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Violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra

Monumento al Condottiero Giovanni dalle Bande Nere que representa a un hombre secuestrando a una mujer ( Piazza San Lorenzo , Florencia)

La violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra es la violación u otras formas de violencia sexual cometidas por combatientes durante un conflicto armado , una guerra o una ocupación militar , a menudo como botín de guerra , pero a veces, en particular en conflictos étnicos , el fenómeno tiene motivos sociológicos más amplios. La violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra también puede incluir la violación en grupo y la violación con objetos. Se distingue del acoso sexual , las agresiones sexuales y la violación cometidas entre tropas en servicio militar . [1] [2]

Durante la guerra y los conflictos armados, la violación se utiliza con frecuencia como medio de guerra psicológica para humillar y aterrorizar al enemigo. La violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra puede ocurrir en diversas situaciones, incluida la esclavitud sexual institucionalizada, la violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra asociada con batallas o masacres específicas , así como actos de violencia sexual individuales o aislados.

La violación también puede ser reconocida como genocidio cuando se comete con la intención de destruir , total o parcialmente, a un grupo determinado. En la década de 1990 se elaboraron instrumentos jurídicos internacionales para procesar a los autores de genocidio, y el caso Akayesu del Tribunal Penal Internacional para Ruanda fue considerado ampliamente un precedente. [3] Sin embargo, hasta ahora estos instrumentos jurídicos sólo se han utilizado en el caso de conflictos internacionales , por lo que la carga de la prueba recae en citar la naturaleza internacional del conflicto para que se pueda proceder al procesamiento.

Definición de violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra

No existe una definición consensuada de violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra, ya que hay variaciones en las formas de violencia que se incluyen en la definición y en las que la violencia se considera relacionada con el conflicto. [4] Los términos violación , agresión sexual y violencia sexual se utilizan con frecuencia indistintamente. [5] La Nota Explicativa del Estatuto de Roma , que vincula a la Corte Penal Internacional , define la violación de la siguiente manera:

El autor invadió el cuerpo de una persona mediante una conducta que resultó en la penetración, por leve que fuera, de cualquier parte del cuerpo de la víctima o del autor con un órgano sexual, o del orificio anal o genital de la víctima con cualquier objeto o cualquier otra parte del cuerpo. [6]

y

La invasión se cometió por la fuerza, o por amenaza de fuerza o coerción, como la causada por temor a la violencia, coacción, detención, opresión psicológica o abuso de poder , contra dicha persona u otra persona, o aprovechando un entorno coercitivo, o la invasión se cometió contra una persona incapaz de dar un consentimiento genuino. [6]

Se pretende que el concepto de "invasión" sea lo suficientemente amplio como para ser neutral en cuanto al género y se entiende que la definición incluye situaciones en las que la víctima puede ser incapaz de dar un consentimiento genuino si se ve afectada por una incapacidad natural, inducida o relacionada con la edad. [7]

Un conjunto de datos importante sobre la violencia sexual relacionada con los conflictos, Sexual Violence in Armed Conflict (SVAC), se basa en la definición de la CPI y cubre siete formas de violencia: "(a) violación, (b) esclavitud sexual, (c) prostitución forzada, (d) embarazo forzado, (e) esterilización/aborto forzado, (f) mutilación sexual y (g) tortura sexual". [4] El conjunto de datos define la violencia sexual relacionada con los conflictos como la violencia sexual cometida por "actores armados (específicamente, ejércitos estatales, grupos rebeldes y milicias pro gubernamentales) durante períodos de conflicto o inmediatamente posteriores al conflicto", excluyendo así la violencia sexual cometida por civiles. [4] Definiciones más amplias pueden definir la violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra como cometida incluso por civiles si el conflicto crea una sensación de impunidad. [4]

En 2009, la ONU estableció un mandato y adoptó la resolución SCR 1888 de 2009 para abordar la violencia sexual relacionada con los conflictos (VSC) como una cuestión de paz y seguridad y las violaciones conexas. La VSC se refiere a la violación, la esclavitud sexual, la prostitución forzada , el embarazo forzado , el aborto forzado , la esterilización forzada , el matrimonio forzado , la trata de personas cuando se comete en situaciones de conflicto con fines de violencia/explotación sexual y cualquier otra forma de violencia sexual de gravedad comparable perpetrada contra mujeres, hombres, niñas o niños que esté vinculada directa o indirectamente a un conflicto. [8]

Historia de las leyes contra la agresión sexual durante la guerra

Antes de finales de los años 1990, el procesamiento de violadores en tribunales de crímenes de guerra era poco frecuente. Kelly Dawn Askin, la funcionaria jurídica de alto rango de la Open Society Foundation , sostuvo que la falta de reconocimiento explícito de la violación en tiempos de guerra en el derecho internacional o en el derecho humanitario aplicable no puede utilizarse como defensa por un autor de una violación en tiempos de guerra. [9] Las leyes y costumbres de la guerra prohíben delitos como el "trato inhumano" o los "ataques indecentes", y a esto se añade que los códigos militares y civiles nacionales (derecho nacional) pueden convertir la agresión sexual en un delito.

En 1999, el derecho humanitario se ocupaba del maltrato a los civiles y de "toda devastación no justificada por necesidades militares". [10]

Periodo clásico

Los antiguos griegos consideraban que la violación de mujeres en tiempos de guerra era un «comportamiento socialmente aceptable dentro de las reglas de la guerra», y los guerreros consideraban a las mujeres conquistadas «un botín legítimo, útil como esposas, concubinas , mano de obra esclava o trofeo en el campo de batalla ». [11] Una de las primeras referencias a las «leyes de la guerra» o «tradiciones de la guerra» fue hecha por Cicerón , quien instó a los soldados a observar las reglas de la guerra, ya que obedecer las regulaciones separaba a los «hombres» de los «brutos». Conquistar las riquezas y la propiedad de un enemigo se consideraba una razón legítima para la guerra en sí misma. Las mujeres estaban incluidas en la «propiedad», ya que se consideraban bajo la propiedad legítima de un hombre, ya fuera padre, esposo, amo de esclavos o tutor. En este contexto, la violación de una mujer se consideraba un delito contra la propiedad cometido contra el hombre que era dueño de la mujer. [11]

Europa premoderna

En la Edad Media, la Iglesia Católica intentó prevenir las violaciones durante las guerras feudales mediante la institución de la Paz y Tregua de Dios (proclamada por primera vez en 989), que disuadía a los soldados de atacar a las mujeres y a los civiles en general, y mediante la propagación de una versión cristianizada del ideal de caballería de un caballero que protegía a los inocentes y no participaba en la anarquía. [ cita requerida ]

En 1159, Juan de Salisbury escribió Policraticus en un intento de regular la conducta de los ejércitos que participaban en guerras "justificables". Salisbury creía que los actos de robo y "rapinación" (delitos contra la propiedad) debían recibir el castigo más severo, pero también creía que obedecer las órdenes de un superior, ya fueran legales o ilegales, morales o inmorales, era el deber supremo del soldado. [12]

La violación y el pillaje fueron prohibidos por algunos códigos militares ya en el siglo XIV debido a la tendencia a crear una fuerte hostilidad en las poblaciones civiles y a los efectos perjudiciales para la disciplina militar. [13] A pesar de los primeros esfuerzos por sistematizar las leyes de la guerra, la violación siguió siendo un problema en los siglos XV y XVI. El influyente escritor Francisco de Vitoria defendió el surgimiento gradual de la noción de que la gloria o la conquista no eran necesariamente razones aceptables para iniciar una guerra. El jurista Alberico Gentili insistió en que todas las mujeres, incluidas las combatientes, debían ser salvadas de la agresión sexual en tiempos de guerra.

Se ha sugerido que una de las razones de la prevalencia de las violaciones en tiempos de guerra era que en esa época los círculos militares apoyaban la idea de que todas las personas, incluidas las mujeres y los niños, seguían siendo enemigos y que el beligerante tenía derechos de conquista sobre ellos. [14] A finales de la Edad Media, las leyes de la guerra incluso consideraban la violación en tiempos de guerra como una indicación del éxito de un hombre en el campo de batalla y "las oportunidades de violar y saquear estaban entre las pocas ventajas abiertas a... los soldados, a quienes sus líderes pagaban con gran irregularidad... el triunfo sobre las mujeres mediante la violación se convirtió en una forma de medir la victoria, parte de la prueba de masculinidad y éxito de un soldado, una recompensa tangible por los servicios prestados... una verdadera recompensa de la guerra". [15]

Durante este período de la historia, las violaciones durante la guerra no se produjeron necesariamente como un esfuerzo consciente de la guerra para aterrorizar al enemigo, sino más bien como una compensación merecida por ganar una guerra. Hay poca evidencia que sugiera que los superiores ordenaran regularmente a sus subordinados que cometieran actos de violación. [16] A lo largo de este período de la historia, la guerra se volvió más regulada, específica y regimentada. El primer procesamiento formal por crímenes de guerra no tuvo lugar hasta finales de la Edad Media. [16]

Europa moderna temprana

De iure belli ac pacis , página de título de la primera edición de 1625.

Hugo Grocio , considerado el padre del derecho de gentes y el primero en realizar una obra exhaustiva de sistematización de las leyes internacionales de la guerra, De jure belli ac pacis (1625), concluyó que la violación (formulada como "la violación de las mujeres") "no debe quedar impune en la guerra más que en la paz", [17] rechazando la opinión de que es permisible infligir daño o perjuicio "a cualquier cosa que pertenezca al enemigo":

La violación de mujeres [en tiempos de guerra] se considera permitida o no. Quienes la permiten sólo tienen en cuenta el daño causado a la persona, y consideran que, según la ley de las armas, es aceptable infligirle a cualquier cosa que pertenezca al enemigo. La otra opinión es mejor: tiene en cuenta no sólo el daño, sino también el acto de lujuria desenfrenada y concluye que algo que no pertenece ni a la seguridad ni al castigo no debería ser más lícito en la guerra que en la paz. Esta última opinión no es la ley de todas las naciones, pero sí la de las más respetables. [18]

Emmerich van Vattel emergió como una figura influyente cuando abogó por la inmunidad de los civiles frente a los estragos de la guerra, considerando a los hombres y mujeres civiles como no combatientes. [17]

A finales del siglo XVIII y en el siglo XIX, los tratados y códigos de guerra comenzaron a incluir disposiciones vagas para la protección de las mujeres: el Tratado de Amistad y Comercio (1785) especificó que en caso de guerra "las mujeres y los niños... no serán molestados en sus personas". El artículo 20 de la Orden Nº 20 (1847), un suplemento a las Reglas y Artículos de Guerra de los Estados Unidos, enumeraba como severamente punibles los siguientes delitos: "asesinato, homicidio, apuñalamiento o mutilación maliciosa, violación". La Declaración de Bruselas (1874) establecía que "los honores y derechos de la familia... deben ser respetados" (artículo 38). [19]

En el siglo XIX, el tratamiento de los soldados, prisioneros, heridos y civiles mejoró cuando las naciones signatarias de los tratados establecieron elementos básicos de las leyes de la guerra . Sin embargo, si bien las costumbres de la guerra exigían un trato más humano a los soldados y civiles, las nuevas armas y la tecnología avanzada aumentaron la destrucción y alteraron los métodos de guerra. [20]

El Código Lieber (1863) fue la primera codificación de las leyes consuetudinarias internacionales de la guerra terrestre y un paso importante hacia el derecho humanitario. El Código Lieber hizo hincapié en la protección de los civiles y declaró que "toda violación... [está] prohibida bajo pena de muerte", lo que fue la primera prohibición de la violación en el derecho humanitario consuetudinario. [21]

Siglo XX

Durante el siglo XX, los procedimientos jurídicos internacionales intentaron prevenir y enjuiciar a los autores de violaciones en tiempos de guerra. De manera similar, los distintos Estados elaboraron leyes relativas a las víctimas y a los autores de violaciones en tiempos de guerra.

La prohibición de la violación fue excluida de las Convenciones de Ginebra y fue deliberadamente dejada vaga por las Convenciones de La Haya . [13] El artículo 46 de las Convenciones de La Haya de 1899 y 1907 sobre la guerra terrestre sólo exigía que "el honor y los derechos de la familia [y] la vida de las personas... deben ser respetados" por las potencias ocupantes. [21]

Después de la Primera Guerra Mundial , la Comisión de Responsabilidades , creada en 1919 para examinar las atrocidades cometidas por el Imperio Alemán y las demás Potencias Centrales durante la guerra, encontró pruebas sustanciales de violencia sexual y posteriormente incluyó la violación y la prostitución forzada entre las violaciones de las leyes y costumbres de la guerra. Los esfuerzos por enjuiciarlos fracasaron. [22]

Segunda Guerra Mundial

Los Tribunales de Núremberg y Tokio se convirtieron en los primeros tribunales internacionales de verdadera importancia. Las potencias aliadas victoriosas los establecieron en 1945 y 1946 respectivamente para enjuiciar a los principales criminales de guerra de las potencias del Eje europeo (de hecho, sólo alemanes) y de Japón por crímenes contra la paz , crímenes de guerra y crímenes contra la humanidad . La posibilidad de enjuiciar la violencia sexual como crimen de guerra existía debido al reconocimiento de la violación en tiempos de guerra como una grave violación de las leyes de la guerra en las Convenciones de La Haya de 1899 y 1907, que afirmaban que "[e]l honor y los derechos de la familia [y] la vida de las personas... deben ser respetados".

