The Hunnic invasion of the Gupta Empire was a pivotal event in ancient Indian history, facilitated by the administrative structure of the Gupta Empire, notably its feudal system. This structure allowed the Huna king to garner support from local chiefs, aiding in their invasion. The inscriptions discovered in Eran shed light on this dynamic.
During the reign of Budhagupta, the inscription dated to Gupta era 165 (484 AD) highlights constructions by Maharaja Matrivshnu and his brother Dhanyavishnu. However, following Matrivshnu's demise, Dhanyavishnu's inscription during the rule of Toramana Sahi Jauvla indicates his allegiance shift to the Huna invader, likely occurring after 484 AD.
Another inscription from Gupta era 191 (510 AD) recounts a battle where King Bhanugupta fought against the Hunas, resulting in the death of his general Goparaja. This battle aimed to halt Huna incursions into eastern Malwa or expel them from the region. The exact date of Huna occupation remains uncertain, but Toramana likely established his rule in Malwa around 510 AD.
The Eran inscription of Bhanugupta has undergone different translations, leading to varying interpretations. Initially translated in 1888, it suggested Bhanugupta's encounter with Toramana in 510 CE. However, a revised translation in 1981 indicates a battle against the "Maittras," possibly the Maitrakas, eliminating the suggestion of a battle with Toramana.
A decisive battle in Malwa saw Bhanugupta's defeat by Toramana, leading to the Huna conquest of the region. Toramana's conquest extended to Magadha, forcing Gupta Emperor Narasimhagupta Baladitya to retreat to Bengal. Toramana's inscription in Eran confirms his rule over eastern Malwa.
Toramana's reign marked a period of political upheaval, with his conquests stretching from Uttar Pradesh to Gauda. His strategic approach leveraged internal discord within the Gupta empire, consolidating his power in central provinces. Toramana was finally defeated by local Indian rulers, with King Prakashadharma defeating him in 515 CE, marking the end of the First Hunnic War.
The Manjusri-mula-kalpa notes Toramana's death in Benares as he returned westward from battles with Narasimhagupta. The Hunnic defeat led to their retreat to Punjab, ending the First Hunnic War and reshaping the political landscape of ancient India.
The Huna Volkerwanderung
The term post-Indic Völkerwanderung was first coined by an English historian Arnold J. Toynbee in the context when Gupta Empire was quivered to its roots. Considering that their earlier invasions had been repulsed by Chandragupta II and Skandagupta but the continuous incursions weakened the empire and trembled its internal affairs so well that they reduced them to a mere vassalage of the Hunas.[4]
Map of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom at its maximum extent, circa 180 BC.Extent of the Shungas after repulsing the Greek invasions c. 150 BCE.[5]
If we look to the archaic and mediaeval periods of Indian history, the greatest compulsion to which the empires of the Ganga Valley were openly faced, came from the North-Western gates of Indian subcontinent. As indicated, the Indus basin was an area of great allurement for the Central and Western Asiatic hordes, who never missed any opportunity to exploit the weakened Gangetic empires. For instance, the fall of the Maurya Empire was associated with the successive invasions into the hinterland of the empire made by Bactrians, and the Indo-Greeks. Although some gangetic empires endeavoured to impede these foreign aggression, For example, The Shungas halted the Indo Greek invasions but they could not retain the old glory of Chandragupta Maurya, which further resulted in a successive foreign invasions by Sakas, Kushan and Hunnic hordes.[6]The onslaught of the Hunas adhered the uniform geographical pattern which had been abided by the Indo-Greeks in the post-Maurya era and was to be adhered to by the Turkic peoples in the medieval dates. Like the Indo-Greeks and the Turkic peoples, the Hunas first amalgamated their power in the Punjab. After the setback endured at the hands of Skandagupta they had afresh turned the spotlight on Persia. When they made incursions in 456 A. D. we find Yazdegird II relentless brawl against them. After his death in 457 A. D., Phiroz became the emperor of the Sassanian empire, but the Hephthalite king Akhshunwar thwarted him and coercive him to pay tribute. In 484 A. D. Phiroz ventured a campaign against the Hephthalites, but was defeated and killed.
