacer que la carrocería se mueva. Aquí se supone típicamente que la transmisión mecánica permite que el motor funcione a la potencia máxima de salida. Esta suposición permite que el ajuste del motor intercambie el ancho de banda de potencia y la masa del motor por la complejidad y la masa de la transmisión. Los motores eléctricos no sufren este compromiso, sino que intercambian su alto par por tracción a baja velocidad. La ventaja de potencia o la relación potencia-peso es entonces

${\displaystyle {\mbox{P-to-W}}=|\mathbf {a} (t)||\mathbf {v} (t)|\;}$

dónde:

${\displaystyle |\mathbf {v} (t)|\;}$es la velocidad lineal del centro de masa del cuerpo.

Potencia del motor

La potencia útil de un motor con potencia de salida en el eje se puede calcular utilizando un dinamómetro para medir el par y la velocidad de rotación , y la potencia máxima se alcanza cuando el par multiplicado por la velocidad de rotación es máximo. En el caso de los motores a reacción, la potencia útil es igual a la velocidad de vuelo de la aeronave multiplicada por la fuerza, conocida como empuje neto, necesaria para hacerla ir a esa velocidad. Se utiliza para calcular la eficiencia de propulsión .

Ejemplos

Motores

Motores térmicos y bombas de calor

La energía térmica se compone de energía cinética molecular y energía de fase latente . Los motores térmicos pueden convertir la energía térmica en forma de gradiente de temperatura entre una fuente caliente y un disipador frío en otro trabajo mecánico deseable . Las bombas de calor requieren trabajo mecánico para regenerar la energía térmica en un gradiente de temperatura. Se deben utilizar definiciones estándar al interpretar cómo se transfiere la potencia propulsora de un motor a reacción o de un cohete a su vehículo.

1. La relación potencia-peso del vehículo completo se muestra a continuación

Motores eléctricos y generadores electromotrices

Un motor eléctrico utiliza energía eléctrica para generar trabajo mecánico , generalmente a través de la interacción de un campo magnético y conductores que transportan corriente . Mediante la interacción del trabajo mecánico sobre un conductor eléctrico en un campo magnético, se puede generar energía eléctrica .

1. La relación potencia-peso del vehículo completo se muestra a continuación

Motores de fluidos y bombas de fluidos

Los fluidos (líquidos y gases) se pueden utilizar para transmitir y/o almacenar energía utilizando presión y otras propiedades de los fluidos. Los motores hidráulicos (líquidos) y neumáticos (gases) convierten la presión del fluido en otro trabajo mecánico o eléctrico deseable . Las bombas de fluidos convierten el trabajo mecánico o eléctrico en movimiento o cambios de presión de un fluido, o en almacenamiento en un recipiente a presión .

Generadores termoeléctricos y actuadores electrotérmicos

Se pueden aprovechar diversos efectos para producir termoelectricidad , emisión termoiónica , piroelectricidad y piezoelectricidad . La resistencia eléctrica y el ferromagnetismo de los materiales se pueden aprovechar para generar energía termoacústica a partir de una corriente eléctrica.

Sistemas de celdas electroquímicas (galvánicas) y electrostáticas

Baterías (de celda cerrada)

Todas las baterías de celdas electroquímicas entregan un voltaje cambiante a medida que su composición química cambia de "cargada" a "descargada". El fabricante de una batería suele especificar un voltaje de salida nominal y un voltaje de corte. El voltaje de salida cae al voltaje de corte cuando la batería se "descarga". El voltaje de salida nominal siempre es menor que el voltaje de circuito abierto que se produce cuando la batería está "cargada". La temperatura de una batería puede afectar la potencia que puede entregar, donde las temperaturas más bajas reducen la potencia. La energía total entregada a partir de un solo ciclo de carga se ve afectada tanto por la temperatura de la batería como por la potencia que entrega. Si la temperatura disminuye o la demanda de potencia aumenta, la energía total entregada en el punto de "descarga" también se reduce.

Los perfiles de descarga de las baterías suelen describirse en términos de un factor de capacidad de la batería . Por ejemplo, una batería con una capacidad nominal expresada en amperios-hora (Ah) a una corriente de descarga nominal de C/10 (derivada en amperios) puede proporcionar de forma segura una corriente de descarga más alta (y, por lo tanto, una relación potencia-peso más alta), pero solo con una capacidad energética más baja. Por lo tanto, la relación potencia-peso de las baterías es menos significativa sin referencia a la relación energía-peso correspondiente y la temperatura de la celda. Esta relación se conoce como la ley de Peukert . ^[53]

Condensadores electrostáticos, electrolíticos y electroquímicos

Los condensadores almacenan la carga eléctrica en dos electrodos separados por un medio semiaislante ( dieléctrico ) de campo eléctrico. Los condensadores electrostáticos tienen electrodos planos sobre los que se acumula la carga eléctrica. Los condensadores electrolíticos utilizan un electrolito líquido como uno de los electrodos y el efecto de doble capa eléctrica sobre la superficie del límite dieléctrico-electrolito aumenta la cantidad de carga almacenada por unidad de volumen. Los condensadores eléctricos de doble capa extienden ambos electrodos con un material nanoporoso como el carbón activado para aumentar significativamente el área de superficie sobre la que se puede acumular la carga eléctrica, reduciendo el medio dieléctrico a nanoporos y un separador muy delgado de alta permitividad .

