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Bharhut

Bharhut is a village located in the Satna district of Madhya Pradesh, central India. It is known for its famous relics from a Buddhist stupa. What makes Bharhut panels unique is that each panel is explicitly labelled in Brahmi characters mentioning what the panel depicts. The major donor for the Bharhut stupa was King Dhanabhuti.[2][1]

The Bharhut sculptures represent some of the earliest examples of Indian and Buddhist art, later than the monumental art of Ashoka (c. 260 BCE), and slightly later than the early Shunga-period reliefs on railings at Sanchi Stupa No.2 (starting circa 115 BCE).[1] Though more provincial in quality than the sculpture at Sanchi, Amaravati Stupa and some other sites, a large amount of sculpture has survived, generally in good condition. Recent authors date the reliefs of the railings of Bharhut circa 125–100 BCE, and clearly after Sanchi Stupa No.2, compared to which Bharhut has a much more developed iconography.[1][3] The torana gateway was made slightly later than the railings, and is dated to 100–75 BCE.[1] Historian Ajit Kumar gives a later date to Bharhut, the 1st century CE, based on stylistic comparisons with datable works of art from the Art of Mathura, particularly sculptures inscribed in the name of ruler Sodasa.[4] Many of the Bharhut remains are now located in the Indian Museum in Kolkata, with others in museums in India and abroad. Little remains at the site today.

Buddhism continued to survive in Bharhut until 12th century. A Small Buddhist temple was enlarged around 1100 AD and a new statue of Buddha was installed.[5] A large Sanskrit inscription from the same period was found at the site, however it appears to have been lost.[6] This is different from the Lal Pahad inscription of AD 1158 mentioning the Kalachiri kings.[7]

Some recent reevaluations have tended to uncouple Bharhut from the Shunga period, and rather attribute the stupa to the 1st century CE, based on artistic similarities with better dated Mathura art and a questioning of the antiquity of the Bharhut inscriptions (particularly the Dhanabhuti inscriptions) suggested by traditional paleography.[8][9]

Bharhut stupa

Structure

The Bharhut stupa, depicted on one of the friezes. Freer Gallery of Art

The Bharhut stupa may have been first built by the Maurya king Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, but many works of art, particularly the gateway and railings, were apparently added during the Shunga period, with many reliefs from the 2nd century BCE, or later.[10] Alternatively, the sculptures made have been added during the reign of the Sughanas, a northern Buddhist kingdom.[4]

The central stupa was surrounded by a stone railing and four Torana gates, in an arrangement similar to that of Sanchi. A large part of the railing has been recovered, but only one of the four torana gates remains.

An epigraph on a pillar of the gateway of the stupa mentions its erection "during the rule of the Sugas by Vatsiputra Dhanabhuti".[11][4] The expression used is "Suganam Raje", may mean "during the rule of the Shungas", although not without ambiguity as it could also be "during the rule of the Sughanas", a northern Buddhist kingdom.[12][4] There is no other instance of the name "Shunga" in the epigraphical record of India.[13] The inscription reads:

The Dhanabhuti inscription

1. Suganam raje raño Gāgīputasa Visadevasa
2. pautena, Gotiputasa Āgarajusa putena
3. Vāchhīputena Dhanabhūtina kāritam toranām
4. silākammamto cha upamno.

During the reign of the Sugas (Sughanas, or Shungas) the gateway was caused to be made and the stone-work presented by Dhanabhūti, the son of Vāchhī, son of Agaraju, the son of a Goti and grandson of king Visadeva, the son of Gāgī.

— Gateway pillar inscription of Dhanabhūti.[14][15]

If the attribution is to be taken as "Shungas", since King Dhanabhuti was making a major dedication to a Buddhist monument, and on the contrary the Shungas are known to have been Hindu monarchs, it seems that Dhanabhuti himself was not a member of the Shunga dynasty.[16] Neither is he known from Shunga regnal lists.[16][17] His mention of "in the reign of the Shungas" also suggests that he was not himself a Shunga ruler, only that he may have been a tributary of the Shungas, or a ruler in a neighbouring territory, such as Kosala or Panchala.[17][16]

Builders

The gateways (left) were made by northern (probably Gandharan) masons using Kharosthi marks, while the railings (right) were made by masons using marks in the local Brahmi script.[18][19]

Mason's marks in Kharosthi have been found on several elements of the Bharhut remains, indicating that some of the builders at least came from the north, particularly from Gandhara where the Kharoshti script was in use.[18][20][21] Cunningham explained that the Kharosthi letters were found on the balustrades between the architraves of the gateway, but none on the railings which all had Indian markings, summarizing that the gateways, which are artistically more refined, must have been made by artists from the North, whereas the railings were made by local artists.[19]