"This success raised the power of the Huns to its greatest heights, and the end of the fifth century A. D., they ruled over an extensive empire with their ancestral capital at Balkh".
"This is the country which the Ye-thas destroyed, and afterwards set up a Tch'e-le (a tegin, prince or the member of the royal family) to be the king over the country; since which event two generations have passed."
It is evident by the statement of Sung-Yun that extended up to Gandhar at least two generations before his visit to Gandhar in c. 520 A.D. Though it's unknown under whom leadership that these hunas conquered Gandhar but according to S.R Goyal, it is likely to be Rāmāṇila who subjugated Gandhar whose successor was Toramana.[7]
Later came Toramana who amalgamated hunnic hordes in Punjab and further extended hunnic power up to Punjab. After consolidating in Punjab he launched a successive expedition in the Gupta domains when the empire was trembled by the internal strife as many emperors were getting either murdered or sidelined by tributary states. For instance a Jain work composed in 778 CE tells us that:
"Toramāṇa (written as Torarāya in one manuscript), who enjoyed the sovereignty of the world or Uttarāpatha, lived at Pavvaiyā on the bank of Chandrabhāgā (Chenab)"
— Kuvalayamālā.
Moreover, it tells that Harigupta who claimed to be a scion of the Gupta family was the instructor of Toramāṇa. Devagupta, a pupul of Harigupta is said to have a Rājarishi (Royal sage), the copper coins of Rasool Nagar and Panchala reaffirms the certainty of Harigupta.[6]
Recent discoveries of the two seals of Toramāṇa from Kaushambhi states that he reached at least up to Kaushambhi. S.R. Goyal agrees with this conjecture and is given a factual reasons for it, from the ancient periods of Indian history the invaders from north-west were always swept down up to Ganga valley and considering that Toramāṇa could not march up to Malwa without consolidating Kaushambhi was not possible. As a result, it is feasible that most of the upper Ganga valley had been conquered by Toramāṇa before he advanced as far as Eran.[6]
The First Hunnic War
Huna conquest of Malwa
The Huna conquest of the Gupta Empire was facilitated by the administrative structure of the empire, particularly its feudal system, which enabled the Huna king to gain the support of local chiefs. Notably, inscriptions found in Eran provide insight into this dynamic. One inscription, dating to Gupta era 165 (484 AD), documents constructions undertaken by Maharaja Matrivshnu and his brother Dhanyavishnu during the reign of Budhagupta. Another inscription, following Matrivshnu's death, details the temple construction by Dhanyavishnu during the rule of Toramana Sahi Jauvla, indicating his allegiance shift to the Huna invader. This transition likely occurred after 484 AD, within a generation of that date.[8]
Additionally, an inscription from Eran, dated Gupta era 191 (510 AD), recounts a battle where King Bhanugupta fought against the Hunas, resulting in the death of his general Goparaja. This engagement possibly aimed to halt Huna incursions into eastern Malwa or expel them from the region. If the former, Toramana's conquest of eastern Malwa could be dated to 510 AD, and if the latter, sometime prior to that year. While the exact date of Huna occupation in the region remains uncertain, it is plausible that Toramana established his rule in Malwa around 510 AD, considering the Huna incursions into India began after 500 AD, following their confinement to Gandhara.[9]
Bhanugupta is known from a stone pillar inscription in Eran, Malwa. The inscription was translated by John Faithfull Fleet in 1888, and then a second time in 1981, leading to different interpretations.
