Roman circus

Large open-air venue used for public events in the ancient Roman Empire

The site of the former Circus Maximus in modern-day Rome

A Roman circus (from the Latin word that means "circle") was a large open-air venue used mainly for chariot races, although sometimes serving other purposes. It was similar to the ancient Greek hippodrome. Along with theatres and amphitheatres, circuses were one of the main entertainment venues at the time.

Similar buildings, called stadia were used for Greek-style athletics particularly in the eastern, Greek speaking, part of the empire, but these were typically smaller than circuses.

According to Edward Gibbon the Roman people, at the start of the 5th century AD:^[1]

...still considered the Circus as their home, their temple, and the seat of the republic.

Architectural design

Floorplan of Circus Maximus. This design is typical of Roman circuses.

The performance space of the Roman circus was normally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two linear sections of race track, separated by a median strip running along the length of about two thirds the track, joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the other end with an undivided section of track closed (in most cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the carceres, thereby creating a circuit for the races. The Circus Maximus epitomises the design.

The median strip was called the spina and usually featured ornate columns, statues and commemorative obelisks. The turning points on either end of the spina were usually marked by conical poles, called the metae (singular: meta).^[2]

The track of the circus was normally surrounded by ascending seating along the length of both straight sides and around the curved end, though there were sometimes interruptions in the seating to provide access to the circus or the seating, or to provide for special viewing platforms for dignitaries and officials. One circus, that at Antinoöpolis (Egypt), displays a distinct gap of some 50m between the carceres and the start of the ascending seating where there is apparently no structure. This appears to be an exception.

The great majority of circuses fit the description above. Those that do not display two different variations: that at Emerita Augusta (Mérida, Spain), where the carceres end is substituted by a slightly curved 'straight' end joined to the straight sides of ascending seating by rounded corners of ascending seating; and a few in which the carceres end is substituted by a second semi-circular end to produce an oval shaped arena. These latter circuses are normally small (Nicopolis (Greece) and Aphrodisias (Turkey)), and should probably be considered stadia.

Common characteristics

Dates

Differently from other major Roman structures circuses frequently evolved over long periods of time from a simple track in a field, through generations of wooden seating structures (frequently destroyed by fire or rot), before they finally began to be converted to stone. Although circuses such as the Circus Maximus (Italy) may have existed in some form from as early as around 500 BC, circuses were mainly constructed during the 400 years between 200 BC and 200 AD.^[3]

Dimensions

Circus, with chariot-race going on: the central division (spina) with its dolphin fountains, and the conical metae. Astarte on her lion, placed on the spina, being the tutelary goddess of Carthage, may indicate that this is the Circus of Carthage. After engraving in sard, much enlarged in the drawing; found at Binchester (Binovium).^[4]

The comparative dimensions of a circus may be measured in two basic ways: by the length of the track, and by the seating capacity. Other dimensions, such as the external dimensions of the structure may vary considerably depending on the location, the site, and on specific architectural characteristics.

The simplest comparative measurement of a circus is its track length. This is the most easily measured dimension, as it only requires small excavations at either end of the centreline. It is very probable that this can be done even when the circus is buried under subsequent constructions. Track lengths may vary from the 245 m of the circus at Gerasa (Jordan), to the 621 m of the Circus Maximus (Italy).

The alternative comparative dimension is that of seating capacity. This is much more complex to measure as it requires that the dimensions of the original vertical and horizontal extent of the inclined seating be re-established. In many cases the full structure of the inclined seating has been destroyed beyond the point where this can be measured, or at the least would require a great deal more excavation than that required for the measurement of the track length. Seating capacity may vary from around 15,000 people at Gerasa (Jordan), to 150,000 (some estimates put it up to 250,000) at the Circus Maximus (Italy).

Orientation

Circuses do not appear to have been constructed with any special compass orientation. Those that are well identified can be found with their round ends oriented around the compass. Examples include: N. Gerasa (Jordan); NE. Antinoöpolis (Egypt); E. Circus of Maxentius (Italy); E. Colchester (Britain); SE. Circus Maximus (Italy); S. Tyrus (Lebanon); SW. Gortyn (Greece); W. Circus of Nero (Italy).

