Southeastern Pomo, also known by the dialect names Elem Pomo, Koi Nation Lower Lake Pomo and Sulfur Bank Pomo, is one of seven distinct languages comprising the Pomoan language family of Northern California. In the language's prime, Southeastern Pomo was spoken primarily in an area surrounding East Lake and Lower Lake, in Lake County, along the eastern coast of Clear Lake, in Northern California by the Pomo people.[2][3] Southeastern Pomos inhabited an area on the northern bank of Cache Creek, and the Sulfur Bank Rancheria. Dialectal differences between the two sites of habitation seem to be minimal, and may be limited to a small number of lexical differences.[4]
Southeastern Pomo has six vowels, as depicted in the following table. Vowels that are inserted via epenthesis sometimes depend upon the adjacent consonants. Because of the variability of inserted vowels, they have been hypothesized to be excrescent. Southeastern Pomo is the only language in the Pomoan language family with only a marginal vowel length distinction.
The consonants in Southeastern Pomo are as laid out in the following table. Following Moshinsky (1974), at a systematic phonemic and abstract phonemic level, the parenthesized segments could be removed from the inventory.[4] The voiced stop /d/ can in some cases be retroflex, as in the production of the word [x̣óḍoḍ] 'gopher snake'. The ejective stops of /k/ and /q/ are often distinguished by articulatory position.
Words are stressed on the first syllable. Although, in some cases a short epenthetic vowel is inserted to break up word-initial consonant clusters. Examples of these cases are:
In cases of loanwords, which are often borrowed from Spanish (similar to the examples above), the stress is changed from later stresses that are found in the Spanish language to an initial stress. Some examples of words that are borrowed from Spanish are as follows:
Primary stress is applied to the first stem vowel within the categories of noun and verb, this vowel is also often the first phonemic vowel in the word. Although there are two distinct exceptions to this rule: when a directional prefix comes before the vowel and in reduplication, when the vowel is the second occurrence in the stem.
Examples of this, as noted by Moshinsky (1974) are:
In this phonological rule, /m/ and /l/ become syllabic when they precede a consonant which has the same point or articulation. Examples of this are as follows:
This rule is as follows: d → ø / _ C
D-deletion occurs when it appears before a consonant, and Moshinsky (1974) has hypothesized that this may occur in order to eliminate two-consonant clusters when the first consonant is an alveolar stop or resonant. Some examples of d-deletion in Southeastern Pomo are:
This rule inserts a schwa between stem-initial consonants, preceding the stress vowel. This phonological process most often appears in the most difficult to articulate constant clusters, such as two stops.
This rule lowers /i/ and /u/ to /e/ and /o/, respectively. This lowering occurs morpheme-finally: /i/ lowering before /s/, /u/ before /cʹ/ and both /i/ and /u/ lowering before /l/.
This rule metathesizes the last two segments of the suffix -mkʹu- when it is directly preceded by a consonant.
Noun morphology is significantly more limited than among verbs. However, there are still some cases of morphological rules.
There are some nouns that show reduplication. As noted by Moshinsky (1974), these nouns include derived verbs, and the semantic domains of small animals, plants and birds. Below are a few examples of nouns with reduplication in the Southeastern Pomo language:
Verbs take a great variety of suffixes divided into many position classes. There are also instrumental prefixes that figure crucially in the use of many verb stems.
Moshinsky (1974) identifies the following position classes; it can be seen that there is far more complexity in the set of suffixes than in the prefixes.
There are six verb affixes that are realized phonologically by reduplication, and they are as follows:
Many, but not all, verb stems that occur with reduplication can also occur without it. There are four reduplication rules for verbs (two of which are minor), that accompany the reduplicative morphemes in the above table.
Reduplication 1. Stem reduplication, (Directional Prefix) + (Instrumental Prefix) + Root → (DP)+(IP)+Root+(IP)+Root
Reduplication 2. Directional prefix + -o-
Reduplication 3. Stem-final Consonant Loss (minor rule)
Reduplication 4. Root+Suffix (minor rule), Root+Suffix → Root+Suffix+Root+Suffix
Instrumental prefixes in Southeastern Pomo are significantly more limited than other Pomo languages. Moshinsky (1974) found that this is the result of a pre-Southeastern Pomo phonological rule which deleted an unstressed vowel that preceded the stressed root vowel, reducing in shape from CV- to C-.[4] Because many of the prefixes are now rather similar, there is reduced analyzability of their meanings. The instrumental prefixes are as follows:
As noted by Sally McLendon (1973), most of the prefixes are cognate with prefixes in Pomoan languages.[5] Among those that are not direct cognates with the prefixes in these other languages, they are highly related. An example of this with two languages in the Pomoan family is c- 'with the front end, by flowing water';, which is cognate with Kashaya /cû/ and may be related to Eastern Pomo /ku-/.
While Moshinsky (1974) notes that Southeastern Pomo has a somewhat free word order, and that sentences are often generated in the neutral order, Southeastern Pomo is a largely SOV language.[6]
Some examples of this are as follows:
Object-Verb sentences are also exemplified in the Moshinsky grammar:[4]
Southeastern Pomo is classified as a nominative-accusative in nature. Some examples of this syntactic feature, as noted by Bernard Comrie[7] are:[8]
Southeastern Pomo also has various switch references that come through in a number of sentences. The categories for each sentence type are outlined below with some examples of how they are used in Southeastern Pomo.
-fla 'sequential action', affixed to the verb of the first sentence
-yukin 'sequential actions, different subjects', this suffix conjoins sentences with sequentially occurring events but that have different subjects
-day 'simultaneous actions', this suffix conjoins sentences in which the actions are occurring simultaneously, and can include either the same or different subjects
-fed 'conditional', conjoins two sentences, when the second of which is conditional upon the first
-qat 'contingent actions', this suffix conjoins two sentences in which the actions occur either simultaneously or sequentially, and can be used when the subject is the same or differs between the sentences
-miṭ 'contingent actions, same subject', conjoins two sentences with the same subject in which the actions are connected or simultaneous