Initial translation (J.F Fleet 1888)
According to the initial translation of the Eran inscription (by John Faithful Fleet in 1888), Bhanugupta participated to a non-specific battle in 510 CE (Line 5).[10]
Eran pillar inscription of Goparaja
(Line 1) Ôm! In a century of years, increased by ninety-one; on the seventh lunar day of the dark fortnight of (the month) Srâvana; (or in figures) the year 100 (and) 90 (and) 1; (the month) Srâvana; the dark fortnight; the day 7: —
(Line 2)—(There was) a king, renowned under the name of . . . . râja, sprung from the . . laksha (?) lineage; and his son (was) that very valorous king (who was known) by the name (of) Mâdhava.
(Line 3)— His son was the illustrious Gôparâja, renowned for manliness; the daughter's son of the Sarabha king; who is (even) now (?) the ornament of (his) lineage.
(Line 5) — (There is) the glorious Bhanugupta, the bravest man on the earth, a mighty king, equal to Pârtha, exceedingly heroic; and, along with him, Gôparâja followed . . . . . . . . . . (his) friends (and came) here. [And] having fought a very famous battle, he, [who was but little short of being equal to] the celestial [king (Indra)], (died and) went to heaven; and (his) devoted, attached, beloved, and beauteous wife, in close companionship, accompanied (him) onto the funeral pyre.
— Eran inscription of Bhanugupta, 510 CE.[10]
This translation was the basis for various conjectures about a possible encounter with Toramana, the Alchon Huns ruler. It has been suggested that Bhanugupta was involved in an important battle of his time, and suffered important losses, possibly against the Hun invader Toramana, whom he may or may not have defeated in 510.[11][12] Mookerji actually considers, in view of the inscription, that Bhanugupta was vanquished by Toramana at this 510 CE Eran battle, so that the western Gupta province of Malwa fell into the hands of the Hunas at that point.[13] Toramana would then have made his Eran boar inscription, claiming control of the region.[13]
New translation (1981)
A new revised translation was published in 1981.[14] Verses 3-4 are markedly differently translated, in that ruler Bhanugupta and his chieftain or noble Goparaja are said to have participated in a battle against the "Maittras" in 510 CE, thought to be the Maitrakas (the reading being without full certainty, but "as good as certain" according to the authors).[14] This would eliminate the suggestion that Bhanugupta alluded to a battle with Toramana in his inscription.
The Maitrakas ruled in the areas of Gujarat and Western India. According to the 1981 translation, they may have been the adversaries of Gupta ruler Bhanugupta.[14]
(Lines 1-2) Ōm ! When a century of years, increased by ninety-one, (had elapsed) on the seventh lunar day of the dark fortnight of (the month) Śrāvaṇa, (or in figures) the year 100 (and) 90 (and) 1 (the month) Śrāvaṇa the dark fortnight; the (lunar) day 7;-
(Verse 1) (there was) a ruler, renowned as . . . . rāja sprung from the Śulakkha lineage; and his son (was) valorous by the name (of) Mādhava.
(Verse 2) His son was the illustrious Goparaja, renowned for manliness; the daughter’s son of the Sarabha king;1 who became the ornament of (his) family.
(Verses 3-4) (There is) the glorious Bhanugupta, a distinguished hero on earth, a mighty ruler, brave being equal to Pârtha. And along with him Goparaja, following (him) without fear, having overtaken the Maittras and having fought a very big and famous battle, went to heaven, becoming equal to Indra, the best of the gods; and (his) devoted, attached, beloved, and beauteous wife, clinging (to him), entered into the mass of fire (funeral pyre).