Relative location

Circuses can be found at three distinct locations relative to the towns to which they belong:

• outside the city walls at anything up to 1.5 km distant, as at: Gerasa (Jordan) (c300m), and Leptis Magna (Libya) (1.5 km).
• simply within the town walls, as at: Thessalonica (Greece).
• inside the walls, in the heart of the town, and an integral part of the architectural power structure of the town, as at: Rome, Sirmium (Serbia) and Tarraco (Spain).

Carceres

The carceres, or starting gates, had a distinctive, slanted, slightly curved, plan form, designed to compensate for what would otherwise be significant differences in the distances from the individual starting gates to the start of the first section of straight track on the right hand side of the spina (as seen from the carceres). The carceres were designed for the races to be run round the spina in an anticlockwise direction.

The form of the carceres appears to have been standardised throughout the Roman world. The similarity in form among the carceres of circuses of many different sizes suggests that carceres were constructed according to a series of proportional mathematical relationships or formulas. It is not clear when the earliest carceres of the standardised form was constructed, nor whether there exists documentary evidence for the existence of such formulas.

Some of the best examples of carceres can be found at: Gerasa (Jordan) and the Circus of Maxentius (Italy).

Best preserved

The best preserved circuses include: Emerita Augusta (Spain), Caesarea Maritima (coastal) (Israel), Circus of Maxentius (Italy), Gerasa (Jordan), Tyrus (Lebanon), Leptis Magna (Libya).

List of Roman circuses

Unless otherwise indicated the coordinates in the following list are of a point that lies within the space of a circus. For the remaining circuses (those whose detailed location is not known) the point is for a location within the space of the historic nucleus of the associated town, or for a location within the associated archaeological site. These points are probably within 1.5 kilometres of the site of the circus, as a circus was almost always within this distance from its associated town.

(ordered initially by country; number of circuses at latest count (2012-04-01): 63)