Aunque los Tribunales de Núremberg no acusaron a los criminales de guerra nazis de violación, hubo testigos que testificaron sobre su existencia. Varios de los testimonios de víctimas de violencia sexual durante el Holocausto fueron de hombres y mujeres judíos. [23] En juicios anteriores por crímenes de guerra se habían procesado delitos sexuales, por lo que la violación de guerra podría haberse procesado en virtud del derecho consuetudinario y/o en virtud del artículo 6(b) de la Carta de los Tribunales Militares Internacionales (TMI): "secuestro de la población civil... para esclavitud y otros fines" y "secuestro injustificado por necesidad militar ". De manera similar, habría sido posible procesar la violación de guerra como crimen contra la humanidad en virtud del artículo 6(c) de la Carta de Núremberg : "otros actos inhumanos" y "esclavitud". Sin embargo, a pesar de la evidencia de violencia sexual en Europa durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la falta de voluntad llevó a que la violación y la violencia sexual no se procesaran en los Tribunales de Núremberg. [24]

Según los registros, al menos 34.140 mujeres europeas fueron obligadas a prostituirse durante la ocupación alemana de sus países, junto con prisioneras de campos de concentración. [25] En muchos casos, niñas y mujeres fueron secuestradas de las calles de las ciudades ocupadas durante las patrullas alemanas. [26] [27] [28]

El Tribunal Militar Internacional para el Lejano Oriente condenó a oficiales japoneses "por no haber impedido la violación" en la Masacre de Nanjing . [29] [30] El tribunal, en Tokio, procesó casos de violencia sexual y violación de guerra como crímenes de guerra bajo la expresión "trato inhumano", "malos tratos" y "falta de respeto al honor y los derechos familiares". Según la fiscalía, más de 20.000 mujeres y niñas fueron violadas durante las primeras semanas de la ocupación japonesa de la ciudad china de Nanjing . El Tribunal de Crímenes de Guerra de Tokio incluyó relatos de crímenes de violencia sexual en los testimonios del juicio, así como en registros públicos. [31] A nivel nacional, un comandante del 14º Ejército del Área , el general Yamashita , fue condenado, entre otras cosas, por "violación bajo su mando". [31] Unas 35 mujeres de solaz holandesas presentaron un caso exitoso ante el Tribunal Militar de Batavia en 1948. [31]

Es bien sabido que se cometieron brutales violaciones en masa contra mujeres alemanas, tanto durante como después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Según algunas estimaciones, más de 100.000 mujeres fueron violadas por soldados soviéticos en Berlín, tanto durante como después de la Batalla de Berlín . [32]

La frase “de ocho a ochenta” se utilizaba para describir a las víctimas potenciales de las violaciones masivas soviéticas. “Los soldados del Ejército Rojo no creen en las ‘relaciones individuales’ con mujeres alemanas”, escribió el dramaturgo Zakhar Agranenko en su diario cuando servía como oficial de la infantería de marina en Prusia Oriental . “Nueve, diez, doce hombres a la vez: las violaban de forma colectiva”. [32] Los hombres del ejército soviético consideraban que la violación era una forma de castigo bien merecida, independientemente de que los civiles tuvieran algo que ver con la guerra o no. En total, los historiadores estiman que más de dos millones de mujeres alemanas fueron violadas. [33]

Durante la guerra también se cometieron violaciones contra ciudadanos aliados; por ejemplo, Marocchinate (en italiano, «actos marroquíes») es un término que se aplica a las violaciones y asesinatos en masa de civiles italianos por parte de los Goumiers marroquíes , tropas coloniales del Cuerpo Expedicionario Francés (FEC), comandadas por el general Alphonse Juin , después de la Batalla de Montecassino en Italia durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial . Se estimó que 2.000 mujeres y 600 hombres fueron violados y la mayoría de estos crímenes tuvieron lugar en la zona rural entre Nápoles y Roma . [34]

Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, los jueces de los juicios de Núremberg en 1946 declararon que las leyes de la guerra sólo se aplicaban a los nacionales enemigos, no a los de los aliados, lo que significaba que tales actos no eran crímenes de guerra. [35]

Convenciones de Ginebra de 1949

El artículo 3 común a los Convenios de Ginebra de 1949 dispone que "los atentados contra la vida y la integridad corporal, especialmente el homicidio en todas sus formas, las mutilaciones, los tratos crueles, la tortura y los suplicios" y "los atentados contra la dignidad personal, especialmente los tratos humillantes y degradantes" quedan prohibidos en todas las circunstancias respecto de las personas que estén fuera de combate o que no participen en las hostilidades directas en conflictos no internacionales.

El artículo 27 del Cuarto Convenio de Ginebra de 1949 prohíbe explícitamente la violación en tiempos de guerra y la prostitución forzada de personas protegidas en conflictos internacionales.

Las prohibiciones establecidas en los Convenios de Ginebra de 1949 fueron reforzadas por los Protocolos Adicionales I y II de 1977 a los Convenios de Ginebra de 1949. [9]

El artículo 4 del Cuarto Convenio de Ginebra excluye de la protección que le otorga el Convenio a los civiles que se encuentran bajo su propia autoridad nacional, a los nacionales de un Estado que no sea parte en el Convenio, a las personas neutrales que viven en la nación beligerante y a los nacionales aliados. Las víctimas de violación que no están protegidas están protegidas, en cambio, por el derecho internacional de los derechos humanos del que puede ser parte su país de origen o el Estado extranjero infractor. [36]

Tribunal Penal Internacional para Ruanda

En 1998, el Tribunal Penal Internacional para Ruanda, creado por las Naciones Unidas, adoptó decisiones históricas que definían la violación genocida (violación destinada a afectar a una población o cultura en su conjunto) como una forma de genocidio en virtud del derecho internacional. En el juicio de Jean-Paul Akayesu , alcalde de la comuna de Taba en Ruanda , la Sala de Primera Instancia sostuvo que "la agresión sexual formaba parte integral del proceso de destrucción del grupo étnico tutsi y que la violación era sistemática y se había perpetrado únicamente contra mujeres tutsi, lo que manifestaba la intención específica requerida para que esos actos constituyeran genocidio". [37]

La jueza Navanethem Pillay , que llegó a ser Alta Comisionada de las Naciones Unidas para los Derechos Humanos entre 2008 y 2014, dijo en una declaración después del veredicto: "Desde tiempos inmemoriales, la violación ha sido considerada un botín de guerra. Ahora será considerada un crimen de guerra . Queremos enviar un mensaje contundente de que la violación ya no es un trofeo de guerra". [38] Se estima que 500.000 mujeres fueron violadas durante el genocidio de Ruanda de 1994. [39]

El profesor Paul Walters, en su declaración de abril de 2005 en apoyo del doctorado honorario en derecho de Pillay en la Universidad de Rhodes, escribió: [38]

Bajo su presidencia del Tribunal de Ruanda , ese organismo dictó sentencia contra el alcalde de la comuna de Taba y lo declaró culpable de genocidio por el uso de la violación para "la destrucción del espíritu, de la voluntad de vivir y de la vida misma".

La sentencia Akayesu incluye la primera interpretación y aplicación por un tribunal internacional de la Convención para la Prevención y la Sanción del Delito de Genocidio de 1948. La Sala de Primera Instancia sostuvo que la violación (que definió como "una invasión física de naturaleza sexual cometida contra una persona en circunstancias que son coercitivas") y la agresión sexual constituyen actos de genocidio en la medida en que se cometieron con la intención de destruir, total o parcialmente, a un grupo objetivo, como tal. Concluyó que la agresión sexual formaba parte integral del proceso de destrucción del grupo étnico tutsi y que la violación era sistemática y se había perpetrado únicamente contra mujeres tutsi, lo que manifestaba la intención específica requerida para que esos actos constituyeran genocidio. [37]

En septiembre de 1999, las Naciones Unidas publicaron un "Informe del Tribunal Penal Internacional para el enjuiciamiento de los presuntos responsables de genocidio y otras violaciones graves del derecho internacional humanitario cometidas en el territorio de Rwanda y de los ciudadanos ruandeses presuntamente responsables de genocidio y otras violaciones de esa naturaleza cometidas en el territorio de Estados vecinos entre el 1º de enero y el 31 de diciembre de 1994". En el informe se afirma que el 2 de septiembre de 1998, la Sala de Primera Instancia I del Tribunal Penal Internacional para Rwanda, integrada por los magistrados Laïty Kama (Presidente), Lennart Aspegren y Navanethem Pillay, declaró a Jean Paul Akayesu culpable de 9 de los 15 cargos que se le imputaban, entre ellos genocidio, incitación directa y pública a cometer genocidio y crímenes de lesa humanidad, asesinato, tortura, violación y otros actos inhumanos. El Tribunal declaró a Jean Paul Akayesu inocente de los seis cargos restantes, incluido el de complicidad en genocidio y los cargos relacionados con violaciones del artículo 3 común a los Convenios de Ginebra y de su Protocolo Adicional II. [37] El 2 de octubre de 1998, Jean Paul Akayesu fue condenado a cadena perpetua por cada uno de los nueve cargos, y las sentencias se cumplirán simultáneamente. Tanto Jean Paul Akayesu como el Fiscal han apelado contra la sentencia dictada por la Sala de Primera Instancia. [37]

Tribunal Penal Internacional para la ex Yugoslavia

La violación se reconoció por primera vez como un crimen contra la humanidad cuando el Tribunal Penal Internacional para la ex Yugoslavia emitió órdenes de arresto en 1993, basándose en las Convenciones de Ginebra y Violaciones de las Leyes y Costumbres de la Guerra. En concreto, se reconoció que las mujeres musulmanas en Foča (sureste de Bosnia y Herzegovina ) fueron sometidas a violaciones en grupo sistemáticas y generalizadas, torturas y esclavitud sexual por soldados, policías y miembros de grupos paramilitares serbios de Bosnia después de la toma de posesión de la ciudad (abril de 1992). [40] La acusación fue de gran importancia jurídica y fue la primera vez que se investigaron las agresiones sexuales con el fin de enjuiciarlas bajo la rúbrica de tortura y esclavitud como crimen contra la humanidad. [40] La acusación fue confirmada por un veredicto de 2001 del Tribunal Penal Internacional para la ex Yugoslavia de que la violación y la esclavitud sexual son crímenes contra la humanidad. Esta sentencia desafió la aceptación generalizada de la violación y la esclavitud sexual de las mujeres como parte intrínseca de la guerra. [41] El Tribunal Penal Internacional para la ex Yugoslavia declaró culpables a tres hombres serbios de Bosnia de violación de mujeres y niñas bosnias (musulmanas bosnias) (algunas de tan solo 12 y 15 años de edad) en Foča, en el este de Bosnia-Herzegovina. Además, dos de los hombres fueron declarados culpables del crimen contra la humanidad de esclavitud sexual por mantener cautivas a mujeres y niñas en varios centros de detención de facto. Muchas de las mujeres desaparecieron posteriormente . [41] Sin embargo, el juez Richard Goldstone, fiscal jefe del Tribunal Penal Internacional para la ex Yugoslavia , comentó que "la violación nunca ha sido una preocupación de la comunidad internacional". [29]

Estados Unidos

La ley de los Estados Unidos especifica que la violación en tiempos de guerra se castiga con la muerte o la prisión en virtud de la Sección d(g) de la Ley de Crímenes de Guerra de 1996. Sin embargo, la prohibición total del aborto es un requisito de la ayuda humanitaria estadounidense para las víctimas de guerra, sin excepciones en caso de violación, incesto o para salvar la vida de la madre. [42]

Estatuto de Roma

La Nota Explicativa del Estatuto de Roma de 1998 , que define la jurisdicción de la Corte Penal Internacional , reconoce la violación, la esclavitud sexual, la prostitución forzada , el embarazo forzado , la esterilización forzada , "o cualquier otra forma de violencia sexual de gravedad comparable" como crimen contra la humanidad si la acción es parte de una práctica generalizada o sistemática. [43] [44]

Siglo XXI

Algunos de los delegados a la Cumbre Mundial para Poner Fin a la Violencia Sexual en los Conflictos celebrada en 2014

En 2008, el Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas adoptó la resolución 1820 , que señalaba que «la violación y otras formas de violencia sexual pueden constituir crímenes de guerra, crímenes contra la humanidad o un acto constitutivo de genocidio». [45]

La Oficina del Representante Especial del Secretario General sobre la Violencia Sexual en los Conflictos (RESG-SVC) fue establecida por la Resolución 1888 (2009) del Consejo de Seguridad, una de una serie de resoluciones que reconocieron el impacto perjudicial que la violencia sexual en los conflictos tiene sobre las comunidades y reconocieron que este delito socava los esfuerzos en pro de la paz, la seguridad y la reconstrucción una vez que el conflicto ha terminado. La oficina actúa como portavoz y defensora política de las Naciones Unidas en materia de violencia sexual relacionada con los conflictos y preside la red de Acción de las Naciones Unidas contra la Violencia Sexual en los Conflictos.

En abril de 2010, la primera Representante Especial, Margot Wallström, de Suecia, estableció la Oficina y actuó como portavoz y defensora política de las Naciones Unidas sobre esta cuestión. En septiembre de 2012, Zainab Hawa Bangura, de Sierra Leona, asumió el cargo de Representante Especial del Secretario General sobre la Violencia Sexual en los Conflictos.

Las seis prioridades de la oficina son:

La Oficina tiene ocho países prioritarios: Bosnia y Herzegovina, República Centroafricana, Colombia, Côte d'Ivoire, República Democrática del Congo, Liberia, Sudán del Sur y Sudán. Si bien seis de los ocho países prioritarios están en África, este problema está muy extendido y la Oficina del Representante Especial se ocupa de esta cuestión en Asia y el Pacífico (en Camboya, en el caso de los casos residuales del período de los Jemeres Rojos) y en Oriente Medio (Siria). [46]

Década de 2010-hoy

En 2013, el Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas aprobó por unanimidad la Resolución 2122 , que apoyaba el derecho al aborto de las niñas y mujeres violadas en guerras, "observando la necesidad de acceso a toda la gama de servicios de salud sexual y reproductiva, incluidos los relacionados con los embarazos resultantes de violaciones, sin discriminación". [42] El Secretario General de las Naciones Unidas, Ban Ki-moon, había recomendado al Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas a principios de 2013 (en septiembre) que las niñas y mujeres violadas en la guerra deberían tener acceso a "servicios para la interrupción segura de los embarazos resultantes de violaciones, sin discriminación y de conformidad con los derechos humanos internacionales y el derecho humanitario". En marzo de 2013, Ban Ki-moon también había recomendado al Consejo que las mujeres violadas en la guerra tuvieran acceso a servicios de aborto. [42]

La violencia sexual contra las mujeres en las guerras del siglo XXI sigue siendo un problema importante en diversos conflictos en todo el mundo, incluidos, entre otros, la guerra civil siria , los conflictos en la República Democrática del Congo [47] y el conflicto en curso en Yemen ; [48] las mujeres siguen siendo objeto de violación, esclavitud sexual y otras formas de violencia de género. [49]

En el genocidio yazidí , ISIS perpetró una violencia generalizada contra las mujeres, sometiéndolas a esclavitud sexual sistémica, violaciones y formas brutales de abuso, lo que pone de relieve la naturaleza atroz de sus crímenes contra la comunidad yazidí. [50]

En el ataque sorpresa de Hamás contra Israel en 2023 , Hamás llevó a cabo actos de violencia sexual contra mujeres israelíes, incluidas mutilaciones, violaciones y torturas. [51] [50] [52] [53] Según una investigación de periodistas del New York Times , que utilizó imágenes de vídeo, fotografías, datos GPS de teléfonos móviles y entrevistas con más de 150 personas, hubo al menos siete lugares donde se llevaron a cabo agresiones sexuales y mutilaciones de mujeres y niñas israelíes. Concluyeron que no se trataba de hechos aislados, sino parte de un patrón más amplio en el que Hamás "utilizó la violencia sexual como arma" durante los ataques. [54]

En la invasión israelí de Gaza , un informe publicado en febrero de 2024 por la Oficina del Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Derechos Humanos [55] encontró pruebas creíbles de "violaciones atroces de los derechos humanos" perpetradas por las Fuerzas de Defensa de Israel contra mujeres y niñas palestinas. Los expertos estaban "conmocionados por los informes de ... ataques deliberados y asesinatos extrajudiciales" de mujeres y niñas palestinas en Gaza. El informe condenó la "detención arbitraria" de mujeres y niños que fueron sometidos a "tratos inhumanos y degradantes", incluyendo violaciones, registros corporales, amenazas de violencia sexual y otras formas de abuso sexual y psicológico, como la retención de alimentos y tratamiento médico.