— Eran inscription of Bhanugupta, 510 CE.[14]
Bhanugupta in the inscription is only mentioned as a "Raja" and not a "Maharaja" or a "Maharajadhiraja" as would be customary for a Gupta Empire ruler. Therefore, he may only have been a Governor for the region of Malwa, under Gupta Emperor Narasimhagupta.[13]
Battle of Eran 510 CE, Sack of Kausambhi 497–500 CE and the Battle of Malwa 510 CE
A decisive battle occurred in Malwa, where a local Gupta ruler, probably a governor, named Bhanugupta was in charge. In the Bhanugupta Eran inscription, this local ruler reports that his army participated in a great battle in 510 CE at Eran, where it suffered severe casualties.[13] Bhanugupta was probably vanquished by Toramana at this battle, so that the western Gupta province of Malwa fell into the hands of the Hunas.[13]
According to a 6th-century CE Buddhist work, the Manjusri-mula-kalpa, Bhanugupta lost Malwa to the "Shudra" Toramana, who continued his conquest to Magadha, forcing Narasimhagupta Baladitya to make a retreat to Bengal. Toramana "possessed of great prowess and armies" then conquered the city of Tirtha in the Gauda country (modern Bengal).[16][Note 1] Toramana is said to have crowned a new king in Benares, named Prakataditya, who is also presented as a son of Narasimha Gupta.[13]
Having conquered the territory of Malwa from the Guptas, Toramana was mentioned in a famous inscription in Eran, confirming his rule on the region.[13] The Eran boar inscription of Toramana (in Eran, Malwa, 540 km south of New Delhi, state of Madhya Pradesh) of his first regnal year indicates that eastern Malwa was included in his dominion. The inscription is written under the neck of the boar, in 8 lines of Sanskrit in the Brahmi script. The first line of the inscription, in which Toramana is introduced as Mahararajadhidaja (The Great King of Kings),[21]: 79 reads:
In year one of the reign of the King of Kings Sri-Toramana, who rules the world with splendor and radiance...
The lord of the Earth, Toramana, having conquered the Earth, wins Heaven
— Toramana gold coin legend.[19][20]
The fact that the Alchon Huns issued gold coins, such as the Toramana issue, in addition to their silver and copper coins, suggest that their empire in India was quite rich and powerful.[22]
Kausambi
In the First Hunnic War (496–515),[1] the Alchon reached their maximum territorial extent, with King Toramana pushing deep into Indian territory, reaching Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh in Central India, and ultimately contributing to the downfall of the Gupta Empire.[25]: 162 To the south, the Sanjeli inscriptions indicate that Toramana penetrated at least as far as northern Gujarat, and possibly to the port of Bharukaccha.[2] To the east, far into Central India, the city of Kausambi, where seals with Toramana's name were found, was probably sacked by the Alkhons in 497–500, before they moved to occupy Malwa.[1][26][21]: 70 [27] In particular, it is thought that the monastery of Ghoshitarama in Kausambi was destroyed by Toramana, as several of his seals were found there, one of them bearing the name Toramana impressed over the official seal of the monastery, and the other bearing the title Hūnarāja ("King of the Huns"), together with debris and arrowheads.[23] Another seal, this time by Mihirakula, is reported from Kausambi.[23] These territories may have been taken from Gupta Emperor Budhagupta.[21]: 79 Alternatively, they may have been captured during the rule of his successor Narasimhagupta.[13]
Toramana and Prakasaditya
The success of Bhanugupta's campaign against the Hunas remains unspecified in the posthumous inscription of Goparaja. However, the absence of explicit mention of a great victory suggests a different outcome. Subsequent events, as chronicled in the Arya Manjulsri Mula Kalp, reinforce this notion. The narrative portrays Prakāśāditya, identified as the son of Bhanugupta, imprisoned by King Goparaja, possibly on the orders of his own father. Prakāśāditya's release by Hakarakhya (Toramana), who extended his dominion along the banks of the Ganga, signifies the inability of Bhanugupta to thwart Toramana's advance, with the latter eventually occupying much of the Ganga valley.[28]
