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Latin conjugation

In linguistics and grammar, conjugation has two basic meanings.[1] One meaning is the creation of derived forms of a verb from basic forms, or principal parts.

The second meaning of the word conjugation is a group of verbs which all have the same pattern of inflections. Thus all those Latin verbs which in the present tense have 1st singular -ō, 2nd singular -ās, and infinitive -āre are said to belong to the 1st conjugation, those with 1st singular -eō, 2nd singular -ēs and infinitive -ēre belong to the 2nd conjugation, and so on. The number of conjugations of regular verbs is usually said to be four.

The word "conjugation" comes from the Latin coniugātiō, a calque of the Greek συζυγία (syzygia), literally "yoking together (horses into a team)".

For examples of verbs and verb groups for each inflectional class, see the Wiktionary appendix pages for first conjugation, second conjugation, third conjugation, and fourth conjugation.

Number of conjugations

The ancient Romans themselves, beginning with Varro (1st century BC), originally divided their verbs into three conjugations (coniugationes verbis accidunt tres: prima, secunda, tertia "there are three different conjugations for verbs: the first, second, and third" (Donatus), 4th century AD), according to whether the ending of the 2nd person singular had an a, an e or an i in it.[2] However, others, such as Sacerdos (3rd century AD), Dositheus (4th century AD) and Priscian[3] (c. 500 AD), recognised four different groups.[4]

In modern times grammarians[5] generally recognise four conjugations according to the ending of the active infinitive: namely -āre, -ēre, -ere, or -īre, for example: (1) amō, amāre "to love", (2) videō, vidēre "to see", (3) regō, regere "to rule" and capiō, capere "to capture", (4) audiō, audīre "to hear". (3rd conjugation verbs ending in -iō such as capiō are sometimes known as "mixed conjugation" since they use a mixture of 3rd and 4th conjugation endings.)

In addition to regular verbs, which belong to one or other of the four regular conjugations, there are also a few irregular verbs, which have a different pattern of endings. The most frequent of these is the verb sum, esse "to be" together with its prefixed derivatives.

There also exist deponent Latin verbs, which though active in meaning have endings identical to the passive endings of ordinary verbs. Examples in the different conjugations are: (1) moror, morārī "to delay", (2) polliceor, pollicērī "to promise", (3) sequor, sequī "to follow" and regredior, regredī "to go back", (4) mentior, mentīrī "to lie (tell a lie)". Some verbs are semi-deponent, using passive forms for the perfect tenses only.

Principal parts

A verb's full paradigm relies on multiple stems. The present indicative active and the present infinitive are both based on the present stem.

It is not possible to infer the stems for other tenses from the present stem. This means that, although the infinitive active form normally shows the verb conjugation, knowledge of several different forms is necessary to be able to confidently produce the full range of forms for any particular verb.

In a dictionary, Latin verbs are listed with four "principal parts" (or fewer for deponent and defective verbs), which allow the student to deduce the other conjugated forms of the verbs. These are:

  1. the first person singular of the present indicative active
  2. the present infinitive active
  3. the first person singular of the perfect indicative active
  4. the supine or, in some grammars, the perfect passive participle, which uses the same stem. (Texts that list the perfect passive participle use the future active participle for intransitive verbs.) Some verbs lack this principal part altogether.

Regular conjugations

First conjugation

The first conjugation is characterized by the vowel ā and can be recognized by the -āre ending of the present active infinitive form. The infectum tenses conjugate as follows (see also their meaning):

* The 2nd person singular passive amāberis, amābāris, amēris, amārēris can be shortened to amābere, amābāre, amēre, amārēre. -re was the regular form in early Latin and (except in the present indicative) in Cicero; -ris was preferred later.[6]

In early Latin (Plautus), the 3rd singular endings -at and -et were pronounced -āt and -ēt with a long vowel.[6]

Other forms:

The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:

The verb dō "I give" is irregular in that except in the 2nd singular dās and imperative dā, the a is short, e.g. dabō "I will give".

The a is also short in the supine statum and its derivatives, but the other parts of stō "I stand" are regular.