Historia

Antigüedad

La violación ha acompañado a la guerra en prácticamente todas las épocas históricas conocidas. [56] La historiadora de la mujer Gerda Lerner escribe:

La práctica de violar a las mujeres de un grupo conquistado ha sido una característica de las guerras y las conquistas desde el segundo milenio antes de Cristo hasta el presente. Es una práctica social que, como la tortura de prisioneros, ha sido resistente al "progreso", a las reformas humanitarias y a consideraciones morales y éticas sofisticadas. Sugiero que esto es así porque es una práctica incorporada y esencial a la estructura de las instituciones patriarcales e inseparable de ellas. Es al comienzo del sistema, antes de la formación de clases, que podemos ver esto en su esencia más pura. [57]

Se dice que los ejércitos griegos y romanos practicaban violaciones durante la guerra, algo que está documentado por autores antiguos como Homero , Heródoto , Livio y Tácito . [58] [59] Las fuentes antiguas sostenían actitudes múltiples, a menudo contradictorias, sobre la violencia sexual en la guerra. [60] El escritor y arqueólogo de Haaretz , Terry Madenholm, explica que la violación no solo servía como instrumento de gratificación sexual o como herramienta para controlar el alivio de la ira.

Para el ejército romano, la violación era más que un arma de terror; se consideraba un derecho de los victoriosos. Simbolizaba la venganza, la subyugación y la esclavitud de los vencidos. Polibio describe a los soldados romanos cometiendo violaciones para conquistar una ciudad, mientras que Livio describe la violación como sinónimo de la toma de una ciudad. Las mujeres y los niños no eran las únicas víctimas de las guerras antiguas.

La violación de hombres adultos sigue siendo uno de los secretos mejor guardados, posiblemente porque era incompatible con la noción de masculinidad; ser sumiso sexualmente como hombre se consideraba totalmente poco varonil, incluso para los escritores antiguos. En el mundo grecorromano, un "verdadero hombre" solo podía desempeñar un papel activo y aquellos que eran sumisos eran estigmatizados. [61] Tácito menciona a los oficiales de reclutamiento romanos que arrastraban a los niños bátavos más llamativos para tener relaciones sexuales sin consentimiento (violación) [62] [63] diciendo que fue una de las causas de la Rebelión de los bátavos .

Según los historiadores medievales, los hunos y los ávaros , que invadieron Europa del Este durante la Antigüedad tardía , acosaron a las mujeres wendianas y las mantuvieron en cautiverio como esclavas sexuales : [64]

Cada año, los hunos [ávaros] acudían a los eslavos para pasar el invierno con ellos, y luego tomaban a las esposas e hijas de los eslavos y dormían con ellas. Además de otros malos tratos [ya mencionados], los eslavos también eran obligados a pagar tributos a los hunos. Pero los hijos de los hunos, que [entonces] se criaban con las esposas e hijas de estos wendos [eslavos], finalmente no pudieron soportar más esta opresión y se negaron a obedecer a los hunos e iniciaron, como ya se mencionó, una rebelión.

—  Crónica de Fredegar , Libro IV, Sección 48, escrita alrededor del año 642

Durante la Antigüedad tardía , la India también fue escenario de innumerables invasiones de guerreros procedentes de Asia central, como los kushán , los heftalitas y los hunas . Las invasiones hunas del subcontinente indio contribuyeron a acelerar la decadencia del Imperio Gupta .

Los invasores hunas conquistaron Cachemira , Punjab y finalmente entraron en el valle del Ganges , en el corazón mismo de la India, masacrando, saqueando, saqueando, quemando, demoliendo y violando. Muchas ciudades de la India fueron arrasadas por el ataque de los invasores; monasterios , templos , escuelas y bibliotecas no se salvaron, causando una inmensa destrucción cultural en el subcontinente indio. Los relatos coinciden en que los guerreros hunas practicaron violaciones masivas de mujeres en la India. [65] [66]

Edad media

Los vikingos eran escandinavos que invadieron y colonizaron amplias zonas de Europa desde finales del siglo VIII hasta principios del siglo XI. [67] Se cree que los asentamientos vikingos en Gran Bretaña e Irlanda fueron principalmente empresas masculinas, con un papel menor para las mujeres vikingas. [ cita requerida ] Las mujeres de las Islas Británicas se mencionan en textos antiguos sobre la fundación de Islandia, lo que indica que los exploradores vikingos habían adquirido esposas y concubinas de Gran Bretaña e Irlanda. [68] Algunos historiadores cuestionan la imagen de "violación y saqueo" de los vikingos, argumentando que la exageración y la distorsión en los textos medievales posteriores crearon una imagen de hombres del norte traicioneros y brutales. [69]

La esclavitud femenina era común durante el comercio de esclavos árabe medieval , donde los prisioneros de guerra capturados en batalla, así como el comercio comercial de esclavos de tierras no árabes, a veces terminaban en esclavitud sexual como esclavas concubinas en el mundo árabe . [70] La mayoría de estos esclavos provenían de lugares como África subsahariana (principalmente Zanj ), el Cáucaso (principalmente circasianos ), [71] y Asia Central (principalmente tártaros ).

Antes de que los Jurchens derrocaran a los Khitan , las mujeres casadas y las niñas Jurchens eran violadas por los enviados de Liao Khitan como una costumbre que causaba resentimiento por parte de los Jurchens contra los Khitan. [72] Las princesas Song se suicidaron para evitar ser violadas o fueron asesinadas por resistirse a la violación por parte de los Jin. [73]

Los mongoles, que establecieron el Imperio mongol en gran parte de Eurasia, causaron mucha destrucción durante sus invasiones . Los documentos escritos durante o después del reinado de Genghis Khan dicen que después de una conquista, los soldados mongoles saquearon, pillaron y violaron. Algunas tropas que se sometieron fueron incorporadas al sistema mongol para expandir su fuerza de trabajo. Estas técnicas se utilizaron a veces para difundir el terror y advertir a otros. [74]

Los mongoles invadieron Hungría (Panonia) y penetraron en Austria casi hasta Viena en 1241-1242. Al sur de Viena, llegaron a la ciudad austríaca de Wiener Neustadt y devastaron el campo alrededor de la ciudad, mientras torturaban y se comían a civiles austríacos indiscriminadamente sin importar su edad, sexo, fortuna o clase. Los soldados caníbales mongoles se comieron a las mujeres deformes y ancianas de inmediato, pero violaron en grupo a niñas vírgenes y mujeres hermosas austríacas hasta matarlas antes de comérselas y luego les cortaron los pechos, reservándolos para sus líderes antes de comerse el resto de sus cuerpos según el francés Ivo de Narbona, que estaba en la ciudad misma antes de que los mongoles finalmente se retiraran a Hungría. [75] [76]

Las imágenes de la descripción que hace Ivo de Narbona de soldados mongoles violando y devorando mujeres europeas aparecen en Chronica Majora de Matthew Paris . [77]

El relato de Rogerius de Apulia sobre la devastación y matanza que los mongoles causaron a los europeos durante la invasión mongola de Hungría y Transilvania se encuentra en su libro Carmen Miserabile . [78] [79]

Durante la invasión mongola de Hungría en 1241-1242, el monje Rogerius registró violaciones masivas de mujeres húngaras por parte de los mongoles, que afirmaban que "encontraban placer" en el acto. Las violaciones masivas de mujeres húngaras por parte de los mongoles se recordaron más tarde, cuando el imperio ruso ocupó Hungría en 1849 y cuando el ejército soviético ocupó Hungría en 1945. [80]

En 1302, el ejército del sultán mameluco Al-Nasir Muhammad , que era de ascendencia turca kipchak , aplastó una rebelión beduina en el Alto Egipto y "asesinó sin piedad a todos los beduinos de la tierra y se llevó cautivas a sus mujeres". GW Murray dijo que "Esta solución drástica de la cuestión beduina eliminó de la escena a los descendientes árabes puros de los conquistadores y permitió así que los beja se preservaran como una raza africana prácticamente no influenciada por la sangre árabe, mientras dejaban los límites del desierto del Alto Egipto libres para el asentamiento de los beduinos occidentales". [81] El ejército estaba dirigido por el mameluco mongol oirat Sayf ad-Din Salar y el mameluco circasiano al-Baibars al-Jashnakir (Beibars). [82]

Durante la invasión de Siria por Tamerlán , en el saqueo de Alepo (1400) , Ibn Taghribirdi escribió que los soldados tártaros de Tamerlán cometieron violaciones en masa a las mujeres nativas de Alepo, masacrando a sus hijos y obligando a los hermanos y padres de las mujeres a presenciar las violaciones en grupo que tuvieron lugar en las mezquitas. [83] Ibn Taghribirdi dijo que los tártaros mataron a todos los niños mientras ataban a las mujeres con cuerdas en la Gran Mezquita de Alepo después de que los niños y las mujeres intentaran refugiarse en la mezquita. Los soldados tártaros violaron abiertamente a damas y vírgenes en público tanto en las pequeñas mezquitas como en la Gran Mezquita. Los hermanos y padres de las mujeres estaban siendo torturados mientras se les obligaba a ver cómo violaban a sus parientes femeninas. Los cadáveres en las calles y mezquitas provocaron un hedor que invadió Alepo. Las mujeres fueron mantenidas desnudas mientras eran violadas en grupo repetidamente por diferentes hombres. [84] [85] [86] [87] Ibn Arabshah fue testigo de las matanzas y violaciones que llevaron a cabo los soldados tártaros de Tamerlán. También se registraron violaciones en masa en el Saqueo de Damasco de Tamerlán de 1401. [ 88]

Periodo moderno temprano

Conquistas otomanas en Europa

En el Imperio otomano , la práctica de tomar cautivos eslavos como esclavos, incluso como esclavas sexuales , era un aspecto notable de las actividades expansionistas y militares del imperio, particularmente en los Balcanes y Europa del Este . Las poblaciones eslavas , incluidas las de regiones como los Balcanes , Hungría y Ucrania , fueron frecuentemente el objetivo de las incursiones otomanas, conocidas como "devshirme" o mediante la guerra. Los individuos capturados a menudo eran esclavizados y transportados a varias partes del imperio. Entre estos cautivos, las mujeres jóvenes y las niñas eran particularmente buscadas para su inclusión en los harenes de la élite otomana. Estos harenes eran hogares altamente estructurados que albergaban a las mujeres del sultán y otros funcionarios de alto rango, donde las mujeres esclavizadas a menudo eran utilizadas como concubinas. Fueron explotadas sexualmente, incluida la violación . Con el tiempo, algunas de estas mujeres, particularmente las que tenían hijos, pudieron ganar una influencia significativa dentro de la corte imperial, aunque su captura y esclavitud inicial estuvieron marcadas por la coerción y la violencia. La práctica contribuyó a los cambios demográficos y culturales en el imperio otomano , ya que muchas de estas mujeres esclavizadas se convirtieron al Islam y sus descendientes se integraron a la sociedad otomana. [89]

Conquista de las Américas

Los conquistadores españoles secuestraron y violaron a mujeres y niños nativos americanos. [90]

Saqueo de Roma

Durante el saqueo de Roma en 1527, las tropas del emperador Carlos V del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico cometieron una gran violencia sexual contra los habitantes de la ciudad. Los soldados, principalmente mercenarios españoles y alemanes, cometieron violaciones y abusos sexuales generalizados contra las mujeres. [91] [92]

Guerra de los Ochenta Años

Durante la segunda mitad de la Guerra de los Ochenta Años , ciudades brabantianas como Helmond , Eindhoven y Oisterwijk fueron sometidas repetidamente a saqueos, incendios y violaciones cometidas tanto por el Ejército de los Estados Holandeses rebeldes como por el Ejército real español de Flandes . [93]

Rebelión de Münster

Algunas mujeres fueron violadas en grupo por los soldados del obispo durante la derrota de la rebelión anabaptista de Münster en 1535. [94]

Guerra de los Treinta Años

Durante el saqueo de Magdeburgo , muchos soldados imperiales supuestamente se descontrolaron. Los soldados invasores no habían recibido pago por sus servicios y exigían objetos de valor en todas las casas que encontraban. Hubo informes de violaciones en grupo de menores [95] y torturas. [96]

Guerras de los Tres Reinos

Un número significativo de mujeres fueron violadas en grupo por tropas realistas y confederadas irlandesas bajo el mando del general Montrose, que saqueó Aberdeen en Escocia en 1644. [97] [98]

Segunda invasión manchú de Corea

En la segunda invasión manchú de Corea, cuando las fuerzas Qing invadieron el reino coreano de Joseon , muchas mujeres coreanas fueron violadas a manos de las fuerzas Qing y, como resultado, sus familias no las recibieron bien, incluso si fueron liberadas por los Qing después de pagar un rescate. [99]