Kharosthi letters on the Eastern Gateway of Bharhut
Kharoshthi (formerly called "Arian-Pali")[22] mason's marks on the gateway.[1] Five of the Kharosthi mason's marks (on a total of eight for the whole gateway) were discovered at the base of the small pillars of the gateway:[19]
𐨤 pa, 𐨀 a, 𐨦 ba, 𐨯 sa

According to some authors, Hellenistic sculptors had some connection with Bharhut and Sanchi as well.[23] The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other foreign influence, such as the fluted bell, addorsed capital of the Persepolitan order, and the abundant use of the Hellenistic flame palmette or honeysuckle motif.[20] Besides the origin of its contributors however, the gateway retains a very strong Indian character in its form.[20]

It would seem the railings were the first elements to be built, circa 125–100 BCE.[24] The great gateway was built later, circa 100–75 BCE.[24] On artistic grounds, the decorations of the railings are considered later stylistically than those of Sanchi Stupa No.2, suggesting a date of circa 100 BCE for the reliefs of the railings, and a date of 75 BCE for the gateway.[24]

Excavation

Bharhut pillar capital with rosette, beads-and-reels and flame palmette designs.

In 1873, Alexander Cunningham visited Bharhut. The next year, he excavated the site.[25] Joseph David Beglar, Cunningham's assistant, continued the excavation and recorded the work through numerous photographs.

A pillar capital in Bharhut, dated to the 2nd century BCE during the Shunga Empire period, is an example of Bharhut architecture thought to incorporate Persian and Greek styles,[26][27] with recumbent animal (in the style of the Pillars of Ashoka), and a central anta capital with many Hellenistic elements (rosettes, beads-and-reels), as well as a central palmette design, in a style similar to that of the Pataliputra capital.[28][29][30]

The complex in Bharhut included a medieval temple (plate II), which contained a colossal figure of the Buddha, along with fragments of sculptures showing the Buddha with images of Brahma, Indra etc.[31] Beglar also photographed a 10th-century Buddhist Sanskrit inscription,[32] about which nothing is now known.

The ruined stupa—nothing but foundations of the main structure (see Gallery)—is still in Bharhut; however, the gateways and railings have been dismantled and reassembled at the Indian Museum, Kolkata.[11] They contain numerous birth stories of the Buddha's previous lives, or Jataka tales. Many of them are in the shape of large, round medallions. Two of the panels are at the Freer Gallery of Art/Arthur M. Sackler Gallery in Washington.[33] Some years ago a pre-Devanagari inscription, from the time of King Balaldev, was found on Bharhut mountain.[34]

As representative of early Indian art

Relief from Bharhut.

In conformity with the early aniconic phase of Buddhist art, the Buddha is only represented through symbols, such as the Dharma wheel, the Bodhi tree, an empty seat, footprints, or the triratana symbol.[35]

The style represents the earliest phase of Indian art, and all characters are depicted wearing the Indian dhoti, except for one foreigner thought to be an Indo-Greek soldier, with Buddhist symbolism.[36] The Bharhut carvings are slightly later than the Sanchi Stupa No.2 reliefs and the earlier Ajanta frescos.

An unusual feature of the Bharhut panels is the inclusion of text in the narrative panels, often identifying the individuals.[37]

Inscriptions

The inscriptions found at Bharhut are of considerable significance in tracing the history of early Indian Buddhism and Buddhist art. 136 inscriptions mention the donors. These include individuals from Vidisha, Purika (a town somewhere in the Vindhya mountains), Pataliputra (Bihar), Karhad (Maharashtra), Bhojakata (Vidarbha, eastern Maharashtra), Kosambi (Uttar Pradesh), and Nasik (Maharashtra). 82 inscriptions serve as labels for panels depicting the Jatakas, the life of the Buddha, former Manushi Buddhas, other stories and Yakshas and Yakshinis.[37]

Structure and details

Survival in 11-12th century

Buddha sculpture at Bharhut 11-12th cent

A Buddha sculpture datable to 11-12th century was also found, in addition to a Sanskrit inscription, belonging to a vihara structure.[49] This demonstrates that Buddhism at the site survived well until 11-12th century, although nothing datable to the intervening period has been found.[49]

In addition to the magnificent stone railing of the old Stupa, there are the remains of a medieval Buddhist Vihara, with a colossal statue, and several smaller Buddhist figures which cannot be dated much earlier than 1000 A.D. It seems probable, therefore, that the exercise of the Buddhist religion may have been carried on for nearly 15 centuries with little or perhaps no interruption. Everywhere the advent of the Muhammadans gave the final blow to Buddhism, and their bigotry and intolerance swept away the few lingering remains which the Brahmans had spared.