Deponent verbs in this conjugation all follow the pattern below, which is the passive of the first type above:[7]

  • arbitror, arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum "to think"
  • cōnor, cōnārī, cōnātus sum "to try"
  • cūnctor, cūnctārī, cūnctātus sum "to hesitate"
  • hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum "to exhort"
  • mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum "to be surprised, to be amazed at"
  • moror, morārī, morātus sum "to delay, stay"

Perfect tenses

The three perfectum tenses of the 1st conjugation go as in the following table:

In poetry (and also sometimes in prose, e.g. Livy), the 3rd person plural of the perfect indicative is often amāvēre instead of amāvērunt. Occasionally the form amāverunt is also found.[8]

In early Latin, the future perfect indicative had a short i in amāveris, amāverimus, amāveritis, but by the time of Cicero these forms were usually pronounced with a long i, in the same way as in the perfect subjunctive.[9] Virgil has a short i for both tenses; Horace uses both forms for both tenses; Ovid uses both forms for the future perfect, but a long i in the perfect subjunctive.[10]

The -v- of the perfect active tenses sometimes drops out, especially in the pluperfect subjunctive: amāssem for amāvissem. Forms such as amārat and amāstī are also found.

The passive tenses also have feminine and neuter forms, e.g. amāta est "she was loved", nūntiātum est "it was announced".

Forms made with fuī instead of sum and forem instead of essem are also found, for example amātus fuī, amātus fuerō, amātus forem and so on, but these are not common in classical Latin. See Latin tenses.

For other meanings of the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive, see Latin tenses#Jussive subjunctive.

Other forms:

Second conjugation

The second conjugation is characterized by the vowel ē, and can be recognized by the -eō ending of the first person present indicative and the -ēre ending of the present active infinitive form:

The passive videor also often means "I seem".

Other forms:

The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:

In verbs with perfect in -vī, syncopated (i.e. abbreviated) forms are common, such as dēlēram, dēlēssem, dēlēstī for dēlēveram, dēlēvissem, dēlēvistī.[11]

Deponent verbs in this conjugation are few. They mostly go like the passive of terreō, but fateor and confiteor have a perfect participle with ss:[12]

  • fateor, fatērī, fassus sum "to confess"
  • mereor, merērī, meritus sum "to deserve"
  • polliceor, pollicērī, pollicitus sum "to promise"

The following are semi-deponent, that is, they are deponent only in the three perfect tenses:[13]

  • audeō, audēre, ausus sum "to dare"
  • gaudeō, gaudēre, gāvīsus sum "to rejoice, to be glad"
  • soleō, solēre, solitus sum "to be accustomed"

Third conjugation

The third conjugation has a variable short stem vowel, which may be e, i, or u in different environments. Verbs of this conjugation end in -ere in the present active infinitive. Deponent verbs have the infinitive -ī.

The future tense in the 3rd and 4th conjugation (-am, -ēs, -et etc.) differs from that in the 1st and 2nd conjugation (-bō, -bis, -bit etc.).

Other forms:

Four 3rd conjugation verbs usually have no ending in the imperative singular: dūc! "lead!", dīc! "say!", fer! "bring!", fac! "do!".

Others, like curre "run!", have the ending -e.[6]

There is no regular rule for constructing the perfect stem of third-conjugation verbs, but the following patterns are used:

Although dō, dare, dedī, datum "to give" is 1st conjugation, its compounds are 3rd conjugation and have internal reduplication:

  • condō, condere, condidī, conditum "to found"
  • crēdō, crēdere, crēdidī, crēditum "to entrust, believe"
  • dēdō, dēdere, dēdidī, dēditum "to surrender"
  • perdō, perdere, perdidī, perditum "to destroy, lose"
  • reddō, reddere, reddidī, redditum "to give back"
  • trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditum "to hand over"

Likewise the compounds of sistō have internal reduplication. Although sistō is transitive, its compounds are intransitive:[14]

  • sistō, sistere, (stitī), statum "to cause to stand"
  • cōnsistō, cōnsistere, cōnstitī, cōnstitum "to come to a halt"
  • dēsistō, dēsistere, dēstitī, dēstitum "to stand off"
  • resistō, resistere, restitī, restitum "to resist"

Deponent verbs in the 3rd conjugation include the following:

  • complector, complectī, complexus sum "to embrace"
  • fruor, fruī, frūctus sum "to enjoy" (fruitus is occasionally found)
  • fungor, fungī, fūnctus sum "to perform, discharge, busy oneself with"
  • lābor, lābī, lāpsus sum "to glide, slip"
  • loquor, loquī, locūtus sum "to speak"
  • nītor, nītī, nīxus sum "to lean on; to strive" (nīsus is occasionally found)
  • queror, querī, questus sum "to complain"
  • sequor, sequī, secūtus sum "to follow"
  • ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum "to use"
  • vehor, vehī, vectus sum "to ride"