Invasión manchú de Xinjiang

La rebelión de Ush en 1765 por musulmanes uigures contra los manchúes de la dinastía Qing ocurrió después de que mujeres uigures fueran violadas en grupo por los sirvientes y el hijo del funcionario manchú Su-cheng. [100] [101] [102] Se dijo que "los musulmanes ush habían querido durante mucho tiempo dormir sobre las pieles [de Sucheng y su hijo] y comer su carne" debido a la violación de mujeres musulmanas uigures durante meses por el funcionario manchú Sucheng y su hijo. [103] El emperador manchú ordenó que la ciudad rebelde uigur fuera masacrada, las fuerzas Qing esclavizaron a todos los niños y mujeres uigures y masacraron a los hombres uigures. [104] Los soldados manchúes y los funcionarios manchúes que regularmente tenían relaciones sexuales con mujeres uigures o las violaban causaron un odio y una ira masivos de los musulmanes uigures hacia el gobierno manchú. La invasión de Jahangir Khoja fue precedida por otro funcionario manchú, Binjing, quien violó a una hija musulmana del aqsaqal Kokan entre 1818 y 1820. Los Qing intentaron encubrir la violación de mujeres uigures por parte de los manchúes para evitar que la ira contra su gobierno se extendiera entre los uigures. [105]

Durante la Rebelión de Altishahr Khojas , los soldados manchúes bajo el mando del general manchú de la dinastía Qing Zhaohui, estacionados en un cuartel en Karasu (Agua Negra o Heishui 黑水 en chino) en Yarkand, cocinaban y comían a musulmanes uigures después de descuartizarlos. Si los soldados manchúes atrapaban a una pareja musulmana uigur casada, los manchúes se comían al hombre uigur mientras violaban en grupo a la mujer uigur y luego la cocinaban y se la comían. [106] [107]

Formosa holandesa

En la década de 1650, varios pueblos aborígenes taiwaneses en las zonas fronterizas se rebelaron contra los holandeses debido a actos de opresión, como cuando los holandeses ordenaron que se les entregaran mujeres aborígenes para tener relaciones sexuales, y cuando exigieron que los aborígenes de la cuenca de Taipei les entregaran pieles de ciervo y arroz en la aldea de Wu-lao-wan, lo que desencadenó una rebelión en diciembre de 1652. Dos traductores holandeses fueron decapitados por los aborígenes de Wu-lao-wan y en una lucha posterior murieron 30 aborígenes y dos holandeses más, después de un embargo de sal y hierro en Wu-lao-wan. Los aborígenes se vieron obligados a pedir la paz en febrero de 1653. [108]

Las mujeres holandesas fueron retenidas como esclavas sexuales por los chinos después de que los holandeses fueran expulsados ​​de Taiwán en 1662. Durante el asedio de Fort Zeelandia en 1662 , en el que las fuerzas leales de la dinastía Ming china comandadas por Koxinga sitiaron y derrotaron a la Compañía Holandesa de las Indias Orientales y conquistaron Taiwán, los chinos tomaron prisioneras a mujeres y niños holandeses. El misionero holandés Antonius Hambroek , dos de sus hijas y su esposa estaban entre los prisioneros de guerra holandeses que estaban cautivos de Koxinga . Koxinga envió a Hambroek a Fort Zeelandia exigiéndole que los persuadiera de que se rindieran o, de lo contrario, Hambroek sería asesinado cuando regresara. Hambroek regresó al fuerte, donde otras dos de sus hijas estaban prisioneras. Instó al comandante del fuerte a no rendirse y regresó al campamento de Koxinga. Luego fue ejecutado por decapitación y, además de esto, se extendió un rumor entre los chinos de que los holandeses estaban alentando a los aborígenes taiwaneses nativos a matar chinos, por lo que Koxinga ordenó la ejecución en masa de prisioneros varones holandeses en represalia, además de algunas mujeres y niños que también estaban prisioneros.

Las mujeres y los niños holandeses supervivientes fueron esclavizados, y las mujeres holandesas acabaron vendiéndose a los soldados chinos para que se convirtieran en sus esposas, [109] [110] [111] después de que los comandantes de Koxinga las hubieran utilizado a fondo para sus propios placeres sexuales. [112] El diario del fuerte holandés es la fuente principal de lo que ocurrió a continuación: "lo mejor se conservó para el uso de los comandantes y luego se vendió a los soldados comunes. Feliz fue la que cayó en suerte de un hombre soltero, quedando así libre de las vejaciones de las mujeres chinas, que son muy celosas de sus maridos". [111] El propio Koxinga tomó como concubina a la hija adolescente de Hambroek, [113] [114] [115] una muchacha descrita por el comandante holandés Caeuw como "una doncella muy dulce y agradable". [116] [117]

Incluso en 1684, algunas de estas mujeres holandesas seguían cautivas como esposas o concubinas esclavas de los chinos. [118] En Quemoy se contactó a un comerciante holandés y un hijo de Koxinga propuso un acuerdo para liberar a las prisioneras, pero no llegó a nada. [118]

El recuerdo del destino de las mujeres holandesas y de la hija de Hambroek se ha mantenido vivo a través de la historiografía posterior del período, [119] [120] [121] [122] de donde ha alimentado varias narraciones dramatizadas y noveladas de la historia. El tema de los chinos que tomaron por la fuerza a las mujeres holandesas y a la hija de Antonius Hambroek como concubinas fue presentado en la obra de Joannes Nomsz, que se hizo famosa y conocida en Europa y reveló las inquietudes europeas sobre el destino de las mujeres holandesas. [123] El título de la obra era "Antonius Hambroek, de Belegering van Formoza" traducido al inglés como "Antonius Hambroek, o el asedio de Formosa". [124] [125]

Invasión rusa del Amur

Cientos de vacas y caballos fueron saqueados y 243 niñas y mujeres de etnia mongola daur fueron violadas por cosacos rusos bajo el mando de Yerofey Khabarov cuando invadió la cuenca del río Amur en la década de 1650. [126] La Junta de Ritos les dijo a los albazinianos que se casaran con viudas de Solon Evenki . [127] Las mujeres mongoles y manchúes fueron casadas por los albazinianos. [128] [129] [130] Las esposas con las que se casaron los albazinianos eran ex convictas encarceladas. [131]

Cuatro días en Gante

Durante los Cuatro Días de Gante (13-16 de noviembre de 1789), parte de la Revolución de Brabante , los rebeldes patriotas intentaron capturar la ciudad de Gante de una débil guarnición del Ejército Imperial , que buscaba retener los Países Bajos austríacos para la Monarquía de los Habsburgo . Después de que el primer día de lucha terminó y cayó la noche, comenzaron los saqueos. Principalmente las tropas imperiales, más notablemente el Regimiento "Clerfayt", se comportaron mal robando, violando y matando. [132] : 129–131  Tanto las fuentes imperiales como las patriotas informan de una asombrosa falta de disciplina entre los soldados imperiales, y que sus crímenes cometidos contra civiles en las primeras etapas del combate fueron un factor crucial para motivar a la población civil de Gante a ponerse del lado de los rebeldes. [132] : 133–134 

Guerra entre los otomanos y los saudíes

El historiador Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti registró en su historia, Las maravillosas composiciones de biografías y eventos ( 'Aja'ib al-athar fi'l-tarajim wa'l-akhbar ), que las fuerzas otomanas en la guerra otomano-saudí tomaron a mujeres y niñas saudíes wahabíes como esclavas, a pesar de que eran musulmanas y la esclavitud de los musulmanes era ilegal. [133] El islamista saudí yihadista Nasir al-Fahd mencionó la esclavización otomana de mujeres y niñas saudíes en su libro que ataca a los otomanos, El Estado otomano y la posición del llamado del jeque Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab al respecto , publicado en 1993. [134]

Genocidio circasiano

Los cosacos violaron a mujeres musulmanas circasianas. [135]

Los rusos violaron a niñas circasianas durante la guerra ruso-turca de 1877, entre los refugiados circasianos que se habían establecido en los Balcanes otomanos. [136] [137]

Rebelión india de 1857

Durante la Rebelión de la India de 1857 , conocida como la " Primera Guerra de Independencia de la India " para los indios y como el "Motín de los Cipayos" para los británicos, los cipayos indios se rebelaron en masa contra el gobierno de la Compañía de las Indias Orientales sobre la India . Los incidentes de violación cometidos por cipayos indios contra mujeres y niños británicos fueron reportados en la prensa inglesa , particularmente después de que civiles británicos cayeran en manos indias después de asedios como el de Cawnpore . Sin embargo, después de que la rebelión fuera reprimida, análisis detallados por parte del gobierno británico concluyeron que, aunque los cipayos indios habían participado en masacres de civiles británicos después de capturarlos, nunca había habido un solo caso de violación de guerra cometida por los cipayos. [138] Un relato publicado por The Times sobre un incidente en el que 48 niñas británicas de entre catorce y diez años habían sido violadas por los cipayos indios en Delhi fue criticado como una invención obvia por Karl Marx , quien señaló que la historia fue escrita por un clérigo en Bangalore , mientras que la rebelión se limitó principalmente a la región de Punjab . [139]

Mientras las tropas británicas reprimían la rebelión, enfurecidas por los informes de masacres y violaciones de civiles británicos, se llevaron a cabo con frecuencia represalias contra civiles indios, en particular en Cawnpore. Las mujeres indias fueron a menudo blanco de violaciones por parte de los enfurecidos soldados. [139] [140] [141] [ cita completa requerida ]

Rebelión de los boxeadores

Durante la Rebelión de los Bóxers , los Yihetuan cometieron varias masacres de civiles extranjeros (motivados por su sentimiento anticristiano y antioccidental ), pero se decía que evitaban violar a las mujeres. [142] [143] [144]

La mayoría de la población de los cientos de miles de personas que vivían en la ciudad "tártara" interior de Pekín durante la dinastía Qing eran manchúes y abanderados mongoles de las Ocho Banderas después de que fueron trasladados allí en 1644. [145] [146] [147] Durante la Rebelión de los Bóxers en 1900, soldados occidentales y japoneses violaron en masa a mujeres manchúes y a mujeres abanderadas mongoles.

De hecho, parecía una práctica común que los soldados invasores capturaran a mujeres, sin importar su clase o credo, para violarlas. Esto se hacía obligándolas a trabajar como esclavas sexuales en mansiones de violación que habían establecido en los hutongs de Pekín (callejones formados por residencias siheyuan). Este extracto de las "Notas diversas sobre los bóxers", escritas por el periodista japonés Sawara Tokusuke, describe una de esas mansiones de violación:

Las fuerzas aliadas capturaban con frecuencia a mujeres, sin importar si eran virtuosas o desdichadas, viejas o jóvenes, y, siempre que podían, las desplazaban a los callejones de Biaobei para que vivieran en casas adosadas como prostitutas para los soldados. El extremo oeste de este callejón estaba bloqueado para evitar que se escaparan, el extremo este era la única vía de entrada o salida. Este camino estaba vigilado. Cualquier persona de las fuerzas aliadas podía entrar para disfrutar y violar a su antojo.

—Sara  268

Sawara también informa sobre las siete hijas del banderizo manchú Yulu 裕禄 [zh] del clan Hitara , el virrey de la provincia de Zhili (actual Hebei). Yulu se llevaba bien con los invasores. Era un hombre que siempre buscaba crear buenas impresiones, y debido a esto, el cónsul británico en Tianjin le ofreció asilo a bordo de uno de los barcos de Su Majestad por su lealtad a los británicos (Fleming 84). Más tarde en la guerra, Yulu pereció en la batalla de Yangcun. Cuando cayó Pekín, los aliados secuestraron a sus siete hijas y luego las enviaron al Palacio Celestial en Pekín, donde fueron violadas repetidamente. Luego fueron retenidas cautivas como esclavas sexuales para los soldados en una de las mansiones de violación mencionadas anteriormente (Sawara 268). [148]

Otra historia cuenta el destino que corrieron las mujeres de la casa de Chongqi. Chongqi 崇绮 [zh] era un noble del clan mongol Alute y un erudito de alto rango en la corte imperial manchú. También era el suegro del emperador anterior. Su esposa y una de sus hijas, al igual que las hijas de Yulu, fueron capturadas por los soldados invasores. Fueron llevadas al Templo Celestial, mantenidas cautivas y luego brutalmente violadas por docenas de soldados de la Alianza de las Ocho Naciones durante todo el transcurso de la ocupación de Beijing. Solo después de la retirada de la Alianza de las Ocho Naciones, la madre y la hija regresaron a casa, solo para ahorcarse de las vigas. Tras este descubrimiento, Chongqi, desesperado, pronto siguió su ejemplo (Sawara 266). Se ahorcó el 26 de agosto de 1900. Su hijo, Baochu, y muchos otros miembros de la familia se suicidaron poco después (Fang 75). [149]

Muchos abanderados manchúes en Pekín apoyaron a los bóxers en la Rebelión de los Bóxers y compartieron su sentimiento antiextranjero. [150] Los abanderados manchúes quedaron devastados por los combates durante la Primera Guerra Sino-Japonesa y la Rebelión de los Bóxers, sufriendo bajas masivas durante las guerras y siendo posteriormente conducidos a un sufrimiento y una penuria extremos. [151] Las fuerzas de la Alianza de las Ocho Naciones , tras la captura de Pekín , emprendieron violentos ataques contra los civiles manchúes, saqueando, violando y asesinando a numerosos civiles con los que se cruzaron en su camino. El número de mujeres que se suicidaron se contaba por miles. [152] Un periodista occidental, George Lynch, dijo "hay cosas que no debo escribir, y que no pueden ser impresas en Gran Bretaña, que parecerían mostrar que esta civilización occidental nuestra es meramente una apariencia de salvajismo". [144] Las ocho naciones de la alianza participaron en saqueos y violaciones de guerra. Luella Miner escribió que el comportamiento de los rusos y los franceses era particularmente espantoso. Las mujeres y las niñas Qing se suicidaban para evitar ser violadas. El comandante francés desestimó las violaciones, atribuyéndolas a la "valentía de los soldados franceses". [144]