See also

• Ancient Rome portal

• Hippodrome – a Greek arena also used for chariot racing

References

1. Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 1776, Chapter 31 - Games and spectacles, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/gibbon/decline/files/volume1/chap31.htm#game
2. Michael Gagarin; Elaine Fantham, eds. (2009). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1. Oxford University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6.
3. Circus Maximus#History of Construction.
4. King, Charles William (1885). Handbook of Engraved Gems (2nd ed.). London: George Bell and Sons. pp. 219–20.
5. [Auzia] Names of cities in Algerie in (A.D. 138) Roman times and names now from E-DZ Community | Education & Learning | Algerian History, Culture, Art, Law, Politics (order by start date; start date: 21 Dec 2008).
6. John H. Humphrey: Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1986, ISBN 0-520-04921-7.
7. [Cherchell] The Circus | Cherchel at circusmaximus.us.
8. [Setif] The Circus | Circus at Setif at circusmaximus.us.
9. [Antinopolis] Wikimapia location: Antinopolis.
10. [Camulodunum] THE ROMAN CIRCUS VICTRICENSIS IN COLCHESTER Archived 2013-02-07 at the Wayback Machine.
11. [Camulodunum] Colchester Archaeological Trust.
12. [Camulodunum] Roman Circus 200 m south of Abbey House, EHER/SMR Number 46327 at Unlocking Essex's Past website from Heritage Conservation at Essex County Council.
13. [Arelate] Cirque romain Archived 2008-11-26 at the Wayback Machine (in French), at Patrimoine de la Ville d'Arles Archived 2012-02-07 at the Wayback Machine | Ville d'Arles Archived 2012-02-04 at the Wayback Machine | Barriol / Plan-du-Bourg Archived 2012-02-29 at the Wayback Machine.
14. [Arelate] Cirque romain d'Arles Archived 2012-05-02 at the Wayback Machine at Arles Office de Tourisme | Visit | Places to visit Archived 2012-03-12 at the Wayback Machine.
15. [Arelate] Cirque romain | Description Archived 2012-02-29 at the Wayback Machine (in French), at Patrimoine de la Ville d'Arles Archived 2012-02-07 at the Wayback Machine | Ville d'Arles Archived 2012-02-04 at the Wayback Machine | Barriol / Plan-du-Bourg Archived 2012-02-29 at the Wayback Machine.
16. [Arelate] Wikimapia location: Arelate.
17. [Arelate] The Circus | Arles at circusmaximus.us.
18. [Lugdunum] Cirque antique de Lyon and Cirque antique de Lyon#Hypothèses de localisation (in French).
19. Raymond G. Chase: Ancient Hellenistic and Roman amphitheatres, stadiums, and theatres: the way they look now. P. E. Randall, Portsmouth 2002, ISBN 1-931807-08-6
20. [Vienna] The Circus | Vienne at circusmaximus.us.
21. [Augusta Treverorum] satellite photo from LIVIUS Articles on Ancient History | Germania Inferior | Topography | Augusta Treverorum (Trier) | Trier: Circus.
22. [Augusta Treverorum] Wikimapia location: Augusta Treverorum Roman circus.
23. [Augusta Treverorum] Archäologie in Trier (in German) from Universität Trier | Organisation | Fachbereiche und Fächer | Fachbereich III Archived 2012-03-02 at the Wayback Machine | Klassische Archäologie | Was | Archäologie in Trier.
24. [Augusta Treverorum] Trier: Circus at LIVIUS Articles on Ancient History | Germania Inferior | Topography | Augusta Treverorum (Trier).
25. [Corinth] A Roman Circus in Corinth at History journals – Hesperia, paper reference: David Gilman Romano, "A Roman Circus in Corinth," in Hesperia 74, 2005, pp. 585–611.
26. [Corinth] Figure 11. Roman Corinth, ca. A.D. 50, and a portion of the land divided between the long walls illustrating the north–south roadways. from Corinth Computer Project | Greek and Roman Corinth | 44 BC – Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthiensis (Figure 11).
27. [Corinth] Figure 11. Roman Corinth, ca. A.D. 50, and a portion of the land divided between the long walls illustrating the north–south roadways from Corinth Computer Project | Greek and Roman Corinth | Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthiensis, 44 BC (Figure 11).
28. [Corinth] Wikimapia location: Corinth Roman circus (hypothesised and partially excavated location).
29. [Gortyn] Map of Gortyn (Gortina – Planta Archaeologica Dela Citta) at romanaqueducts.info | Roman Aqueducts Archived 2012-06-16 at the Wayback Machine | AQUASITE: Information on 50 selected Roman aqueducts | Gortyn(a) (Greece / Crete).