There are also a number of 3rd conjugation deponents with the ending -scor:

  • adipīscor, adipīscī, adeptus sum "to obtain"
  • īrāscor, īrāscī, īrātus sum "to get angry"
  • nancīscor, nancīscī, nactus sum "to obtain"
  • nāscor, nāscī, nātus sum "to be born"
  • oblīvīscor, oblīvīscī, oblītus sum "to forget"
  • proficīscor, proficīscī, profectus sum "to set out"
  • ulcīscor, ulcīscī, ultus sum "to avenge, take vengeance on"

Deponent in some tenses only is the following:[13]

  • fīdō, fīdere, fīsus sum "to trust"

The following is deponent only in the infectum tenses:

  • revertor, revertī, revertī "to turn back"

Third conjugation -iō verbs

Intermediate between the third and fourth conjugation are the third-conjugation verbs with suffix –iō. These resemble the fourth conjugation in some forms.

Other forms:

Some examples are:

  • accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptum "to receive, accept"
  • capiō, capere, cēpī, captum "to take, capture"
  • cōnspiciō, cōnspicere, cōnspexī, cōnspectum "to watch, examine"
  • cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītum "to desire, long for"
  • faciō, facere, fēcī, factum "to do, to make"
  • fugiō, fugere, fūgī, fugitum "to flee"
  • iaciō, iacere, iēcī, iactum "to throw"
  • interficiō, interficere, interfēcī, interfectum "to kill"
  • rapiō, rapere, rapuī, raptum "to plunder, seize"
  • respiciō, respicere, respexī, respectum "to look back"

Deponent verbs in this group include:

  • aggredior, aggredī, aggressus sum "to attack"
  • ēgredior, ēgredī, ēgressus sum "to go out"
  • morior, morī, mortuus sum "to die"
  • patior, patī, passus sum "to suffer, to allow"
  • prōgredior, prōgredī, prōgressus sum "to attack"
  • regredior, regredī, regressus sum "to go back"

Fourth conjugation

The fourth conjugation is characterized by the vowel ī and can be recognized by the -īre ending of the present active infinitive. Deponent verbs have the infinitive -īrī:

Other forms:

Principal parts of verbs in the fourth conjugation generally adhere to the following patterns:

Deponent verbs in the 4th conjugation include the following:[16]

  • assentior, assentīrī, assēnsus sum "to assent"
  • experior, experīrī, expertus sum "to experience, test"
  • largior, largīrī, largītus sum "to bestow"
  • mentior, mentīrī, mentītus sum "to tell a lie"
  • mētior, mētīrī, mēnsus sum "to measure"
  • mōlior, mōlīrī, mōlītus sum "to exert oneself, set in motion, build"
  • potior, potīrī, potītus sum "to obtain, gain possession of"
  • sortior, sortīrī, sortītus sum "to cast lots"

The verb orior, orīrī, ortus sum "to arise" is also regarded as 4th conjugation, although some parts, such as the 3rd singular present tense oritur and imperfect subjunctive orerer, have a short vowel like the 3rd conjugation. But its compound adorior "to rise up, attack" is entirely 4th conjugation.

In the perfect tenses, shortened forms without -v- are common, for example, audīstī, audiērunt, audierat, audīsset for audīvistī, audīvērunt, audīverat, audīvisset. Cicero, however, prefers the full forms audīvī, audīvit to audiī, audiit.[11]

Irregular verb

Sum and possum

The verb sum, esse, fuī "to be" is the most common verb in Latin. It is conjugated as follows:[17]

In early Latin (e.g. Plautus), siem, siēs, siēt can be found for the present subjunctive sim, sīs, sit. In poetry the subjunctive fuam, fuās, fuat also sometimes occurs.[18]

An alternative imperfect subjunctive is sometimes made using forem, forēs, foret etc. See further: Latin tenses#Foret.

Other forms:

The present participle is found only in the compounds absēns "absent" and praesēns "present".[18]

In Plautus and Lucretius, an infinitive potesse is sometimes found for posse "to be able".

The principal parts of these verbs are as follows:

  • sum, esse, fuī "to be"
  • absum, abesse, āfuī "to be away"
  • adsum, adesse, adfuī "to be present"
  • dēsum, dēesse, dēfuī "to be wanting"
  • possum, posse, potuī "to be able"
  • prōsum, prōdesse, prōfuī "to be for, to profit" (adds d before a vowel)[18]

The perfect tenses conjugate in the regular way.