— Alexander Cunningham, The Stûpa of Bharhut.[49]

Although the best known remains are from the 1st centuries BCE/CE, Bharhut, just as Sanchi, continued to be used as a Buddhist monastic center for more than a millennium.[50]But the monuments of Bharhut were ultimately destroyed and most of the remains were used by local villagers as building material.[50]

Recently found Buddhist remains in region near Bharhut and Sanchi

Several minor Stupas and Buddhist statues have been discovered in the region near Sanchi and Bharhut dating up to 12th century CE. They demonstrate that Buddhism was widespread in this region and not just confined to Sanchi and Bharhut, and survived until 12th century, like the Sanchi complex itself, although greatly declining after 9-10th century. These include:

Gallery

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Le, Huu Phuoc (2010). Buddhist Architecture. Grafikol. p. 161. ISBN 9780984404308.
  2. ^ Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. p. 11. ISBN 9789004155374.
  3. ^ Didactic Narration: Jataka Iconography in Dunhuang with a Catalogue of Jataka Representations in China, Alexander Peter Bell, LIT Verlag Münster, 2000 p.18
  4. ^ a b c d Kumar, Ajit (2014). "Bharhut Sculptures and their untenable Sunga Association". Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology. 2: 230.
  5. ^ Report Of A Tour In The Central Provinces Vol-ix, Alexander Cunningham, 1879 p.2–4
  6. ^ Buddhist Sanskrit inscription slab from about the 10th century A.D., (?)Bharhut, The British Library, 26 March 2009
  7. ^ Report Of A Tour In The Central Provinces In 1873–74 And 1874–75 Volume Ix, Cunningham, Alexander, 1879, p. 38
  8. ^ Kumar, Ajit (2014). "Bharhut Sculptures and their untenable Sunga Association". Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology. 2: 223–241.
  9. ^ Muzio, Ciro Lo (2018). Problems of chronology in Gandharan art. On the relationship between Gandhāran toilet-trays and the early Buddhist art of northern India. Oxford: Archaeopress Archaeology. pp. 123-134.
  10. ^ Marshall, John (1918). "An Historical and Artistic Description of Sanchi (pp. 7–29)". A Guide to Sanchi. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing. p. 11. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  11. ^ a b "Bharhut Gallery". INC-ICOM Galleries. Indian National Committee of the International Council of Museums. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  12. ^ Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE by Patrick Olivelle [1]
  13. ^ Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3.
  14. ^ Luders, H. (1963). CORPUS INSCRIPTIONS INDICARUM VOL II PART II. India Archaeological Society. p. 11.
  15. ^ The Stupa of Bharhut, Alexander Cunningham, p.128
  16. ^ a b c Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. pp. 8–9. ISBN 9789004155374.
  17. ^ a b Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. p. 13. ISBN 9789004155374.
  18. ^ a b c d The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, John Boardman, Princeton University Press, p.115
  19. ^ a b c d e f g "These little balusters are of considerable interest, as their sculptured statues are much superior in artistic design and execution to those of the railing pillars. They are further remarkable in having Arian letters engraved on their bases or capitals, a peculiarity which points unmistakably to the employment of Western artists, and which fully accounts for the superiority of their execution. The letters found are p, s, a, and b, of which the first three occur twice. Now, if the same sculptors had been employed on the railings, we might confidently expect to find the same alphabetical letters used as private marks. But the fact is just the reverse, for the whole of the 27 marks found on any portions of the railing are Indian letters. The only conclusion that I can come to from these facts is that the foreign artists who were employed on the sculptures of the gateways were certainly not engaged on any part of the railing. I conclude, therefore, that the Raja of Shungas, the donor of the gateways, must have sent his own party of workmen to make them, while the smaller gifts of pillars and rails were executed by the local artists." in The stūpa of Bharhut: a Buddhist monument ornamented with numerous sculptures illustrative of Buddhist legend and history in the third century B. C, by Alexander Cunningham p. 8 (Public Domain)
  20. ^ a b c d The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, pp. 17–18 Note 3
  21. ^ a b Buddhist Architecture by Huu Phuoc Le p.161