Las propiedades manchúes, incluidos caballos y ganado, fueron saqueadas mientras sus aldeas fueron quemadas por los cosacos rusos mientras los manchúes fueron expulsados ​​como refugiados y masacrados por los cosacos rusos según SM Shirokogoroff cuando estaba en Heilongjiang a lo largo de la guarnición del río Amur de Heihe (Aihun). [153] Las guarniciones de estandartes manchúes fueron aniquiladas en 5 carreteras por los rusos ya que sufrieron la mayoría de las bajas. El manchú Shoufu se suicidó durante la batalla de Pekín y el padre del manchú Lao She fue asesinado por soldados occidentales en la batalla mientras los ejércitos de estandartes manchúes de la División Central del Ejército de Guardias, la División del Espíritu del Tigre y la fuerza de campo de Pekín en los estandartes metropolitanos fueron masacrados por los soldados occidentales. El barón von Ketteler, el diplomático alemán fue asesinado por el capitán Enhai, un manchú de la División del Espíritu del Tigre de Aisin Gioro Zaiyi, el príncipe Duan y el Cuartel de la Legación de la ciudad interior y la catedral católica fueron atacados por abanderados manchúes. Los banderizos manchúes fueron masacrados por la Alianza de las Ocho Naciones en toda Manchuria y Pekín porque la mayoría de ellos apoyaban a los bóxers en la rebelión de los bóxers. [154] El sistema de clanes de los manchúes en Aigun fue aniquilado por el despojo de la zona a manos de los invasores rusos. [155]

Guerra ruso-japonesa

En 1905 se informó que muchas mujeres rusas fueron violadas por tropas japonesas, lo que provocó una propagación de enfermedades venéreas en muchas tropas japonesas después de la guerra ruso-japonesa . [156] Hal Gold estimó que hubo 20.000 incidentes registrados de violación contra mujeres rusas. [157]

África del Sudoeste Alemana

En el África sudoccidental alemana, durante la rebelión herero contra el dominio alemán (y el posterior genocidio herero y namaqua ), los soldados alemanes participaban regularmente en violaciones en grupo [158] antes de matar a las mujeres o dejarlas morir en el desierto; varias mujeres herero también fueron obligadas violentamente a prostituirse involuntariamente . [159] [160] : 31  [161]

Revolución Xinhai

En octubre de 1911, durante la revolución de Xinhai , los revolucionarios asaltaron el barrio manchú de Xi'an . La mayoría de los 20.000 manchúes de la ciudad fueron asesinados. [162] [163] La comunidad musulmana hui estaba dividida en su apoyo a la revolución. Los musulmanes hui de Shaanxi apoyaron a los revolucionarios, mientras que los musulmanes hui de Gansu apoyaron a los Qing. Los musulmanes hui nativos (mahometanos) de Xi'an (provincia de Shaanxi) se unieron a los revolucionarios chinos han en la masacre de los manchúes. [164] [165] [166] Algunos manchúes ricos sobrevivieron gracias a un rescate . Los chinos han ricos esclavizaron a las niñas manchúes [167] y las tropas chinas han pobres se apoderaron de las jóvenes manchúes como esposas. [168] Los musulmanes hui también se apoderaron de las jóvenes manchúes bonitas y las criaron como musulmanas. [169]

Un misionero británico que presenció la masacre comentó que "viejos y jóvenes, hombres y mujeres, niños por igual, fueron masacrados... Las casas fueron saqueadas y luego quemadas; aquellos que hubieran querido permanecer escondidos hasta que pasara la tormenta, fueron obligados a salir al aire libre. Los revolucionarios, protegidos por un parapeto de la muralla, arrojaron un fuego pesado, incesante e implacable sobre la ciudad tártara (manchú) condenada, y aquellos que intentaron escapar de allí hacia la ciudad china fueron aniquilados al salir por las puertas". [162] [170]

Primera Guerra Mundial

"Remember Belgium", cartel de propaganda estadounidense impreso durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, que retrata el destino de Bélgica . Se da a entender la violación de la joven que representa a Bélgica . [171]

Se presume que se cometieron violaciones durante el avance alemán a través de Bélgica en los primeros meses de la guerra. [172] Después de la guerra, el historiador Harold D. Lasswell descartó las acusaciones de violación como propaganda en su estudio de 1927 de orientación freudiana, "La técnica de la propaganda en la guerra mundial". [173] [174] En septiembre de 1914, el gobierno francés creó una comisión, que también estuvo presente en Bélgica, para investigar los informes de violaciones cometidas por soldados alemanes; sin embargo, como ha documentado la historiadora Ruth Harris, las investigaciones tenían más como objetivo alimentar las narrativas de nacionalismo y odio cultural hacia Alemania. Las historias individuales de las mujeres afectadas se utilizaron para justificar la guerra y venderla a los civiles. [175] [176] : 13 

República Soviética de Baviera

Manfred Freiherr von Killinger contó cómo, durante la derrota de la República Soviética de Baviera , ordenó que azotaran a una simpatizante comunista "hasta que no quedara ni una mancha blanca en su trasero". [177]

Genocidio armenio

Las violaciones fueron una práctica generalizada durante el genocidio armenio cometido por los turcos otomanos. Durante las marchas de la muerte de civiles armenios a través de Anatolia en 1915, los soldados turcos violaron y asesinaron con frecuencia a mujeres y niños armenios. En muchos casos, los civiles turcos también participaron en estos crímenes. [178] [179]

Aunque las mujeres armenias intentaban evadir la violencia sexual, el suicidio era con frecuencia su único recurso. [180] Las mujeres eran exhibidas desnudas en Damasco y eran traficadas como esclavas sexuales, lo que constituía una importante fuente de ingresos para los soldados que las acompañaban. [181]

Segunda Guerra Mundial

Se ha documentado la ocurrencia, a veces generalizada y sistemática, de violaciones de guerra de civiles enemigos y aliados por parte de soldados. Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial y en sus secuelas inmediatas, las violaciones de guerra ocurrieron en una variedad de situaciones, que abarcaron desde la esclavitud sexual institucionalizada hasta las violaciones de guerra asociadas con batallas específicas.

Asia

Rangún , Birmania . 8 de agosto de 1945. Una joven de etnia china de uno de los "batallones de confort" del Ejército Imperial Japonés es entrevistada por un oficial aliado .

Ejército Imperial Japonés

El término " mujeres de solaz " es un eufemismo para las aproximadamente 200.000 mujeres, en su mayoría coreanas, chinas, vietnamitas, birmanas, japonesas, taiwanesas y filipinas, que fueron obligadas a servir como esclavas sexuales en burdeles militares japoneses durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. [182] [183]

El profesor de la Universidad de Chuo, Yoshiaki Yoshimi, afirma que había alrededor de 2.000 centros donde se internaba y utilizaba como esclavas sexuales a unas 200.000 mujeres japonesas, chinas, coreanas, filipinas, taiwanesas, birmanas, indonesias, timorenses, papúes, micronesias, holandesas y australianas. [184] Había centros de mujeres de solaz en China, Hong Kong, Taiwán, Japón, Corea del Norte y del Sur, Malasia, Indonesia, Filipinas, Birmania, Tailandia, Camboya, Vietnam, Nueva Guinea, las islas Kuriles y Sajalín. [185] [186]

En la Masacre de Nanjing , los soldados japoneses agredieron sexualmente a mujeres chinas que estaban atrapadas en la ciudad de Nanjing cuando cayó en manos de los japoneses el 13 de diciembre de 1937. El Tribunal Militar Internacional para el Lejano Oriente estimó que 20.000 mujeres y niños fueron violados o agredidos sexualmente de otro modo durante el primer mes de la ocupación. [187] Iris Chang estimó que el número de mujeres chinas violadas por soldados japoneses osciló entre 20.000 y 80.000. [188]

Los japoneses obligaron a las mujeres vietnamitas a convertirse en mujeres de consuelo y, junto con las mujeres birmanas, indonesias, tailandesas y filipinas, constituyeron una porción notable de las mujeres de consuelo asiáticas en general. [189] El uso japonés de mujeres malasias y vietnamitas como mujeres de consuelo fue corroborado por muchos testimonios diferentes. [190] [191] [192] [193] [194] [195]

En Java, los japoneses reclutaron a muchas muchachas javanesas como mujeres de solaz y las llevaron a Nueva Guinea, Malasia, Tailandia y otras zonas ajenas a Indonesia, además de utilizarlas en la propia Java. Cuando reclutaban a estas muchachas, los japoneses mentían a los javaneses diciéndoles que sus muchachas se convertirían en camareras y actrices. [196] Los japoneses destruyeron muchos documentos relacionados con la violación de muchachas javanesas indonesias al final de la guerra, por lo que la verdadera magnitud de la violación en masa es incontable, pero los testigos testifican que hay nombres y relatos de mujeres de solaz javanesas indonesias. [197]

En una ocasión, los japoneses intentaron disfrazar a las niñas de solaz javanesas que estaban violando como enfermeras de la Cruz Roja con brazaletes de la Cruz Roja cuando se entregaron a los soldados australianos en Kupang, Timor. [198] [199] [200] [201] [202]

En Bali, los japoneses acosaron sexualmente a las mujeres balinesas cuando llegaron y comenzaron a obligarlas a prostituirse en burdeles, y los hombres balineses y chinos eran los encargados de reclutarlas. Todos los burdeles de Bali contaban con personal balines. [203]

También se utilizaron como mujeres de solaz a mujeres melanesias de Nueva Guinea . Se reclutaron mujeres locales de Rabaul como mujeres de solaz, junto con un pequeño número de mujeres mixtas japonesas y papúes nacidas de padres japoneses y madres papúes. [204] Alrededor de 100 mujeres micronesias de la isla de Truk en las Carolinas también fueron utilizadas como mujeres de solaz. [205] [ ¿ Fuente autopublicada? ] [204]

Un número desconocido de mujeres y niños blancos fueron violados o agredidos sexualmente en varios lugares como Banoeng, Padang, Tarakan, Menado, la isla de Flores y Blora, al comienzo de la invasión y ocupación japonesa. En la isla de Bangka , la mayoría de las enfermeras australianas capturadas fueron violadas antes de ser asesinadas. [206]

JF van Wagtendonk y la Fundación de Radiodifusión Holandesa calcularon que un total de 400 niñas holandesas fueron sacadas de los campos para convertirlas en mujeres de solaz. [207] [208] [209] [210] Los soldados japoneses violaron a mujeres indonesias y holandesas en las Indias Orientales Neerlandesas. Muchas de las mujeres se infectaron con enfermedades de transmisión sexual como resultado de ello. [211]

Suharto silenció el debate público en Indonesia sobre los crímenes de guerra japoneses en Indonesia para detener la acumulación de sentimientos antijaponeses, pero esto sucedió de todos modos cuando se estrenó la película Romusha en 1973 y estallaron los disturbios de Peristiwa Malari (caso Malari) en Indonesia en 1974 contra Japón. Suharto también intentó silenciar el debate sobre los crímenes de guerra japoneses debido a los propios crímenes de guerra de Indonesia en Timor Oriental después de 1975, pero los indonesios comenzaron a hablar sobre las mujeres de solaz indonesias en la década de 1990 siguiendo el ejemplo de Corea. Mardyiem, una mujer de solaz indonesia de Java, habló de lo que le sucedió después de que las mujeres de solaz indonesias fueran entrevistadas por abogados japoneses, después de décadas de ser obligadas a permanecer en silencio. [212]

En Java, los indonesios provocaron tres grandes revueltas contra Japón. Los japoneses obligaron a los indonesios de Java Occidental en Cirebon a entregar una enorme cuota de arroz al ejército japonés, y los oficiales japoneses emplearon la brutalidad para extraer incluso más de la cuota oficial. Los indonesios de Cirebon se rebelaron dos veces y atacaron a los burócratas colaboradores indonesios y a los oficiales japoneses en 1944. Japón mató a muchos rebeldes indonesios mientras los aplastaba con fuerza letal. En Sukmana, Singapurna, la regencia de Tasikmalaya, el maestro religioso conservador Kiai Zainal Mustafa dijo a sus seguidores que en el mes en que naciera Mahoma obtendrían protección divina si él les daba una señal. En febrero de 1943, la Kempeitai japonesa se enteró de lo que estaba sucediendo y llegó a la zona, pero las carreteras estaban bloqueadas para detenerlos. Los aldeanos y estudiantes indonesios comenzaron a luchar contra los japoneses y se apoderaron del sable del jefe japonés para matarlo. Llegaron más japoneses y 86 japoneses y 153 aldeanos indonesios murieron en la lucha. Los japoneses arrestaron a Zainal y a otras 22 personas para ejecutarlas. Supriyadi lideró un motín de Peta contra los japoneses en febrero de 1945. [213]

Los japoneses violaron a mujeres de solaz malayas, pero el líder de la UMNO, Najib Razak, bloqueó todos los intentos de otros miembros de la UMNO, como Mustapha Yakub, de pedir a Japón una compensación y disculpas. [214] [215] [216] [217]

La amenaza de violación japonesa contra las niñas Chitty llevó a las familias Chitty a permitir que euroasiáticos, chinos e indios de sangre pura se casaran con niñas Chitty y dejaran de practicar la endogamia. [218]

Los soldados japoneses violaron a niñas y mujeres tamiles de la India que fueron obligadas a trabajar en el ferrocarril de Birmania. [219] [220] Esto provocó que los soldados japoneses contrajeran enfermedades venéreas como chancroide , sífilis y gonorrea . [221]

Ejército francés

Los civiles vietnamitas fueron robados, violados y asesinados por soldados franceses en Saigón cuando regresaron en agosto de 1945. [222] Las mujeres vietnamitas también fueron violadas en Vietnam del Norte por los franceses, como en Bảo Hà, el distrito de Bảo Yên , la provincia de Lào Cai y Phu Lu, lo que provocó que 400 vietnamitas entrenados por los franceses desertaran el 20 de junio de 1948. Las estatuas budistas fueron saqueadas y los vietnamitas fueron robados, violados y torturados por los franceses después de que los franceses aplastaran al Viet Minh en el norte de Vietnam en 194-1948 [ aclaración necesaria ], obligando al Viet Minh a huir a Yunnan, China, en busca de refugio y ayuda de los comunistas chinos. Un periodista francés fue informado por notables violadores vietnamitas: "Sabemos lo que es siempre la guerra. Entendemos que sus soldados se lleven nuestros animales, nuestras joyas, nuestros budas; es normal. Nos resignamos a que violen a nuestras esposas y a nuestras hijas; la guerra siempre ha sido así. Pero nos oponemos a que se nos trate de la misma manera, no sólo a nuestros hijos, sino a nosotros mismos, ancianos y dignatarios como somos". Las víctimas de violación vietnamitas se volvieron "medio locas". [223]

Ejército australiano

Una ex prostituta recordó que tan pronto como las tropas australianas llegaron a Kure a principios de 1946, "arrastraron a mujeres jóvenes a sus jeeps, las llevaron a la montaña y luego las violaron. Las oí gritar pidiendo ayuda casi todas las noches". [173] [224]

Ejército de los Estados Unidos

Las fuerzas estadounidenses cometieron un gran número de violaciones durante la batalla de Okinawa en 1945. [225] La oficina del Fiscal General informa que hubo 971 condenas por violación en el ejército estadounidense desde enero de 1942 hasta junio de 1947, lo que incluye una parte de la ocupación. [226]

El historiador de Okinawa Oshiro Masayasu (ex director de los Archivos Históricos de la Prefectura de Okinawa) escribe:

Poco después de que los marines estadounidenses desembarcaran, todas las mujeres de un pueblo de la península de Motobu cayeron en manos de los soldados estadounidenses. En ese momento, en el pueblo solo había mujeres, niños y ancianos, ya que todos los hombres jóvenes habían sido movilizados para la guerra. Poco después de desembarcar, los marines "limpiaron" todo el pueblo, pero no encontraron señales de las fuerzas japonesas. Aprovechando la situación, comenzaron a "cazar mujeres" a plena luz del día y sacaron a rastras a las que se escondían en el pueblo o en los refugios antiaéreos cercanos. [227]

Según Toshiyuki Tanaka, durante los primeros cinco años de la ocupación estadounidense de Okinawa se denunciaron 76 casos de violación o de violación-asesinato. Sin embargo, afirma que es probable que esa cifra no sea la verdadera, ya que la mayoría de los casos no fueron denunciados. [228]

Cuando los japoneses se rindieron, anticiparon que se producirían violaciones generalizadas durante la siguiente ocupación e hicieron rápidos esfuerzos para establecer burdeles para frenarlas.