Si bien los capacitores tienden a no ser tan sensibles a la temperatura como las baterías, tienen una capacidad considerablemente limitada y, sin la fuerza de los enlaces químicos, sufren de autodescarga. La relación potencia-peso de los capacitores suele ser mayor que la de las baterías porque las unidades de transporte de carga dentro de la celda son más pequeñas (electrones en lugar de iones), sin embargo, la relación energía-peso suele ser, por el contrario, menor.

Pilas de combustible y baterías de celdas de flujo

Las celdas de combustible y las celdas de flujo , aunque quizás utilicen una química similar a la de las baterías, no contienen el medio de almacenamiento de energía o combustible . Con un flujo continuo de combustible y oxidante, las celdas de combustible y las celdas de flujo disponibles continúan convirtiendo el medio de almacenamiento de energía en energía eléctrica y productos de desecho. Las celdas de combustible contienen claramente un electrolito fijo, mientras que las celdas de flujo también requieren un flujo continuo de electrolito. Las celdas de flujo normalmente tienen el combustible disuelto en el electrolito.

1. La relación potencia-peso del vehículo completo se muestra a continuación

Fotovoltaica

Vehículos

Las relaciones potencia-peso de los vehículos se calculan generalmente utilizando el peso en vacío (para los automóviles) o el peso en húmedo (para las motocicletas), es decir, excluyendo el peso del conductor y cualquier carga. Esto puede ser ligeramente engañoso, especialmente en lo que respecta a las motocicletas, donde el conductor puede pesar entre 1/3 y 1/2 tanto como el propio vehículo. En el deporte del ciclismo de competición, el rendimiento del atleta se expresa cada vez más en VAM y, por lo tanto, como una relación potencia-peso en W/kg. Esto se puede medir mediante el uso de un medidor de potencia de bicicleta o calcularse midiendo la inclinación de una subida de carretera y el tiempo que tarda el ciclista en ascenderla. ^[103]

Locomotoras

Por lo general, una locomotora debe ser pesada para desarrollar suficiente adherencia sobre los rieles para poner en marcha un tren. Como el coeficiente de fricción entre las ruedas de acero y los rieles rara vez supera 0,25 en la mayoría de los casos, mejorar la relación potencia-peso de una locomotora suele ser contraproducente. Sin embargo, la elección del sistema de transmisión de potencia, como el accionamiento de frecuencia variable en lugar del accionamiento de corriente continua , puede favorecer una mayor relación potencia-peso mediante una mejor gestión de la potencia de propulsión.

Vehículos utilitarios y prácticos

La mayoría de los vehículos están diseñados para satisfacer las necesidades de comodidad de los pasajeros y de transporte de carga. Los diseños de los vehículos compensan la relación potencia-peso para aumentar la comodidad, el espacio de carga, el ahorro de combustible , el control de emisiones , la seguridad energética y la resistencia. La reducción de la resistencia aerodinámica y la menor resistencia a la rodadura en el diseño de un vehículo pueden facilitar un mayor espacio de carga sin aumentar la relación potencia-peso (carga cero). Esto aumenta la flexibilidad de funciones del vehículo. Las consideraciones de seguridad energética pueden compensar la potencia (normalmente reducida) y el peso (normalmente aumentado), y por tanto la relación potencia-peso, por la flexibilidad de combustible o la hibridación del tren motriz . Algunas variantes de vehículos utilitarios y prácticos, como los hatchbacks deportivos y los vehículos utilitarios deportivos, reconfiguran la potencia (normalmente aumentada) y el peso para proporcionar la percepción de un rendimiento similar al de un coche deportivo o para otro beneficio psicológico .

Relación notablemente baja

Poder común

Lujo de alto rendimiento, roadsters y deportivos suaves

El aumento del rendimiento del motor es un factor a tener en cuenta, pero también hay otras características asociadas a los vehículos de lujo . Los motores longitudinales son comunes. Las carrocerías varían desde hatchbacks deportivos , sedanes (sedán) , cupés , convertibles y roadsters . Las motocicletas dual-sport y cruiser de gama media tienden a tener relaciones potencia-peso similares.

Vehículos deportivos

La relación potencia-peso es una característica importante del vehículo que afecta la aceleración de los vehículos deportivos.

Primeros vehículos

Aircraft

Propeller aircraft depend on high power-to-weight ratios to generate sufficient thrust to achieve sustained flight, and then for speed.

Thrust-to-weight ratio

Jet aircraft produce thrust directly.

Human

Power-to-weight ratio is important in cycling, since it determines acceleration and the speed during hill climbs. Since a cyclist's power-to-weight output decreases with fatigue, it is normally discussed with relation to the length of time that he or she maintains that power. A professional cyclist can produce over 20 W/kg (0.012 hp/lb) as a five-second maximum.^[647]

See also

• Energy density – Energy per volume
• Engine power – Power output of an engine
• Propulsive efficiency – Measure of efficiency in aerospace engineering
• Specific output – Measure of internal combustion engine performance
• Thrust-to-weight ratio – Dimensionless ratio of thrust to weight of a jet or propeller engine
• Vehicular metrics – Metrics that denote the relative capabilities of various vehicles
• von Kármán–Gabrielli diagram – Diagram which compares the efficiency of transportation methods

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