  22. ^ "When these alphabets were first deciphered, scholars gave them different names such as 'Indian-Pali' for Brahmi and 'Arian-Pali' for Kharosthi, but these terms are no longer in use." in Upāsaka, Sī Esa; Mahāvihāra, Nava Nālandā (2002). History of palæography of Mauryan Brāhmī script. Nava Nālanda Mahāvihāra. p. 6. ISBN 9788188242047.
  23. ^ "There is evidence of Hellensitic sculptors being in touch with Sanchi and Bharhut" in The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, p.9
  24. ^ a b c Buddhist Architecture Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010 p.149ff
  25. ^ Cunningham, Sir Alexander (1879). The Stûpa of Bharhut: a Buddhist monument ornamented with numerous sculptures illustrative of Buddhist legend and history in the third century B.C. London: W. H. Allen.
  26. ^ Early Buddhist Narrative Art by Patricia Eichenbaum Karetzky p.16
  27. ^ Early Byzantine Churches in Macedonia & Southern Serbia by R.F. Hoddinott p.17
  28. ^ The East: Buddhists, Hindus and the Sons of Heaven, Architecture in context II, Routledge, 2015, by Christopher Tadgell p.24
  29. ^ India Archaeological Report, Cunningham, p185-196
  30. ^ Age of the Nandas and Mauryas by Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri p.376 sq
  31. ^ "General view of remains of Buddhist temple of later date than the Stupa, Bharhut". Online Gallery. British Library. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  32. ^ "Photograph of a slab with a Buddhist sanskrit inscription". Online Gallery. British Library. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  33. ^ Freer/Sackler
  34. ^ "Bharhut sculpture | Description & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-07-16.
  35. ^ "The Art of Buddhism". The Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery. Smithsonian Institution. 2008. Archived from the original on 17 September 2022. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  36. ^ a b "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, John Boardman, 1993, p.112
  37. ^ a b Luders, H.; Waldschmidt, E.; Mehendale, M. A., eds. (1963). "Bharhut Inscriptions". Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. Vol. II. Ootacamund: Archaeological Survey of India.
  38. ^ "There is evidence of Hellenesitic sculptors being in touch with Sanchi and Bharhut" in The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, p.9
  39. ^ a b Mahâbodhi, Cunningham p.4ff Public Domain text
  40. ^ Intercourse Between India and the Western World: From the Earliest Times to the Fall of Rome, H. G. Rawlinson Uppal Publishing House, 1992, p.142
  41. ^ The Shape of Ancient Thought, Mc Evilley, Allworth Press, 2001, p.391
  42. ^ A Guide to Sanchi, John Marshall p.50ff Public Domain text
  43. ^ a b Mahâbodhi, Cunningham p.84ff Public Domain text
  44. ^ "The Jataka, Volume I: Book I.--Ekanipāta: No. 12. Nigrodhamiga-Jātaka".
  45. ^ The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha by C.B. Varma The Story of the Dumb Prince Archived 2017-10-29 at the Wayback Machine
  46. ^ Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics by Andrew Stewart p.180
  47. ^ The Stupa of Bharhut, Cunningham, p.136
  48. ^ "The Goddess Lakshmi in Buddhist Art: The goddess of abundance and fortune, Sri Lakshmi, reflected the accumulated wealth and financial independence of the Buddhist monasteries. Her image became one of the popular visual themes carved on their monuments" in Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths, Meanings, and Models, Madhu Bazaz Wangu, Abhinav Publications, 2003, p. 57 [2]
  49. ^ a b c Alexander Cunningham, Great Britain India Office (1879). The Stûpa of Bharhut: A Buddhist Monument Ornamented with Numerous ... W.H. Allen and Co. p. 4.
  50. ^ a b Johnston, William M. (2013). Encyclopedia of Monasticism. Routledge. p. 643. ISBN 978-1-136-78716-4.
  51. ^ Buddhist stupas of Gupta period unearthed, Indian Express, June 17, 1999
  52. ^ The Statesman, New Delhi, 17/06/99
  53. ^ Madhya Pradesh: Swastika-shaped 6th century Stupas found, TOI April 1, 2019
  54. ^ Buddha Stolen from Bilhari in Central India, November 30, 2012
  55. ^ Y.K. Malaiya, “Research Notes,” Anekanta, Vol. 24, No. 5, November 1971, pp. 213-214
  56. ^ Ancient Buddha Vihar, Devgarh
  57. ^ An inscribed Buddha image at Khajuraho, Devangana Desai, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Mumbai, Volume 79, p. 63
  58. ^ Six Sculptures from Mahoba. BY. K. N. DIKSHIT, New Delhi, 1921

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