This narration underscores Toramana's prowess as a conqueror and adept diplomat. His swift conquests effectively reduced the Gupta emperor to a vassal status. Numismatic evidence reveals Toramana's rule over regions including U.P., Rajputana, Punjab, and Kashmir, while textual sources suggest his victorious campaigns extended as far as Gauda. Toramana's strategic approach involved leveraging internal discord within the Gupta empire, thereby facilitating the consolidation of his power in central provinces. Notably, he preserved existing administrative structures and enlisted the support of ancient Gupta official families, exemplified by the case of Dhanyavishnu. Toramana's reign marked a significant period of political upheaval and realignment in ancient India, reshaping the dynamics of power in the region.[29]
Battle of Daśapura (515 CE)
Toramana was finally defeated by the local Indian rulers. The local ruler Bhanugupta is sometimes credited with vanquishing Toramana, as his 510 CE inscription in Eran, recording his participation in "a great battle", is vague enough to allow for such an interpretation. The "great battle" in which Bhanagupta participated is not detailed, and it is impossible to know what it was, or which way it ended, and interpretations vary.[30][31][32]Mookerji and others consider, in view of the inscription as well as the Manjusri-mula-kalpa, that Bhanugupta was, on the contrary, vanquished by Toramana at the 510 CE Eran battle, so that the western Gupta province of Malwa fell into the hands of the Hunas at that point,[13] so that Toramana could be mentioned in the Eran boar inscription, as the ruler of the region.[13]
Toramana was finally vanquished with certainty by an Indian ruler of the Aulikara dynasty of Malwa, after nearly 20 years in India. According to the Rīsthal stone-slab inscription, discovered in 1983, King Prakashadharma defeated Toramana in 515 CE.[1][2][3] The First Hunnic War thus ended with a Hunnic defeat, and Hunnic troops apparently retreated to the area of Punjab.[1] The Manjusri-mula-kalpa simply states that Toramana died in Benares as he was returning westward from his battles with Narasimhagupta.[13]
Notes
^"After the successful conclusion of the Eran episode, the conquering Hunas ultimately burst out of Eastern Malwa and swooped down upon the very heart of the Gupta empire. The eastern countries were overrun and the city of the Gaudas was occupied. The Manjusrimulakalpa gives a scintillating account of this phase of Toramana's conquest. It says that after Bhanugupta's defeat and discomfiture, Toramana led the Hunas against Magadha and obliged Baladitya (Narasimha-gupta Baladitya, the reigning Gupta monarch) to retire to Bengal. This great monarch (Toramana), Sudra by caste and possessed of great prowess and armies took hold of that position (bank of the Ganges) and commanded the country round about. That powerful king then invested the town called Tirtha in the Gauda country." in Upendra Thakur (1967). The Hūṇas in India. Vol. 58. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. p. 122. OCLC 551489665.
List of conflicts
Religious impact on the Hunas
Alchon devotee, Butkara I (construction phase 4), 5th century CE.[33]
The four Alchon kings Khingila, Toramana, Javukha, and Mehama are mentioned as donors to a Buddhist stupa in the Talagan copper scroll inscription dated to 492 or 493 CE, that is, at a time before the Hunnic wars in India started. This corresponds to a time when the Alchons had recently taken control of Taxila (around 460 CE), at the center of the Buddhist regions of northwestern India.[33] Numerous Alchon coins were found in the dedication compartment of the "Tope Kalān" stupa in Hadda.[34]
Mural with paintings of probable Alchon devotees can be seen in the Buddhist complex of the Butkara Stupa (Butkara I, construction phase 4). Dated to the 5th century CE, they suggest that the Alchon Huns may have been participants to the local Buddhist culture.[35]
Persecution of Buddhists
Later, however, the attitude of the Alchons towards Buddhism is reported to have been negative. Mihirakula in particular is remembered by Buddhist sources to have been a "terrible persecutor of their religion" in Gandhara in northern (modern day) Pakistan.[36] During his reign, over one thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed.[37] In particular, the writings of Chinese monk Xuanzang from 630 CE explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of Buddhism and the expulsion of monks.[25]: 162 Indeed, the Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particular Greco-Buddhist art, becomes essentially extinct around that period. When Xuanzang visited northwestern India in c. 630 CE, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.[38]