A pesar de esta precaución, se informó de que se produjeron 1.336 violaciones durante los primeros diez días de la ocupación de la prefectura de Kanagawa , aunque también se ha dado una cifra similar para todo Japón. [229]

Se denunciaron casos individuales de violación por parte de miembros del Ejército de los Estados Unidos en Japón mientras sus fuerzas estaban estacionadas en el Japón de la posguerra , como el incidente de Yumiko-chan y el incidente de violación de Okinawa en 1995 .

Algunos historiadores afirman que se produjeron violaciones en masa durante la fase inicial de la ocupación. Por ejemplo, Fujime Yuki ha declarado que se produjeron 3.500 violaciones en el primer mes tras el desembarco de las tropas estadounidenses. [230] Tanaka relata que en Yokohama, la capital de la prefectura, hubo 119 violaciones conocidas en septiembre de 1945. [231] Al menos siete libros académicos y muchas otras obras afirman que hubo 1.336 violaciones denunciadas durante los primeros 10 días de la ocupación de la prefectura de Kanagawa . [232] Walsh afirma que esta cifra se originó en el libro de Yuki Tanaka, Horrores ocultos , y fue el resultado de que ese autor leyera mal las cifras de delitos en su fuente. [233] La fuente afirma que el Gobierno japonés registró 1.326 incidentes criminales de todo tipo que involucraron a las fuerzas estadounidenses, de los cuales un número no especificado fueron violaciones. [234]

Ejército soviético

During the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, Soviet and Mongolian soldiers attacked and raped Japanese civilians, often encouraged by the local Chinese population who were resentful of Japanese rule. The local Chinese population sometimes even joined in these attacks against the Japanese population with the Soviet soldiers. In one famous example, during the Gegenmiao massacre, Soviet soldiers, encouraged by the local Chinese population, raped and massacred over one thousand Japanese women and children. Property of the Japanese were also looted by the Soviet soldiers and Chinese. Many Japanese women married themselves to local Manchurian men to protect themselves from persecution by Soviet soldiers. These Japanese women mostly married Chinese men and became known as "stranded war wives" (zanryu fujin).

According to British and American reports, Soviet Red Army troops also looted and terrorized the local people of Shenyang located in Manchuria. A foreigner witnessed Soviet troops, formerly stationed in Berlin, who were allowed by the Soviet military to go into the city of Shenyang "for three days of rape and pillage".[235] The Soviet Army's reputation in the region was affected for years to come.

Konstantin Asmolov of the Center for Korean Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences dismisses Western accounts of Soviet violence against civilians in the Far East as exaggeration and rumor and contends that accusations of mass crimes by the Red Army inappropriately extrapolate isolated incidents regarding the nearly 2,000,000 Soviet troops in the Far East into mass crimes. According to him, such accusations are refuted by the documents of the time, from which it is clear that such crimes were far less of a problem than in Germany. Asmolov further asserts that the Soviets prosecuted their perpetrators while prosecution of German and Japanese "rapists and looters" in WWII was virtually unknown.[236]

Japanese women in Manchukuo were repeatedly raped by Russian soldiers every day including underage girls from the families of Japanese who worked for the military and the Manchukuo rail at Beian airport and Japanese military nurses. The Russians seized Japanese civilian girls at Beian airport where there were a total of 1000 Japanese civilians, repeatedly raping 10 girls each day as recalled by Yoshida Reiko and repeatedly raped 75 Japanese nurses at the Sunwu military hospital in Manchukuo during the occupation. The Russians rejected all the pleading by the Japanese officers to stop the rapes. The Japanese were told by the Russians that they had to give their women for rape as war spoils.[237][238][239][240][241][242]

Soviet soldiers raped Japanese women from a group of Japanese families that were with Yamada Tami that attempted to flee their settlements in 14 August and go to Mudanjiang. Another group of Japanese women that were with Ikeda Hiroko that on 15 August tried to flee to Harbin but returned to their settlements were raped by Soviet soldiers.[243]

Europe

British Army

Italian statistics record eight rapes and nineteen attempted rapes by British service members in Italy between September 1943, when the invasion of Sicily occurred, and December 1945.[244] Although far from the scale of those committed by American, German or Soviet soldiers, rapes and other forms of sexual assault were committed by British forces in Allied-occupied Germany during the last months of World War II. Though a high priority for the Royal Military Police, some commanders proved reluctant to prosecute their men.[245] There were also reports of sexual assaults committed by British soldiers in Belgium and the Netherlands after their liberation from German occupation, and a number of men were convicted of these crimes while fraternizing with Dutch and Belgian families during the winter of 1944–45.[245]

Italian Army

During the Axis occupation of Greece, the Royal Italian Army committed numerous rapes and other forms of sexual assault against local Greek women. The 24th Infantry Division "Pinerolo" was among the Italian military units which committed rapes in Greece.[246] Italian soldiers also committed rapes in Yugoslavia and France during World War II, and the Italian participation on the Eastern Front was marked by numerous instances of sexual exploitation and rape by Italian troops.[247]

Wehrmacht

Rapes were committed by Wehrmacht forces on Jewish women and girls during the Invasion of Poland in September 1939;[248] they were also committed against Polish, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian women and girls during mass executions which were primarily carried out by the Selbstschutz units, with the assistance of Wehrmacht soldiers who were stationed in territory that was under the administration of the German military; the rapes were committed against female captives before they were shot.[249] Only one case of rape was prosecuted by a German court during the military campaign in Poland, and even then the German judge found the perpetrator guilty of Rassenschande (committing a shameful act against his race as defined by the racial policy of Nazi Germany), rather than rape.[250] Jewish women were particularly vulnerable to rape during The Holocaust.[251][self-published source?]

Rapes were also committed by German forces stationed on the Eastern Front, where they were largely unpunished (as opposed to rapes committed in Western Europe); the overall number of rapes is difficult to establish due to the lack of prosecutions of the crime by German courts.[252][253] The Wehrmacht also established a system of military brothels, in which young women and girls from occupied territories were forced into prostitution under harsh conditions.[250] In the Soviet Union women were kidnapped by German forces for prostitution as well; one report by the International Military Tribunal writes "in the city of Smolensk the German Command opened a brothel for officers in one of the hotels into which hundreds of women and girls were driven; they were mercilessly dragged down the street by their arms and hair."[254]

French Colonial Army

French Moroccan troops, known as Goumiers, committed rapes and other atrocities in Italy after the Battle of Monte Cassino[255] and in Germany. In Italy, the mass rapes committed after the Battle of Monte Cassino by Goumiers, colonial troops of the French Expeditionary Corps, are known as Marocchinate. According to Italian sources, more than 7,000 Italian civilians, including women and children, were raped by Goumiers.[256]

French Senegalese troops too, known as Senegalese Tirailleurs, who landed on the island of Elba on 17 June 1944, were responsible for mass rapes, though their behaviour was considered less brutal than that of the French North African troops in continental Italy.[257]

US Army

Secret wartime files made public in 2006 revealed that American GIs committed at least 400 sexual offenses in Europe, including 126 rapes in the United Kingdom, between 1942 and 1945.[258][259] A study by Robert J. Lilly estimates that at least a total of 14,000 civilian women in Britain, France and Germany were raped by American GIs during World War II.[260][261] It is estimated that there were at least 3,500 rapes by American servicemen in France between June 1944 and the end of the war and one historian has claimed that sexual violence against women in liberated France was common.[262] In the 2007 publication Taken by Force, sociology and criminology professor J. Robert Lilly estimates US soldiers raped at least 11,040 women and children during the occupation of Germany.[263] Many armed soldiers committed gang rapes at gunpoint against female civilians and children.[264]

Red Army

During the war, German women were victims of brutal mass rapes committed against them by Soviet soldiers.[265][266] Polish sources claim that mass rapes were committed in Polish cities that had been taken by the Red Army. It is reported that in Kraków, the Soviet occupation was accompanied by the mass rape of Polish women and girls, as well as the plunder of all private property by Soviet soldiers. Reportedly the scale of the attacks prompted communists installed by the Soviets to prepare a letter of protest to Joseph Stalin, while masses in churches were held in expectation of a Soviet withdrawal.[267]

At the end of World War II, Red Army soldiers are estimated to have raped around 2,000,000 German women and girls.[268][269] Norman Naimark, a historian and fellow at the conservative Hoover Institution, writes in The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 that although the exact number of women and girls who were raped by members of the Red Army in the months preceding the capitulation, and in the years following it, will never be known, their numbers are likely to be in the hundreds of thousands, quite possibly as high as the two million victims estimated by Barbara Johr, in Befreier und Befreite. Many of these victims were raped repeatedly.

Atina Grossman in her article in October[270] describes how until early 1945, the abortions in Germany were illegal except for medical and eugenic reasons and so doctors opened up and started performing abortions to rape victims for which only an affidavit was requested from a woman. It was also typical that women specified their reasons for abortions as being mostly socio-economic (inability to raise another child), rather than moral or ethical.

A female Soviet war correspondent described what she had witnessed: "The Russian soldiers were raping every German female from eight to eighty. It was an army of rapists." The majority of the rapes were committed in the Soviet occupation zone and an estimated two million German women were raped by Soviet soldiers.[271][272][273][274][275] According to historian William Hitchcock, in numerous cases women were victims of repeated rapes with some women being raped as many as 60 to 70 times.[276] A minimum of 100,000 women are believed to have been raped in Berlin, based on surging abortion rates in the following months and on hospital reports written at the time,[273] with an estimated 10,000 women dying in the aftermath.[277] Female deaths resulting from rapes committed by Soviet soldiers stationed in Germany are estimated to total 240,000.[278][279] Antony Beevor describes it as the "greatest phenomenon of mass rape in history", and he has concluded that at least 1.4 million women were raped in East Prussia, Pomerania and Silesia alone.[280] According to Natalya Gesse, Soviet soldiers raped German females who were anywhere from eight to 80 years old. Soviet women were not spared either.[281][282][283]

Antony Beevor estimates that up to half of all rape victims were victims of gang rapes. Naimark states that not only did each victim have to carry the trauma with her for the rest of her days, it also inflicted a massive collective trauma on the East German nation. Naimark concludes "The social psychology of women and men in the Soviet zone of occupation was marked by the crime of rape from the first days of the occupation, through the founding of the GDR in the fall of 1949, until, one could argue, the present."[284] Some 90% of raped Berlin women in 1945 contracted sexually transmitted infections, and 3.7% of all children born in Germany from 1945 to 1946 had Soviet fathers.[285] The history of the Soviet rape of German women was considered a taboo subject until after the dissolution of the USSR and East Germany.[286]

At the end of the war, Yugoslav communist leaders protested to Stalin about the large number of rapes committed by Soviet troops who had liberated parts of Yugoslavia. According to Milovan Djilas, Stalin replied, "Can't he [Djilas] understand it if a soldier who has crossed thousands of kilometres through blood and fire and death has fun with a woman or takes some trifle?"[287]

Soviet soldiers raped up to 800,000 Hungarian women according to Fruzsina Skrabski who made a film about the rapes and many Hungarian women became infected with STDs and became pregnant from it. Soviet veterans admitted to Skrabski that they had sex with the Hungarian women but said it was consensual and not rape and that they received STDs from the women.[288][289]

Korean War

During 11 months of 1952 in the 110,000-man logistics branch of Chinese Volunteer Army, there were 41 men charged with rapes.[290]

Algerian War

Algerian woman sexually abused by the French army

Rape and other sexual violence against women was commonly used by French troops and opposing members of the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) during the Algerian War.[291][292]

Vietnam War

Rape during the Vietnam War included sexual violence and rapes directed against Vietnamese civilians by United States and South Korean troops.[293][294] According to Sabine Cherenfant, "some children likely were conceived through consensual relationships" while "many children were conceived through rape".[295]

Indonesia

The Indonesian invasion of East Timor and West Papua caused the murders of approximately 300,000 to 400,000 West Papuans and many thousands of women raped.[296][297]

Research by the Papuan Women's Working Group together with the Asia Justice Rights (AJAR) found 4 out 10 have either experienced shootings, torture, sexual violence, arbitrary detention, husbands/family members lost or killed, husbands/family members detained, or property theft/damaging.[298][299]

1971 genocide in Bangladesh

During the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, numerous women were tortured and raped by the Pakistani army. Exact numbers are not known and are a subject of debate. Most of the women were captured from Dhaka University and private homes and kept as sex-slaves inside the Dhaka Cantonment.[300] Australian Doctor Geoffrey Davis was brought to Bangladesh by the United Nation and International Planned Parenthood Federation to carry out late-term abortions on rape victims. He was of the opinion that the 200,000 to 400,000 rape victims was an underestimation. On the actions of Pakistan army he said "They'd keep the infantry back and put artillery ahead and they would shell the hospitals and schools. And that caused absolute chaos in the town. And then the infantry would go in and begin to segregate the women. Apart from little children, all those were sexually matured would be segregated ... And then the women would be put in the compound under guard and made available to the troops ... Some of the stories they told were appalling. Being raped again and again and again. A lot of them died in those [rape] camps".[301]

Bangladeshi women were raped during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 by the Pakistan army during night raids on villages.[302][303] Pakistani sources claim the number is much lower, though having not completely denied rape incidents.[226][304][305] One work that has included direct experiences from the women raped is Ami Birangana Bolchi (The Voices of War Heroines) by Nilima Ibrahim. The word Birangona (war heroine) is a title given, by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman after the war, to the women raped and tortured during the war. This was a conscious effort to alleviate any social stigma the women might face in the society. How successful this effort was is doubtful, though.