30. [Gortyn] Wikimapia location: Gortyn Roman circus.
31. [Gortyn] The Circus | Circus of Gortyn at circusmaximus.us.
32. [Nicopolis] Wikimapia location: Nicopolis Roman circus.
33. [Thessalonica] Wikimapia location: Thessalonica Roman circus.
34. [Thessalonica] archaeological map of walled historical centre of Thessalonica.
35. [Caesarea Maritima] The Circus | Caesarea at circusmaximus.us.
36. [Caesarea Maritima (coastal)] Wikimapia location: Caesarea Maritima Roman circus (coastal).
37. [Caesarea Maritima (inland)] Wikimapia location: Caesarea Maritima Roman circus (inland).
38. [Aquileia] The Circus | Aquileia at circusmaximus.us.
39. [Aquileia] Wikimapia location: Aquileia Roman circus.
40. [Bovillae] L'antica Bovillae | Il Circo di Bovillae (in Italian) at parcodibovillae.org | PROTEZIONE DELL'AREA DELL'ANTICA BOVILLAE (in Italian).
41. [Bovillae] English page | The Roman stadium of Boville at parcodibovillae.org | PROTEZIONE DELL'AREA DELL'ANTICA BOVILLAE (in Italian).
42. [Bovillae] Wikimapia location: Bovillae Roman circus.
43. [Mediolanum] The Circus | Milan at circusmaximus.us.
44. [Mediolanum] Wikimapia location: Mediolanum Roman circus.
45. [Mediolanum] J.H.Humphrey, Roman Circuses, Londra 1986, p.614.
46. [Mediolanum] Wikimapia location: Milan Roman circus (tower at the north western corner).
47. [Circus Flaminius] Wikimapia location: Circus Flaminius, Rome.
48. [Circus Flaminius] Circus Flaminius.
49. [Circus Flaminius] Circus Flaminius – Samuel Ball Platner, 1929, via http://penelope.uchicago.edu/ at the University of Chicago.
50. [Circus of Maxentius] Wikimapia location: Circus of Maxentius, Rome.
51. [Circus of Maxentius] The Circus | Maxentius at circusmaximus.us.
52. [Circus Maximus] Circus Maximus#Republican era.
53. [Circus of Nero] Wikimapia location: Circus of Nero (location of the spina obelisk until 1586).
54. [Circus of Nero] Wikimapia location: Circus of Nero (location of the obelisk since 1586).
55. [Circus of Nero] The Circus | Vatican Circus at circusmaximus.us.
56. [Circus Varianus] Wikimapia location: Circus Varianus, Rome.
57. [Circus Varianus] Circo Variano at Italian Wikipedia.
58. [Circus Varianus] The Circus | Varianus at circusmaximus.us.
59. [Gadara] Gadara (Umm Quais) Topographische Bestandkarte 2007 (archaeological site map) Archived 2013-05-22 at the Wayback Machine from Research projects | geographical order | Gadara/Umm Qais (Jordanien) Archived 2012-04-12 at the Wayback Machine at Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) Archived 2012-02-10 at the Wayback Machine.
60. [Gadara] Wikimapia location: Gadara hippodrome.
61. [Gerasa] Wikimapia location: Gerasa Roman circus.
62. [Gerasa] The Circus | Gerasa at circusmaximus.us.
63. [Berytus] Wikimapia location: Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus Roman hippodrome.
64. [Tyrus] Wikimapia location: Tyrus Roman circus.
65. [Tyrus] The Circus | Tyre at circusmaximus.us.
66. [Cyrene] Wikimapia location: Cyrene Roman circus.
67. [Cyrene] The Circus | Circus at Cyrene at circusmaximus.us.
68. [Leptis Magna] Wikimapia location: Leptis Magna Roman circus.
69. [Leptis Magna] The Circus | Leptis Magna at circusmaximus.us.
70. [Aeminium] Aeminium at Museu Nacional de Machado de Castro Archived 2011-09-03 at the Wayback Machine | English Version.
71. [Aeminium] Aeminium Archived January 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine (in Portuguese), at Museu Nacional de Machado de Castro | Mini-Sítios.
72. [Aeminium] Wikimapia location: suggested location for Aeminium Roman circus.
73. [Balsa] O Urbanismo de Balsa Romana (from 8:50; dimensions given at 9:11) at Campo Arqueológico de Tavira.
74. [Miróbriga] Wikimapia location: Miróbriga Roman circus.
75. [Miróbriga] The Circus | Circus of Mirobriga at circusmaximus.us.
76. [Olissipona] A Cronologia do Circo de Olisipo by IPPAR (now IGESPAR); published as: Revista Portuguesa de Arqueologia. volume 5. número 2. 2002, pp 245–275, "A Cronologia do Circo de Olisipo: a Terra Sigillata", Eurico Sepúlveda and others.
77. [Sirmium] archaeological plan of Roman Sirmium from Sirmium Palatium Imperiale at Carska Palata Sirmium.