Although the Guptas were traditionally a Hindu dynasty,[39] around the period of the invasions of the Alchon the Gupta rulers had apparently been favouring Buddhism. According to contemporary writer Paramartha, Mihirakula's supposed nemesis Narasimhagupta Baladitya was brought up under the influence of the Mahayanist philosopher Vasubandhu.[39] He built a sangharama at Nalanda and a 300 ft (91 m) high vihara with a Buddha statue within which, according to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under the Bodhi tree". According to the Manjushrimulakalpa (c. 800 CE), king Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk, and left the world through meditation (Dhyana).[39] Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son Vajra, who also commissioned a sangharama, "possessed a heart firm in faith".[40]: 45 [41]: 330
The 12th century Kashmiri historian Kalhana also painted a dreary picture of Mihirakula's cruelty, as well as his persecution of the Buddhist faith:
Solar symbolism
In him, the northern region brought forth, as it were, another god of death, bent in rivalry to surpass... Yama (the god of death residing in the southern regions). People knew of his approach by noticing the vultures, crows and other birds flying ahead eager to feed on those who were being slain within his army's reach. The royal Vetala (demon) was day and night surrounded by thousands of murdered human beings, even in his pleasure houses. This terrible enemy of mankind had no pity for children, no compassion for women, no respect for the aged
The Alchons are generally described as sun worshipers, a traditional cult of steppe nomads. This stems from the appearance of sun symbols on some of their coins, combined with the probable influence they received from the worship of Surya in India.[43]
The Hindu Vaishnavite goddess Lakshmi, goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity and also an ancient goddess of Buddhism, also appears on the coinage of some rulers, especially Khingila,[44][45] and Toramana.
Mihirakula is also said to have been an ardent worshiper of Shiva,[46][47] although he may have been selectively attracted to the destructive powers of the Indian deity.[42]
^ a b cHans Bakker (16 July 2014). The World of the Skandapurāṇa. Leiden: BRILL. p. 34. ISBN 978-90-04-27714-4.
^ a bN. K. Ojha (2001). The Aulikaras of Central India: history and inscriptions. Chandigarh: Arun Pub. House. pp. 48–50. ISBN 978-81-85212-78-4.
^Goyal 1967, pp. 336–337.
^Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 145, map XIV.1 (c). ISBN 0-226-74221-0.
^ a b cGoyal 1967, pp. 336–341.
^Goyal 1967, p. 336-341.
^Goyal 1967, p. 341.
^Goyal 1967, pp. 341–342.
^ a bFleet 1888, p. 93.
^Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.220
^Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates by S. B. Bhattacherje p.A15
^ a b c d e f g h i j kRadhakumud Mookerji (1997). The Gupta Empire (5th ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 120. ISBN 978-81-208-0440-1.
^ a b c dCorpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol.3 (inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings) Main text p.352sq
^ALRAM, MICHAEL (2003). "Three Hunnic Bullae from Northwest India" (PDF). Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 17: 180, Figure 11. ISSN 0890-4464. JSTOR 24049314.
^Upendra Thakur (1967). The Hūṇas in India. Vol. 58. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. p. 122. OCLC 551489665.
^ a b"Coin Cabinet of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna". Archived from the original on 1 November 2019. Retrieved 23 July 2017.
^Fleet, John Faithfull (1960). Inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings And Their Successors. pp. 158–161.
^ a b"CNG: Feature Auction Triton XIX. HUNNIC TRIBES, Alchon Huns. Toramana. Circa 490-515. AV Dinar (18 mm, 9.53 g, 12h)". www.cngcoins.com. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
^ a b"The Identity of Prakasaditya by Pankaj Tandon, Boston University" (PDF). Retrieved 2 April 2023.
^ a b c dBindeshwari Prasad Sinha (1977). Dynastic History of Magadha, Cir. 450-1200 A.D. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. GGKEY:KR1EJ2EGCTJ.