For the difference in meaning between eram and fuī, see Latin tenses#Difference between eram and fuī

Volō, nōlō, and mālō

The verb volō and its derivatives nōlō and mālō (short for magis volō) resemble a 3rd conjugation verb, but the present subjunctive ending in -im is different:

The spellings volt and voltis were used up until the time of Cicero for vult and vultis.[19]

These verbs are not used in the passive.

Other forms:

Principal parts:

  • volō, velle, voluī "to want"
  • nōlō, nōlle, nōluī "not to want, to be unwilling"
  • mālō, mālle, māluī "to prefer"

The perfect tenses are formed regularly.

Eō and compounds

The verb eō "I go" is an irregular 4th conjugation verb, in which the i of the stem sometimes becomes e. Like 1st and 2nd conjugation verbs, it uses the future -bō, -bis, -bit:[20]

Other forms:

The impersonal passive forms ītur "they go", itum est "they went" are sometimes found.[21]

The principal parts of some verbs which conjugate like eō are the following:

  • eō, īre, iī/(īvī), itum "to go"
  • abeō, abīre, abiī, abitum "to go away"
  • adeō, adīre, adiī, aditum "to go up to"
  • coeō, coīre, coiī, coitum "to meet, assemble"
  • exeō, exīre, exiī/(exīvī), exitum "to go out"
  • ineō, inīre, iniī, initum "to enter"
  • intereō, interīre, interiī, interitum "to perish"
  • introeō, introīre, introiī, introitum "to enter"
  • pereō, perīre, periī, peritum "to die, to perish"
  • praetereō, praeterīre, praeteriī, praeteritum "to pass by"
  • redeō, redīre, rediī, reditum "to return, to go back"
  • subeō, subīre, subiī, subitum "to go under, to approach stealthily, to undergo"
  • vēneō, vēnīre, vēniī, vēnitum "to be sold"

In the perfect tenses of these verbs, the -v- is almost always omitted, especially in the compounds,[22] although the form exīvit is common in the Vulgate Bible translation.

In some perfect forms, the vowels ii- are contracted to ī-: second person singular perfect īstī, second person plural perfect īstis; pluperfect subjunctive īssem, īssēs, ..., īssent; perfect infinitive īsse (the form iisse is also attested).

The verb queō, quīre, quiī/quīvī, quitum "to be able" has forms similar to eō.

Ferō and compounds

The verb ferō, ferre, tulī, lātum "to bring, to bear, to carry" is 3rd conjugation, but irregular in that the vowel following the root fer- is sometimes omitted. The perfect tense tulī and supine stem lātum are also irregularly formed.[23]

The future tense in the 3rd and 4th conjugation (-am, -ēs, -et etc.) differs from that in the 1st and 2nd conjugation (-bō, -bis, -bit etc.).

Other forms:

Compounds of ferō include the following:[24]The principal parts of some verbs which conjugate like ferō are the following:

  • afferō, afferre, attulī, allātum "to bring (to)"
  • auferō, auferre, abstulī, ablātum "to carry away, to steal"
  • cōnferō, cōnferre, contulī, collātum "to collect"
  • differō, differre, distulī, dīlātum "to put off"
  • efferō, efferre, extulī, ēlātum "to carry out"
  • offerō, offerre, obtulī, oblātum "to offer"
  • referō, referre, rettulī, relātum "to refer"

The perfect tense sustulī, however, belongs to the verb tollō:

  • tollō, tollere, sustulī, sublātum "to raise, to remove"

Fīō

The irregular verb fīō, fierī, factus sum "to become, to happen, to be done, to be made" as well as being a verb in its own right serves as the passive of faciō, facere, fēcī, factum "to do, to make".[25] The perfect tenses are identical with the perfect passive tenses of faciō.

The 1st and 2nd plural forms are almost never found.

Other forms:

Edō

The verb edō, edere/ēsse, ēdī, ēsum "to eat" has regular 3rd conjugation forms appearing alongside irregular ones:[26]

Other forms:

The passive form ēstur "it is eaten" is also found.

The present subjunctive edim, edīs, edit etc. is found mostly in early Latin.

In writing, there is a possibility of confusion between the forms of this verb and those of sum "I am" and ēdō "I give out, put forth"; for example, ēsse "to eat" vs. esse "to be"; edit "he eats" vs. ēdit "he gives out".