78. [Sirmium] Sirmium#Archeological findings.
79. [Calagurris] Cidade | Turismo | Monumentos | Arqueología Romana at Ayuntamiento de Calahorra Archived 2003-05-31 at the Wayback Machine.
80. [Calagurris] Wikimapia location: Calagurris Roman circus.
81. [Cáparra] Wikimapia location: Cáparra Roman circus.
82. [Cáparra] Cáparra at Spanish Wikipedia.
83. [Corduba] Wikimapia location: Corduba Roman circus.
84. [Corduba] Cordoba Roman circus Archived 2012-08-30 at the Wayback Machine at Artencordoba.com | Roman Córdoba Archived 2012-01-28 at the Wayback Machine (see also: plan of Roman Cordoba Archived 2012-08-26 at the Wayback Machine; and: detailed location map of the circus^{[dead link]}).
85. [Emerita Augusta] Wikimapia location: Emerita Augusta Roman circus.
86. [Emerita Augusta] The Circus | Emerita Augusta at circusmaximus.us.
87. [Italica] Roman sites by list | Spain | Italica at Imperium Roman sites.
88. [Saguntum] Wikimapia location: Saguntum Roman circus.
89. [Saguntum] Roman sites by list | Spain | Sagunto at Imperium Roman sites.
90. [Saguntum] Wikimapia location: Saguntum Roman circus (excavated gate).
91. [Saguntum] Wikimapia location: Saguntum Roman circus (information, including dimensions, in Spanish).
92. [Saguntum] The Circus | Segunto at circusmaximus.us.
93. [Tarraco] Roman Art | Public Spectacles architecture | Circus of Tarraco in Tarragona | Roman Circus of Tarraco, at Tarragona at SpanishArts.com.
94. [Tarraco] The Circus | Tarragona at circusmaximus.us.
95. [Toletum] The Circus | Toledo at circusmaximus.us.
96. [Toletum] Wikimapia location: Toletum Roman circus.
97. [Toletum] Wikimapia location: Toletum Roman circus (curved end).
98. [Zafra] Zafra#Roman era (article accessed: 2012-03-01).
99. [Bostra] Plan de l'Ancienne Ville de Bosra montrant l'emplacement de tous les monuments connus. B&W, 37 x 25 cm, scale by approximation ~ 1:6,100. Shows in red the boundaries of the site at UNESCO | Ancient City of Bosra.
100. [Bostra] Plan de Bosra (circus identified as a hippodrome) from In-Depth History | Plan of the City | Plan of the City at Bosracity.com | English.
101. [Bostra] Wikimapia location: Nova Trajana Bostra Roman circus.
102. [Bostra] The Circus | Bostra at circusmaximus.us.
103. [Abthugni]+[Commodum (as: Mun. Aur. Comm.)] map from DocArtis | Progetti | TUNISIA: Projet de gestion du patrimoine culturel | Bibliografie | B0000018 | Pflaum H. G., Romanisation de l'ancien territoire de la Carthage punique; The full article and map can be found from: Pflaum H. G., "Romanisation de l'ancien territoire de la Carthage punique" - in Antiquités africaines, 4, 1970. pp. 75-118. (the full map is on the last page; a high resolution version of the complete map may be obtained by using the scaling facilities of the site to enlarge the map, and then saving the resulting image).
104. [Abthugni] Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, Edited by Richard J. A. Talbert, Map 32 Carthago; textual directory to map available from: http://press.princeton.edu/B_ATLAS.ZIP | BATL032_.PDF Archived 2013-05-07 at the Wayback Machine (reference to Abthugni and Henchir-es-Souar on directory page 494 (PDF page 2)).
105. [Abthugni] Hennchir Kasbat es Souar: Tunisia, SOURCE: National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, Bethesda, MD, USA.
106. [Abthugni (as: 'Ruins' at ref: NJ 32-15/510322)]+[Commodum (as: 'Henchir Boucha (ruins)' at ref: NJ 32-15/498358)] on map: NJ 32-15 Tunis, Tunisia from Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection | Tunisia Maps | Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, Joint Operations Graphic 1:250,000.
107. [Abthugni] ZAGHOUAN (search for 'A00030'), from Docartis | Tunisia | Patrimonio archeologico e storico | Siti complessi e monumenti | Gestion du patrimoine culturel de la Tunisie - Liste des monuments et décrets par gouvernorat (search for 'Zaghouan').
108. [Abthugni] Décret du 13 mars 1912 (24 rabia-el-aoual 1330), page 2 (search for 'Henchir Souar'), from Docartis | Tunisia | Patrimonio archeologico e storico | Decreti di protezione | Liste Decrets (search for '14, Décret du 13 mars 1912 (24 rabia-el-aoual 1330)') | Décret du 13 mars 1912 (24 rabia-el-aoual 1330).