^"This makes it quite clear that the Alchon Huns in India must have had a substantial and rich empire, with the capacity to issue a relatively large volume of gold coins." in TANDON, PANKAJ (7 July 2015). "The Identity of Prakāśāditya". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 25 (4): 668. doi:10.1017/S1356186315000346. hdl:2144/37851. S2CID 43869990. Full article
^ a b cGupta, Parmanand (1989). Geography from Ancient Indian Coins & Seals. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 174–175. ISBN 9788170222484.
^Indian Archaeology 1954–55 A review (PDF). p. 18.
^ a bJason Neelis (19 November 2010). Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia. Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-18159-5.
^ a bV.K. Agnihotri, ed. (2010). Indian History (26 ed.). New Delhi: Allied Publishers. p. 81. ISBN 978-81-8424-568-4.
^ a bParmanand Gupta (1989). Geography from Ancient Indian Coins & Seals. New DELHI: Concept Publishing Company. p. 175. ISBN 978-81-7022-248-4.
^Goyal 1967, pp. 342–343.
^Goyal 1967, pp. 343–344.
^Om Prakash Misra (2003). Archaeological Excavations in Central India: Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. New Delhi: Mittal Publications. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-7099-874-7.
^S. B. Bhattacherje (1 May 2009). Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates. Vol. A15. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 978-81-207-4074-7.
^R.K. Pruthi (2004). The Classical Age. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House. p. 262. ISBN 978-81-7141-876-3.
^ a bde la Vaissiere, Etienne (2007). "A Note on the Schøyen Copper Scroll: Bactrian or Indian?" (PDF). Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 21: 127. JSTOR i24047314. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
^Errington, Elizabeth (2017). Charles Masson and the Buddhist Sites of Afghanistan: Explorations, Excavations, Collections 1832–1835. British Museum. p. 34. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3355036.
^Alram, Michael; Filigenzi, Anna; Kinberger, Michaela; Nell, Daniel; Pfisterer, Matthias; Vondrovec, Klaus. "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012–2013 exhibit: 7. ALKHAN: KING KHINGILA AND THE CONSOLIDATION OF HUNNIC POWER IN NORTHWEST INDIA". Pro.geo.univie.ac.at. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Retrieved 16 July 2017.
^René Grousset (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1.
^Behrendt, Kurt A. (2004). Handbuch der Orientalistik. Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 9789004135956.
^Ann Heirman; Stephan Peter Bumbacher (11 May 2007). The Spread of Buddhism. Leiden: BRILL. p. 60. ISBN 978-90-474-2006-4.
^ a b cUpinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Delhi: Pearson Education India. p. 521. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
^Sukumar Dutt (1988) [First published in 1962]. Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. ISBN 81-208-0498-8.
^ a bAbraham Eraly (2011). The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. New Delhi: Penguin Books India. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-670-08478-4.
^J. Gordon Melton (15 January 2014). Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History: 5,000 Years of Religious History. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 455. ISBN 978-1-61069-026-3.
^Göbl, Robert (1967). Dokumente zur Geschichte der iranischen Hunnen in Baktrien und Indien (in German). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 90, Em. 91.
^Alram Alchon und Nēzak: Zur Geschichte der iranischen Hunnen in Mittelasien
^Krishna Chandra Sagar (1992). Foreign Influence on Ancient India. New Delhi: Northern Book Centre. p. 270. ISBN 978-81-7211-028-4.
^Lal Mani Joshi (1987). Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the Seventh and Eighth Centuries A.D. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 320. ISBN 978-81-208-0281-0.
^"He is credited with the building of the temple named Jyeshteswara on the Gopa (Sankaracharya) hill in Srinagar" in Bamzai, Prithivi Nath Kaul (1980). Kashmir and Central Asia. Light & Life Publishers. p. 63.
^Rezakhani 2017, p. 112.
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Fleet, J. F. (1888). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. Vol. 3. Calcutta: Government of India, Central Publications Branch.
Goyal, S. R. (1967). A History Of The Imperial Guptas. foreword by R.C. Majundar. Allahabad: Central Book Depot.
Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017). ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press. doi:10.1515/9781474400305. ISBN 978-1-4744-0030-5.
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