Proposed language family of South America
Je–Tupi–Carib (or TuKaJê[1]) is a proposed language family composed of the Macro-Je (or Macro-Gê), Tupian and Cariban languages of South America. Aryon Rodrigues (2000) based this proposal on shared morphological patterns.[2][3] In an earlier proposal, Rodrigues (1985) had also proposed a Tupí-Cariban language family.[4]
The Je-Tupi-Carib proposal replaces earlier long-range hypotheses, e.g. Greenberg's phyla "Jê-Pano-Carib" (linking Macro-Je and Cariban to Panoan) and "Tupi-Arawak" (linking Tupian to Arawakan),[5] or Mason's "Macro-Tupí-Guaranían" family (1950: 236–238) which groups Tupian together with Bora–Witoto and Zaparoan.[6]
However, in some cases, similarities among the language families are clearly due to more recent linguistic diffusion, as with Tupian and Jê languages (Timbira; Guajajara, Tembe, Guaja, Urubu-Ka'apor, etc.) in the lower Tocantins-Mearim area.[7] Linguistic diffusion among Jê, Tupian, Cariban, Arawakan, and Trumai languages is also evident among the languages of the Xingu Indigenous Park.[8]
Comparison
Nikulin (2015)
Comparison of Proto-Macro-Jê (with W = Proto-Western Macro-Jê; E = Proto-Eastern Macro-Jê), Proto-Tupí, and Proto-Karib from Nikulin (2015):[9]: 91–96
Nikulin (2019)
Jê-Tupí-Cariban basic vocabulary listed by Nikulin (2019):[10]
- ‘to go’: p-Tupian *to, p-Bororo *tu, p-Cariban *[wɨ]tə[mə]
- ‘arm’: p-Mundurukú *paʔ, p-Macro-Jê *paC, Chiquitano pa-, p-Kariri *bo(ro-), p-Cariban *apə-rɨ
- ‘foot’: p-Tupian *py, p-Macro-Jê *pVrV, p-Bororo *bure, Kariri *bɨ(ri-), (?) Chiquitano pope-, (?) p-Cariban *pupu-ru
- ‘seed’: p-Tuparí-Karitiana *j-upa, p-Cariban *əpɨ (*-tɨpə)
- ‘stone’: p-Macro-Jê *kra(C), p-Kariri *kro
- ‘tree’: p-Bororo *i, p-Kariri *dzi
- ‘to sleep’: p-Jabutí *nũtã, Chiquitano a-nu, p-Bororo *unutu / *-nutu, p-Kariri *-unu, (?) p-Macro-Jê *ũtᵊ
Nikulin (2023)
Nikulin (2023) identifies the following cognates in Macro-Jê and Tupian as further evidence for a Macro-Jê–Tupian family.[11]
Non-cognate lookalikes or loans are identified by Nikulin (2023) as:
- ‘flat’: Proto-Mawé–Guaranian *-peːP and Ofayé -ɸiʔ
- ‘to kill’: Ofayé -kə˜jʔ, Proto-Chiquitano *kõˀõj- ‘to kill, to die’, and Awetí -kỹj
- ‘liquid’: Proto-Tupian *ʔɯ / *-j-ɯ and Proto-Jabutian *-y
- ‘louse’: Proto-Macro-Jê *-ŋgy₁n° (Eastern only) and Proto-Core Mondé *giT
- ‘neck’: Proto-Tupian *-woT and Proto-Cerrado *-mbut
- ‘powder, paste’: Proto-Tupian *-jõʔõP and Proto-Jabutian *-nũ
- ‘thorn’: Proto-Macro-Jê *-ñĩn° ~ *-ñĩñ° and Tuparí -ĩ
Macro-Chaco hypothesis
Nikulin (2019) suggests a Macro-Chaco hypothesis linking Jê-Tupí-Cariban (including Karirian and Bororoan) with Mataco-Guaicuruan (possibly including Zamucoan):[10]
In addition to likely shared morphology, there are also various possible Macro-Chaco shared basic vocabulary items, listed below.[10]
- ‘tooth’: p-Tupian *j-ãc, p-Tupian *j-uñ, p-Bororo *o, Chiquitano oʔo-, p-Cariban *jə, p-Kariri *dza, p-Guaicurú *-owe
- ‘liquid’: p-Tupian *j-ɯ, Chiquitano uʔu- ‘honey’, p-Matacoan *-ʔi
- ‘name’: p-Tupian *j-et, p-Tupian *-jet, p-Bororo *idʒe, Kariri *dze, p-Matacoan *-ej, p-Zamocoan *i, (?) Chiquitano ɨri-
- ‘blood’: p-Tupian *əɯ, p-Tupian *j-O, p-Matacoan *’woj-, p-Guaicurú *-awot, Ayoreo ijo
- ‘seed’: pre-pMundurukú *j-a, p-Tupian *j-əm, p-Bororo *a, Chiquitano ijo-, p-Chiquitano *a, p-Matacoan *-oʔ, p-Guaicurú -a ‘fruit’
Reconstructed pronominal affixes of the protolanguages of the Macro-Chaco families are given in the following table:[citation needed]
In this table the forms marked with (A) refer to ergative/agentive case, and the forms marked with (O) are referred to absolutive/patient/experiencer case.