In June 2005, the United States Department of State organized a conference titled "South Asia in Crisis: United States Policy, 1961–1972" where Sarmila Bose, published a paper suggesting that the casualties and rape allegations in the war have been greatly exaggerated for political purposes. This work has been criticized in Bangladesh and her research has been attacked by expatriate Bengalis.[306]

During the war Bengali nationalists also indulged in the mass rape of ethnic Bihari Muslim women, since the Bihari Muslim community had remained loyal to the cause of a united Pakistan.[307][308]

Anthony Mascarenhas, published a newspaper article in June 1971, in The Sunday Times, London on 13 June 1971 titled "Genocide". The article was the first that exposed the brutal crackdown by the Pakistan army.[309][310] It also highlighted the rape of Bihari women and other atrocities committed against them by Bengalis.[311] The Sunday Times editor Harold Evans wrote "He'd been shocked by the Bengali outrages in March, but he maintained that what the army was doing was altogether worse and on a grander scale".[310]

1974 to 1992

In 1974, during the invasion of Cyprus by Turkey, Greek victims of rape were treated and received abortions at the British RAF bases at Akrotiri.[312] Other documented instances of war rape include the First Liberian Civil War, and in East Timor during the occupation by Indonesia in 1975.[313][314]

It has been reported that in Peru, throughout the 12-year internal conflict, women were frequent victims of sustained war rape perpetrated by government security forces and the Shining Path.[302][313] It has also been reported that during the August 1990 invasion of Kuwait, an estimated 5,000 Kuwaiti women were raped by Iraqi soldiers, and at least one American POW was raped by Iraqi troops.[313][315]

Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

The Soviet forces abducted Afghan women in helicopters while flying in the country in search of mujahideen. In November 1980 a number of such incidents had taken place in various parts of the country, including Laghman and Kama. Soviet soldiers as well as KhAD agents kidnapped young women from the city of Kabul and the areas of Darul Aman and Khair Khana, near the Soviet garrisons, to rape them.[316] Women who returned home were considered 'dishonoured' by their families.[317]

Tigray War

Protestor holding sign in support of women in Tigray

Sexual violence in the Tigray War[318] included, according to the United Nations Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict, Pramila Patten, people forced to rape family members, "sex in exchange for basic commodities", and "increases in the demand for emergency contraception and testing for sexually transmitted infections".[319]

As of August 2021, the number of rape victims ranged from a minimum estimate of 512–516 rapes registered with hospitals in early 2021[320][321] to 10,000 rapes, according to British parliamentarian Helen Hayes, and 26,000 women needing sexual and gender-based violence services, according to the United Nations Population Fund.[322][323] Several claims have been made implicating both sides of the conflict in the systematic use of rape as a weapon of war against the civilian population.[324][325][321][326][327]

Myanmar civil war

The Myanmar Armed Forces has used multiple forms of sexual violence against civilians for decades, including rape, gang rape, coerced sex, forced marriage, and sexual slavery, and has been singled out by the Secretary-General of the United Nations since 2012.[328] Since the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état, the military has escalated its systemic use of sexual violence, especially against women and political prisoners.[328][329] Survivors face societal and legal challenges in reporting their crimes.[328] During the Tar Taing massacre in March 2023, army troops raped and sexually assaulted at least 3 women before executing them.[330][331]

2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Ukrainian officials, rights groups, and international media reported growing evidence of sexual violence used by Russian military against Ukrainian women. Survivors of Russian occupation of the areas around Kyiv, such as Bucha, reported gang-rapes, assaults taking place at gunpoint, and rapes committed in front of children.[332][333] Lyudmyla Denisova, Ukraine's Human Rights Commissioner, stated that sexual violence against civilians was weaponized by Russian soldiers as part of what she referred to as "genocide of Ukrainian people". According to Denisova, as of 6 April 2022, a special telephone helpline had received at least 25 reports of rape of women and girls from Bucha, aged between 14 and 24.[334] The Security Service of Ukraine posted a recording allegedly of a Russian woman encouraging her deployed partner to rape Ukrainian women as long as he uses protection.[335]

In October 2022, a UN official stated that Russia was using rape as part of its "military strategy", and that the actual number of victims was likely far higher than the official statistics.[336]

2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel

The UN's Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict, Pramila Patten reported in March 2024, with the "full cooperation" of the Israeli government,[337] that there was "clear and convincing information" that Israeli hostages in Gaza experienced "sexual violence, including rape, sexualized torture, and cruel, inhumane and degrading treatment", that there are "reasonable grounds" to believe such abuse is "ongoing"[338][339] and there was also "reasonable grounds to believe that conflict-related sexual violence occurred during the 7 October attacks in multiple locations across Gaza periphery, including rape and gang-rape, in at least three locations."[340][341][338] The report was not a full and legal investigation but designed to "collect and verify allegations", and thus the team highlighted that their conclusion "falls below 'beyond a reasonable doubt'."[342] Consequently, later on 23 April 2024, the UN refused to acknowledge the rape allegations against Hamas and did not include the group in the blacklist of state and non-state parties guilty of sexual violence in 2023 due to the lack of credible evidence [343][344][345]

Causes

Wars and civil conflicts can create a "culture of violence"[346] or a "culture of impunity"[347] towards human rights abuses of civilians. During periods of armed conflict, there are structures, actors, and processes at a number of levels that affect the likelihood of violence against civilians.[348][349]Sexual violence is one of many types of violence directed against civilians in wartime situations.[4]

Among some armies, looting of civilian areas is considered a way for soldiers to supplement their often meager income, which can be unstable if soldiers are not paid on time. Some militias that cannot afford to adequately pay their troops promote pillaging as a compensation for victory, and rape of civilians can be seen as a reward for winning battles.[5][350]

According to UNICEF, "systematic rape is often used as a weapon of war in ethnic cleansing," having been used in various armed conflicts throughout the twentieth century alone, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, Uganda, and Vietnam.[351] In 2008, the United Nations Security Council argued that "women and girls are particularly targeted by the use of sexual violence, including as a tactic of war to humiliate, dominate, instil fear in, disperse and/or forcibly relocate civilian members of a community or ethnic group."[352]

Inger Skjelsbæ carried out a review of 140 publications explaining wartime sexual violence. She argues that explanations must take account of the increased general risk of rape, that certain groups of women are at more risk of rape, and that men are raped.[353]: 83  She distinguishes three classes of explanations of rape: essentialist, that view rape during war as an intrinsic part of male behavior; structuralist, that view rape as having a political component; and social constructionist, that view rape as having a particular meaning depending on context. In the structuralist framework, rape may be seen as a form of torture designed to destroy a woman's identity as a woman within a particular culture, or to destroy an ethnic community itself. She cites examples of women being raped in front of other civilians, and different groups of women being more likely to experience sexual violence. In the social constructionist framework, she cites work that argues that the act of sexual intercourse can be used to feminize one participant and masculinize another, so the rape of men can seem to damage the identity of those who are raped by feminizing them.[353]: 77 

Dara Kay Cohen argues that some military groups use gang rape to bond soldiers and create a sense of cohesion within units, particularly when troops are recruited by force.[354][4] Amnesty International argues that in modern conflicts rape is used deliberately as a military strategy.[355] Amnesty International describes war rape as a "weapon of war" or a "means of combat"[7] used for the purpose of conquering territory by expelling the population therefrom, decimating remaining civilians by destroying their links of affiliations, by the spread of AIDS, and by eliminating cultural and religious traditions. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak characterizes "group rape perpetrated by the conquerors" as "a metonymic celebration of territorial acquisition".[356]

Evidence provided by Cohen also suggests that some militaries that use child soldiers use rape as a maturation ritual to increase the tolerance of troops for violence, especially in patriarchal societies that equate masculinity with dominance and control. Some refugees and internally displaced people experience human trafficking for sexual or labour exploitation due to the breakdown of economies and policing in conflict regions.[10] In some conflicts, rape is used as a means of extracting information to force women and girls to give up the location of arms caches. In discussing gang rape as a means of bonding among soldiers, Cohen discusses the viewpoint of "combatant socialization", in which military groups use gang rape as a socialization tactic during armed conflict. By using gang rape during armed conflict, militia group members:

  1. Prompt feelings of power and achievement
  2. Establish status and a reputation for aggressiveness
  3. Create an enhanced feeling of masculinity through bonding and bragging
  4. Demonstrate dedication to the group and a willingness to take risks

While war rape may not be an apparent tool or weapon of war, it does serve as a primary tool to create a cohesive military group.[354]

Legitimisation

Some political and military leaders publicly suggested during the twenty-first century that wartime sexual violence is legitimate in the sense that it is humorous, insignificant in comparison to military deaths, or expected.[357][358]

In January 2019, Ethiopian prime minister Abiy Ahmed stated, "So, if you're wondering what the proportion of Oromo in Tigray is, leave it for DNA to find out. [Hilarity in the audience] It's probably wrong to say this, but: those who went to Adwa, to fight, didn't just go and come back. Each of them had about 10 kids. [Loud laughter of the audience and applause]."[357] On 21 March 2021, during the Tigray War that started in early November 2020, Abiy suggested that sexual violence in the war was insignificant compared to military deaths, stating, "The women in Tigray? These women have only been penetrated by men, whereas our soldiers were penetrated by a knife."[357] An unnamed Ethiopian general was quoted by physical geographer Jan Nyssen as stating during early 2021 that, in the context of the Tigray War, rape during wartime was "expected", but should not happen in the presence of federal police or administrative officials.[357] Peace researcher Alex de Waal interpreted the comments by the prime minister as Abiy "jok[ing] about" gang rape.[358]

Gender

Rape of women

Susan Brownmiller was the first historian to attempt an overview of rape in war with documentation and theory.[173] Brownmiller's thesis is that "War provides men with the perfect psychological backdrop to give vent to their contempt for women. The maleness of the military—the brute power of weaponry exclusive to their hands, the spiritual bonding of men at arms, the manly discipline of orders given and orders obeyed, the simple logic of the hierarchical command—confirms for men what they long suspect—that women are peripheral to the world that counts." She writes that rape accompanies territorial advance by the winning side in land conflicts as one of the spoils of war, and that "Men who rape are ordinary Joes, made unordinary by entry into the most exclusive male-only club in the world."

An estimated 45 million plus civilians died during World War II. Male and female civilians may be subject to torture, but many studies show that war rape is more frequently perpetrated on women than men.[359][302] This may be due to the reluctance of men to come forward with accusations of being raped, and also an institutional bias amongst NGOs, who frequently focus resources on female victims.[360] However rape against women is also underreported.[361] Perpetrators of sexual violence against women and children "commonly include not only enemy civilians and troops but also allied and national civilians and even comrades in arms."[359]

The victims of war rape are usually "civilians", a category first recognized in the 19th century.[14] Although war rape of women is documented throughout history, laws protecting civilians in armed conflict have tended not to recognize sexual assault on women. Even when laws of war have recognized and forbidden sexual assault, few prosecutions have been brought. According to Kelly Dawn Askin, the laws of war perpetuated the attitude that sexual assaults against women are less significant crimes, not worthy of prosecution.[362] Until the early twenty-first century, war rape had been a hidden element of war. Human Rights Watch linked the hidden aspect to the largely gender-specific character of war rape – abuse committed by men against women. This gender-specific character has contributed to war rape being "narrowly portrayed as sexual or personal in nature, a portrayal that depoliticizes sexual abuse in conflict and results in its being ignored as a war crime."[302]

"To the victor go the spoils" has been a war cry for centuries, and women classed as part of the spoils of war.[11] Furthermore, war rape has been downplayed as an unfortunate but inevitable side effect of sending men to war.[302] Also, war rape has in the past been regarded as a tangible reward to soldiers (who were paid irregularly), and as a soldier's proof of masculinity and success.[15] In reference to war rape in ancient times, Harold Washington argues that warfare itself is imaged as rape, and that the cities attacked are its victims. He argues that war rape occurs in the context of stereotypes about women and men, which are part of the basic belief that violent power belongs to men, and that women are its victims.[363]

Rape of men

The rape of men by other men is also common in war. A 2009 study by Lara Stemple[364] found that it had been documented in conflicts worldwide; for example, 76% of male political prisoners in 1980s El Salvador and 80% of concentration camp inmates in Sarajevo reported being raped or sexually tortured. Stemple concludes that the "lack of attention to sexual abuse of men during conflict is particularly troubling given the widespread reach of the problem".[360][365] Mervyn Christian of Johns Hopkins School of Nursing has found that male rape is commonly underreported.[citation needed]

According to a survey published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in 2010, 30% of women and 22% of men from the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo reported that they had been subject to conflict-related sexual violence.[360] Despite the popular perception that rape during conflict is primarily targeted against women, these figures show that sexual violence committed against men is not a marginal occurrence. The lack of awareness for the magnitude of the rape of men during conflict relates to chronic underreporting. Although the physical and psychological repercussions from rape are similar for women and men, male victims tend to demonstrate an even greater reluctance to report their suffering to their families or the authorities.[366]

A 2011 story in The Guardian reports on war rape in Uganda: "[rape] is usually denied by the perpetrator and his victim. … Survivors are at risk of arrest by police, as they are likely to assume that they're gay – a crime in this country and in 38 of the 53 African nations. They will probably be ostracised by friends, rejected by family and turned away by the UN and the myriad international NGOs that are equipped, trained and ready to help women. … Often, [Salome Atim] says wives who discover their husbands have been raped decide to leave them. 'They ask me: "So now how am I going to live with him? As what? Is this still a husband? Is it a wife?" They ask, "If he can be raped, who is protecting me?"'"[360]

Sexual violence against men weaponizes ideas of gender and sexuality against victims, causing tremendous physical and mental pain to victims.[367] This weaponization can be especially damaging within conservative social environments in which homosexual intercourse – regardless of consent – is punished harshly. For example, some Ugandan male rape victims have not spoken out for fear of being branded as homosexual.[368] As homosexuality is widely condemned in Uganda, male victims of sexual violence often struggle to get proper support because they are accused of being gay. In certain cases, gender roles concerning violence and sexual conduct are so deeply ingrained that the mere existence of male rape is denied.[citation needed] In Nigeria, 81 percent of people are against human rights for homosexuals. A 2021 study showed that as a result, both victims and perpetrators justify the act as a form of spiritual security which will bring the perpetrators 'physical safety, material wealth or socio-political ascendancy.'[369]

Effects

Physical effects

A 2013 study lists the physical injury to the victims of war rape as traumatic injuries, sexually transmitted diseases, maternal mortality, unwanted pregnancies, unsafe abortions, and persistent gynecological problems are of major concern.[370] Because war rapes take place in zones of conflict, access to emergency contraception, antibiotics, and abortion are limited. Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is not uncommon.[371] In certain instances, women were taunted by soldiers with the threat of infection.[372]

Psychosocial workers with International Rescue Committee (IRC) help rape survivors in South Kivu DRC in 2010.