The compound verb comedō, comedere/comēsse, comēdī, comēsum "to eat up, consume" is similar.

Non-finite forms

The non-finite forms of verbs are participles, infinitives, supines, gerunds and gerundives. The verbs used are:

1st conjugation: laudō, laudāre, laudāvī, laudātum – to praise
2nd conjugation: terreō, terrēre, terruī, territum – to frighten, deter
3rd conjugation: petō, petere, petīvī, petītum – to seek, attack
3rd conjugation (-i stem): capiō, capere, cēpī, captum – to take, capture
4th conjugation: audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum – to hear, listen (to)

Participles

There are four participles: present active, perfect passive, future active, and future passive (= the gerundive).

Infinitives

There are seven main infinitives. They are in the present active, present passive, perfect active, perfect passive, future active, future passive, and potential active. Further infinitives can be made using the gerundive.

The future passive infinitive was not very commonly used. The Romans themselves often used an alternate expression, fore ut followed by a subjunctive clause.

Supine

The supine is the fourth principal part of the verb, as given in Latin dictionaries. It resembles a masculine noun of the fourth declension. Supines only occur in the accusative and ablative cases.

Gerund

The gerund is formed similarly to the present active participle. However, the -ns becomes an -ndus, and the preceding ā or ē is shortened. Gerunds are neuter nouns of the second declension, but the nominative case is not present. The gerund is a noun, meaning "the act of doing (the verb)", and forms a suppletive paradigm to the infinitive, which cannot be declined. For example, the genitive form laudandī can mean "of praising", the dative form laudandō can mean "for praising", the accusative form laudandum can mean "praising", and the ablative form laudandō can mean "by praising", "in respect to praising", etc.

One common use of the gerund is with the preposition ad to indicate purpose. For example, paratus ad oppugnandum could be translated as "ready to attack". However the gerund was avoided when an object was introduced, and a passive construction with the gerundive was preferred. For example, for "ready to attack the enemy" the construction paratus ad hostes oppugnandos is preferred over paratus ad hostes oppugnandum.[29]

Gerundive

The gerundive has a form similar to that of the gerund, but it is a first and second declension adjective, and functions as a future passive participle (see § Participles above). It means "(which is) to be ...ed". Often, the gerundive is used with part of the verb esse, to show obligation.

An older form of the 3rd and 4th conjugation gerundive ends in -undum, e.g. (faciundum for faciendum).[6] This ending is also found with the gerundive of eō 'I go': eundum est 'it is necessary to go'.

For some examples of uses of Latin gerundives, see the Gerundive article.

Periphrastic conjugations

There are two periphrastic conjugations. One is active, and the other is passive.

Active

The first periphrastic conjugation uses the future participle. It is combined with the forms of esse. It is translated as "I am going to praise," "I was going to praise", etc.

Passive

The second periphrastic conjugation uses the gerundive. It is combined with the forms of esse and expresses necessity. It is translated as "I am needing to be praised", "I was needing to be praised", etc., or as "I have to (i.e., must) be praised", "I had to be praised," etc. It may also be translated in English word by word, as in "You are to be (i.e., must be) praised."[30]

Peculiarities

Deponent and semi-deponent verbs

Deponent verbs are verbs that are passive in form (that is, conjugated as though in the passive voice) but active in meaning. These verbs have only three principal parts, since the perfect of ordinary passives is formed periphrastically with the perfect participle, which is formed on the same stem as the supine. Some examples coming from all conjugations are:

1st conjugation: mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum – to admire, wonder
2nd conjugation: polliceor, pollicērī, pollicitus sum – to promise, offer
3rd conjugation: loquor, loquī, locūtus sum – to speak, say
4th conjugation: mentior, mentīrī, mentītus sum – to tell a lie

Deponent verbs use active conjugations for tenses that do not exist in the passive: the gerund, the supine, the present and future participles and the future infinitive. They cannot be used in the passive themselves (except the gerundive), and their analogues with "active" form do not in fact exist: one cannot directly translate "The word is said" with any form of loquī, and there are no forms like loquō, loquis, loquit, etc.

Semi-deponent verbs form their imperfective aspect tenses in the manner of ordinary active verbs; but their perfect tenses are built periphrastically like deponents and ordinary passives; thus, semi-deponent verbs have a perfect active participle instead of a perfect passive participle. An example:

audeō, audēre, ausus sum – to dare, venture

Unlike the proper passive of active verbs, which is always intransitive, some deponent verbs are transitive, which means that they can take an object. For example:

hostes sequitur. – he follows the enemy.