References
Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at
Appendix:Proto-Macro-Jê reconstructions Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at
Appendix:Proto-Tupian reconstructions Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at
Appendix:Proto-Cariban reconstructions - ^ Michael, Lev (2021). "The Classification of South American Languages". Annual Review of Linguistics. 7 (1): 329–349. doi:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030419. ISSN 2333-9683. S2CID 228877184.
- ^ Rodrigues A. D., 2000, "‘Ge–Pano–Carib’ X ‘Jê–Tupí–Karib’: sobre relaciones lingüísticas prehistóricas en Sudamérica", in L. Miranda (ed.), Actas del I Congreso de Lenguas Indígenas de Sudamérica, Tome I, Lima, Universidad Ricardo Palma, Facultad de lenguas modernas, p. 95–104.
- ^ Rodrigues, Aryon D. (2009). "A case of affinity among Tupí, Karíb, and Macro-Jê". Revista Brasileira de Linguística Antropológica. 1: 137–162. doi:10.26512/rbla.v1i1.12289.
- ^ Rodrigues, Aryon. 1985. Evidence for Tupi-Carib relationships. In South American Indian Languages: Retrospect and Prospect, ed. HE Manelis Klein, LR Stark, pp. 371–404. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- ^ Urban, Greg; Sherzer, Joel (1988). "The Linguistic Anthropology of Native South America". Annual Review of Anthropology. 17: 283–307. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.001435. JSTOR 2155915.
- ^ Mason, J. Alden. 1950. The languages of South America. In: Julian Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, Volume 6, 157–317. (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143.) Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
- ^ Cabral, Ana Suelly Arruda Câmara; Beatriz Carreta Corrêa da Silva; Maria Risolta Silva Julião; Marina Maria Silva Magalhães. 2007. Linguistic diffusion in the Tocantins-Mearim area. In: Ana Suelly Arruda Câmara Cabral; Aryon Dall’Igna Rodrigues (ed.), Línguas e culturas Tupi, p. 357–374. Campinas: Curt Nimuendaju; Brasília: LALI.
- ^ Seki, Lucy. 2011. Alto Xingu: uma área linguística? In: Franchetto, Bruna (ed.), Alto Xingu: uma sociedade multilíngue, p. 57-85. Rio de Janeiro: Museu do Índio/FUNAI. (in Portuguese)
- ^ Nikulin, Andrey. 2015. On the genetic unity of Jê-Tupí-Karib (Верификация гипотезы о же-тупи-карибском генетическом единстве). Diploma thesis, Lomonosov Moscow State University.
- ^ a b c Nikulin, Andrey V. 2019. The classification of the languages of the South American Lowlands: State-of-the-art and challenges / Классификация языков востока Южной Америки. Illič-Svityč (Nostratic) Seminar / Ностратический семинар, Higher School of Economics, October 17, 2019.
- ^ Nikulin, Andrey. "Lexical evidence for the Macro-Jê–Tupian hypothesis" (PDF). Journal of Language Relationship. 21 (1): 3–56.