109. [Abthugni] aerial photograph from Docartis | Tunisia | Fonti documentarie | Foto aeree | PHOTOS AERIENNES (search for 'Henchir Souar, A00030').
110. [Abthugni] Wikimapia location: Henchir Souar.
111. [Carthago] The Circus | Carthage Circus at circusmaximus.us.
112. [Carthago] Wikimapia location: Carthago Roman circus.
113. [Commodum] site no. 028.113, Henchir Fraxine/Henchir Bou Cha (anc. Municipium Aurelium Commodum) (doc page: 98; PDF page: 99)(gives UTM coordinates: 358,900N; 498,350E = approx: 36 deg 32' N, 9 deg 53' E) from Institut National du Patrimoine Tunisie | Archaeological Map | Carte National des Sites Arqueologiques e des Monuments Historiques | Bir Mcherga 028 | Cahier BIR MCHERGA 028. (in French)
114. [Hadrumetum] Wikimapia location: Sousse Roman circus (probable location).
115. [Hadrumetum] Sousse Archaeological Bulletin (especially PDF pages: 16, 17, 19, 204, 239, 410) "SOCIÉTÉ ARCHÉOLOGIQUE DE SOUSSE, Assemblée générale du 29 Février 1903, Extraits des procès-verbaux des réunions." etc., from Institut National du Patrimoine Tunisie / National Heritage Institute (INP) | Digital Library | Sousse Archaeological Bulletin (near bottom of page). (in French)
116. [Hadrumetum] aerial photograph of Sousse from DocArtis | Progetti | TUNISIA: Projet de gestion du patrimoine culturel | Fonti documentarie | Foto aeree | PHOTOS AERIENNES | Sousse ville. | A00219.
117. [Thugga] Dougga#Dougga's "liberty".
118. [Thugga] Wikimapia location: Thugga Roman circus (approximate location).
119. [Thugga] Délimitation du site culturel de Dougga. A3. Scale by calculation ~ 1: 6,250. Shows boundaries and buffer zone of the World Heritage property from UNESCO – Culture – World Heritage Centre – The List – World Heritage List – Dougga / Thugga – Maps.
120. [Thugga] THE GERMAN-TUNISIAN PROJECT AT DOUGGA FIRST RESULTS OF THE EXCAVATIONS SOUTH OF THE MAISON DU TRIFOLIUM (page 47).
121. [Thugga] PlanetWare.com > Africa and the Middle East > Tunisia > Tunisia Tourist Attractions > Dougga Tourist Attractions | Circus.
122. [Thugga] Dougga#Circus.
123. [Thugga] The Circus | Dougga at circusmaximus.us.
124. [Thysdrus] Wikimapia location: Thysdrus Roman circus.
125. [Thysdrus] The Circus | El Djem at circusmaximus.us.
126. [Utica] Cahier Ghar el Melh (NO-SO) from Institut National du Patrimoine Tunisie | Archaeological Map | Carte National des Sites Arqueologiques e des Monuments Historiques | 007 Ghar el Melh.
127. [Utica] Utica, Tunisia at British School at Rome – Accademia Britannica di Archeologia, Storia e Belle Arti – Research – Archaeology – Geophysics – Geophysics Projects (search for 'Utica, Tunisia').
128. [Utica] Wikimapia location: Utica Roman circus (uncorroborated).
129. [Utica] Wikimapia location: Utica Roman circus (probable).
130. [Utica] 'Survey and Excavation at Utica 2010' by Nabil Kallala, Elizabeth Fentress, Josephine Quinn, Andrew Wilson (maps on pages 11 and 12).
131. [Antioch] The Circus | Antioch at circusmaximus.us.
132. [Antioch] map Ancient City of Antioch Archived December 30, 2005, at the Wayback Machine from a past exhibition at the Cleveland Museum of Art.
133. [Antioch] Wikimapia location: ancient city of Antioch.
134. [Antioch] Wikimapia location: Antioch Roman hippodrome.
135. [Aphrodisias] Wikimapia location: Aphrodisias Roman circus/hippodrome/stadium.
136. [Aphrodisias] The Circus | Aphrodisia at circusmaximus.us.
137. [Byzantium] Hippodrome of Constantinople#History and use.
138. [Byzantium] Hippodrome of Constantinople#The Hippodrome today.
139. [Byzantium] The Circus | Constantinople at circusmaximus.us.
140. [Laodicea on the Lycus] Wikimapia location: Laodicea on the Lycus Roman stadium or circus.
141. [Nicomedia] The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites | NICOMEDIA NW Turkey at Perseus Digital Library | Collections/Texts | Perseus Collection | Greek and Roman Materials (search for 'The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites').
142. [Nicomedia] KocaeLi - information on historical remains at Izmit (ancient Nicomedia).
143. [Nicomedia] Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality | History of Kocaeli.

External links

• Cyrene
• Ondernemen.in: List of circus-hippodrome structures
• Google Earth file containing several locations