Note: In the Romance languages, which lack deponent or passive verb forms, the Classical Latin deponent verbs either disappeared (being replaced with non-deponent verbs of a similar meaning) or changed to a non-deponent form. For example, in Spanish and Italian, mīrārī changed to mirar(e) by changing all the verb forms to the previously nonexistent "active form", and audeō changed to osar(e) by taking the participle ausus and making an -ar(e) verb out of it (note that au went to o).

Defective verbs

Defective verbs are verbs that are conjugated in only some instances.

ōdī, ōdisse (future participle ōsūrus) – to hate
meminī, meminisse (imperative mementō, mementōte) – to remember
coepī, coeptum, coepisse – to have begun
Cedo (plur. cette), which means "Hand it over" is only in the imperative mood, and only is used in the second person.

The following are conjugated irregularly:

Aio

Present Active Participle: – aiēns, aientis

Inquam

For

Present Active Participle – fāns, fantis
Present Active Infinitive – fārī (variant: fārier)
Supine – (acc.) fātum, (abl.) fātū
Gerund – (gen.) fandī, (dat. and abl.) fandō, no accusative
Gerundive – fandus, –a, –um

The Romance languages lost many of these verbs, but others (such as ōdī) survived but became regular fully conjugated verbs (in Italian, odiare).

Impersonal verbs

Impersonal verbs are those lacking a person. In English impersonal verbs are usually used with the neuter pronoun "it" (as in "It seems," or "it is raining"). Latin uses the third person singular. These verbs lack a fourth principal part. A few examples are:

pluit, pluere, plūvit/pluit – to rain (it rains)
ningit, ningere, ninxit – to snow (it snows)
oportet, oportēre, oportuit – to be proper (it is proper, one should/ought to)
licet, licēre, licuit – to be permitted [to] (it is allowed [to])

Irregular future active participles

The future active participle is normally formed by removing the –um from the supine, and adding a –ūrus. However, some deviations occur.

Alternative verb forms

Several verb forms may occur in alternative forms (in some authors these forms are fairly common, if not more common than the canonical ones):

laudābāris → laudābāre
laudāvērunt → laudāvēre
laudārī → laudārier, dicī → dicier

Syncopated verb forms

Like in most Romance languages, syncopated forms and contractions are present in Latin. They may occur in the following instances:

laudāvisse → laudāsse
laudāvistī → laudāstī
laudāverant → laudārant
laudāvisset → laudāsset
nōvistī → nōstī
nōvistis → nōstis
commōveram → commōram
commōverās → commōrās

See also

Bibliography

References

  1. ^ Merriam-Webster online dictionary "Conjugation".
  2. ^ Donatus [Ars Maior], 10.16.
  3. ^ Priscian, Liber octauus de uerbo (Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum)
  4. ^ Daniel J. Taylor "Latin declensions and conjugations: from Varro to Priscian" Historie Épistémologie Langage 13.2 (1991), pp. 85–93.
  5. ^ e.g. Gildersleeve and Lodge, 3rd edition (1895), §120.
  6. ^ a b c d e Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 89.
  7. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge, Latin Grammar (1895), §163.
  8. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 91.
  9. ^ C.J. Fordyce (1961), Catullus, note on Catullus 5.10.
  10. ^ Wackernagel (2009) Lectures on Syntax, p. 305, note 7.
  11. ^ a b Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 90.
  12. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge, Latin Grammar (1895), §164.
  13. ^ a b Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 114.
  14. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 105.
  15. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 107.
  16. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge Latin Grammar (1985), §166.
  17. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), pp. 66–68.
  18. ^ a b c Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 68.
  19. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 121.
  20. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), pp. 115–6.
  21. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 116.
  22. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), pp. 116, 90.
  23. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), pp. 117–8.
  24. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 118.
  25. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 119.
  26. ^ Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), pp. 118–119.
  27. ^ Cicero, Sull. 21.
  28. ^ Quintilian, 5.12.3.
  29. ^ Eitrem, S. (2006). Latinsk grammatikk (3 ed.). Oslo: Aschehoug. p. 111.
  30. ^ Keller, Andrew; Russell, Stephanie (2015-01-01). Learn to Read Latin. Yale University Press. p. 252. ISBN 978-0-300-19494-4.

External links

For a list of words relating to Latin verbs, see the Latin verbs category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.