War rape may include physical rape of the male organ.[373] Gang rape and rape with human objects or physical objects, such as fists, sticks, rods, and gun barrels are also methods used in war rape. Women victims may suffer from incontinence and vaginal fistula as a result of these particularly violent instances of rape.[374] Vaginal fistula is a medical condition of vaginal abnormality where there is hole in the vagina in close proximity to the colon (anus or rectum) or bladder.[375] In some cases, it is a birth defect, in others it is a result of female genital cutting[376] (FGM) and rape. In extreme instances of violent rape in war, the walls of the vagina are torn or punctured, resulting in severe pain and debilitating incontinence (urinary complications) and bowel containment.[374] Violent rape is also a cause of obstetric fistula which is a hole in the female organ and birth canal.[377]

Physical effects may also include bone breakage such as backbreaking and cranial cracks, causing future disability, visual and hearing impairment, and mental incapacitation.

Psychological effects

Victims and survivors of war rape are at very high risk of psychosocial problems.[378]

The short-term psychological injuries to the victims include feelings of fear, helplessness, sadness, disorientation, isolation, vulnerability, and desperation. If left untreated, the psychological effects of sexual assault and rape can be devastating, sometimes even deadly. Causes of death as the result of sexual violence include suicide and murder. Murder of sexual assault and rape victims may be perpetrated by the rapist or as part of an honor killing by family members of the victim.

Long-term psychological injuries may include depression, anxiety disorders (including post-traumatic stress syndrome (PTSS)), multiple somatic symptoms, flashbacks, on-going trauma, chronic insomnia, self-hatred, nightmares, paranoia, difficulty re-establishing intimate relationships, shame, disgust, anger, and persistent fears.[379] They could have trouble sleeping, experience changes in their appetite, or develop full-blown emotional problems, including posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, substance abuse, or dependence. Individuals who have experienced sexual assault are at risk for other day-to-day problems, including arguing with family members and having problems at work. Lack of medical psychological support resources also puts victims of war rape at further disadvantage.[380] Refugee women are also at a disadvantage of receiving adequate assistance to deal with the psychological consequences of war rape – not only do they lack legal representation, they also may lack protection from the perpetrators of the violent act.[380] Furthermore, there is an increase in dislike of refugees and asylum seekers which is another obstacle in the psychological healing process of victims seeking assistance outside of their countries that may still be under civil strife.[380] Psychological support and counseling sessions given by individuals not part of the ethnic, linguistic, or community may incite difficulties in communication between patient and caregiver. As a result, adequate emotional and psychological support to the victims is not fully developed, affecting the long-term healing potential for the patient.

Psychosocial and societal effects

In addition to the physical and psychological damages resulting from rape, sexual violence in the context of war often disrupt the linkages between the rape victims and their communities. Thus, the phenomenon of war rape can structurally affect entire societies, which is closely linked to the logic underlying the strategic use of rape as an instrument in armed conflicts. Raping 'enemy' women also constitutes an act of abuse and humiliation against the men of the community the victims were representative of.[381]

Research in 2019 suggests that wartime sexual violence may increase instances of intimate partner abuse in the affected society. A study on the aftermath of civil war in Peru estimated that in departments which had experienced conflict-related sexual violence, women in the department were at increased risk of intimate partner violence after the war.[382]

Besides the psychosocial effects on women as the most frequent victims of wartime rape, children born of rape are faced with distinct social stigmas. The existence of taboos around the issue of war rape can also be an obstacle to post-conflict reconciliation.[citation needed]

Stigmatization and isolation

Psychosocial consequences[380] of war rape describe how the linkages between victims and the society are altered as a result of sexual abuses during war. Both during and even more in the aftermath of conflict, when abuses become known, victims of war rape risk finding themselves in situations of social isolation, often abandoned by their husbands and rejected by their communities[383] The ordeal is thus not over with the survival of the act of abuse but has a long-term effect that can only to a limited extent be dealt with by the victims themselves. The process of re-victimization captures how victims of sexual violence continue to "receive additional hurt after the direct cause of victimization has disappeared"[384] with stigmatization and exclusion being among the main sources of re-victimization.[384]

This is particularly relevant in patriarchal societies, where female sexuality is linked to male honour, virginity is a core value, and where a culture considers ethnicity transmitted through male genes.[385][386] Given the ethnic dimension of sexuality, rape can become a means of ethnic cleansing or genocide, as has been claimed in relation to systematic instances of rape in Rwanda and Bosnia.[387] In this context, "rape as a weapon of war is not an individual issue, but a societal one."[388] In a number of countries, the targeted infection of women with HIV, which creates further suffering for victims experiencing social exclusion and discrimination for having HIV/AIDS.[389]

Impact on children who are born as a result of rape

War rape can have an equally strong and a long-lasting effect on children who are born as a result of it. On the one hand, these children may not be immediately identified and as a result, they might not find out about their origins until they reach a later point in their lives. In turn, if the children themselves but even more importantly, if the community knows about the 'war babies',[390] they risk being regarded as the 'other' by the communities into which they were born. Recurring patterns in countries which include Bosnia and Herzegovina, Uganda, Sierra Leone and Rwanda show how children who were born as a result of war rape and the mothers who do not want them both have to face struggles with regard to issues which are related to their identities – both in an administrative and a personal sense – and their rights are sometimes restricted, such as their right to obtain an education and their right to be protected from discrimination and physical harm.[391] Unwanted children who were born as a result of rape are potentially more vulnerable in both a psychological and a physical way and cases of child abandonment have been reported in various contemporary conflict and post-conflict societies.[392][393][394]

Impact on post-conflict reconciliation

The societal consequences of war rape can equally have a negative impact on post-conflict reconciliation and the judicial follow-up on wartime crimes, including rape. Given the stigmatisation of victims and their isolation or fear thereof, they might prefer to remain silent with regard to the violations they have suffered. Indeed, underreporting of cases of rape during armed conflict is a practical challenge post-conflict communities have to face that is pointed to by a number of actors, including the United Nations Secretary-General,[395] the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights[396] as well as international NGOs.[397]

As Human Rights Watch reported with regard to war rape during the Rwandan genocide, victims "expressed dismay at the fact that they were being urged to forget what happened to them in the name of peace and reconciliation".[397] The fear of consequences and threat of exclusion felt by the victims makes it difficult to establish clear figures of war rape incidents and to hold perpetrators accountable for the crimes they have committed, as has been claimed with regards to war rape in Darfur: "Underreporting of cases may be attributed to the stigma associated with rape, shame and fear of reprisal, denial that rape occurs, intimidation by many Government officials and the inability to access some conflict-affected areas".[398] This points to another difficulty victims of war rape have to deal with at the societal level. The perpetrators of rape are often officials or otherwise affiliated with the state's institutions, which might make reporting of assaults appear useless.[399]

Psychiatric care

Disrupted healthcare sectors is a term the World Health Organization describes for medical facilities that are destroyed or partially destroyed in war torn areas.[400] Health care facilities are essential for the establishment of support systems for rape victims. Psychological support units are also hampered by the lack of material resources available to the medical community on-ground. Medical practitioners and health-care workers face daunting challenges in conflict and post-conflict area.[302] As the WHO explains, "healthcare delivery fragments and deteriorates, memory and knowledge are eroded, and power disperses".[400]: 7  War-torn societies in immediate post-conflict zones have broken medical infrastructure such as: destroyed or partially destroyed hospitals (or clinics); non-functioning hospitals; poor, scarce or inadequate medical supplies, lack of running water, and scarce or lack of electricity. Dismantling weapons from armed rebels and other groups are prioritized in immediate post-conflict situations which in effect de-prioritizes the immediate physical and psychiatric care that war rape victims are in urgent need of. "If we do not have the capacity to prevent war, we have a collective responsibility to better understand and treat its psychiatric, medical, and social consequences."[401] Access to psychological health services further causes inequity for survivors of war rape who are at the margins of society living in chronic poverty or located in rural regions.[402][403] Healthcare and psychiatric care is a key component to the healing processes of war rape.[404]

Impact

Former Yugoslavia

Evidence of the magnitude of rape in Bosnia and Herzegovina prompted the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) to deal openly with these abuses.[29] The issue of rape during armed conflict was brought to the attention of the United Nations after the breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, in conjunction with the Bosnian war.[405] Reports of sexual violence during the Bosnian War (1992–1995) and Kosovo War (1998–1999), part of the Yugoslav wars, a series of conflicts from 1991 to 1999, have been described as "especially alarming".[406] During the Kosovo War thousands of Kosovo Albanian women and girls became victims of sexual violence by Serbian paramilitaries, soldiers or policemen. The majority of rapes were gang rapes.[407][408] Following the entry of NATO in the Kosovo War, rapes of Serbian, Albanian, and Roma women were committed by ethnic Albanians. Rapes by members of the Kosovo Liberation Army have also been documented.[409][408]

It has been estimated that during the Bosnian War between 20,000 and 50,000 women were raped. The majority of the rape victims were Muslim women raped by Serbian soldiers. Although men also became victim of sexual violence, war rape was disproportionately directed against women who were (gang) raped in the streets, in their homes and/or in front of family members. Sexual violence occurred in multiple ways, including rape with objects, such as broken glass bottles, guns and truncheons.[406] War rape occurred as a matter of official orders as part of ethnic cleansing, to displace the targeted ethnic group out of the region.[410][407]

During the Bosnian War, the existence of deliberately created "rape camps" was reported. The reported aim of these camps was to impregnate the Muslim and Croatian women held captive. It has been reported that often women were kept in confinement until the late stage of their pregnancy. This occurred in the context of a patrilineal society, in which children inherit their father's ethnicity, hence the "rape camps" aimed at the birth of a new generation of Serb children. According to the Women's Group Tresnjevka more than 35,000 women and children were held in such Serb-run "rape camps".[411][412][413]

During the Kosovo War thousands of Kosovar Albanian women and girls became victims of sexual violence. War rape was used as a weapon of war and an instrument of systematic ethnic cleansing; rape was used to terrorize the civilian population, extort money from families, and force people to flee their homes.[408] According to a 2000 Human Rights Watch report war rape in the Kosovo War can generally be subdivided into three categories: rapes in women's homes, rapes during fighting, and rapes in detention.[408] The majority of the perpetrators were Serbian paramilitaries,[408] but they also included Serbian special police or Yugoslav army soldiers. Most rapes were gang rapes involving at least two perpetrators.[408] Rapes occurred frequently in the presence, and with the acquiescence, of military officers. Soldiers, police, and paramilitaries often raped their victims in the full view of numerous witnesses.[407]

Mass rape in the Bosnian War

During the Bosnian War, Bosnian Serb forces conducted a sexual abuse strategy against thousands of Bosnian Muslim girls and women which became known as a "mass rape phenomenon". No exact figures on how many women and children were systematically raped by the Serb forces in various camps were established,[414][415][416] but estimates range from 20,000[417] to 50,000.[418] Mass rape mostly occurred in eastern Bosnia (especially during the Foča and Višegrad massacres), and in Grbavica during the Siege of Sarajevo. Numerous Bosnian Serb officers, soldiers and other participants were indicted or convicted of rape as a war crime by the ICTY and the Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina.[419][420] The events inspired the Golden Bear winner at the 56th Berlin International Film Festival in 2006, called Grbavica.

Rwandan genocide

During the Rwandan genocide, from April until July 1994, hundreds of thousands of women and girls were raped or became the victims of other forms of sexual violence.[409] Although no explicit written orders to commit rape and other acts of sexual violence have been found, evidence suggests that military leaders encouraged or ordered their men to rape the Tutsis, and they also condoned the acts which were already taking place, without making efforts to stop them.[421]

Compared to other conflicts, the sexual violence in Rwanda stands out in terms of the organised nature of the propaganda that contributed significantly to fuelling sexual violence against Tutsi women, the very public nature of the rapes and the level of brutality towards the women. Anne-Marie de Brouwer concludes that considering the massive scale and public nature of war rape during the Rwandan genocide, "it is difficult to imagine anybody in Rwanda who was not aware of the sexual violence taking place."[422]

In 1998, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda made the landmark decision that the war rape during the Rwanda genocide was an element of the crime of genocide. The Trial Chamber held that "sexual assault formed an integral part of the process of destroying the Tutsi ethnic group and that the rape was systematic and had been perpetrated against Tutsi women only, manifesting the specific intent required for those acts to constitute genocide."[37]

In his 1996 report, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Rwanda, Rene Degni-Segui stated that "rape was the rule and its absence was the exception." The report also stated that "rape was systematic and was used as a "weapon" by the perpetrators of the massacres. This can be estimated from the number and nature of the victims as well as from the forms of rape."[409] A 2000 report prepared by the Organisation of African Unity's International Panel of Eminent Personalities concluded that "we can be certain that almost all females who survived the genocide were direct victims of rape or other sexual violence, or were profoundly affected by it".[409]

The Special Rapporteur on Rwanda estimated in his 1996 report that between 2,000 and 5,000 pregnancies resulted from war rape, and that between 250,000 and 500,000 Rwandese women and girls had been raped.[409] Rwanda is a patriarchal society and children therefore take the ethnicity of the father, underlining the fact that war rape occurred in the context of genocide.[422]

Within the context of the Rwandan genocide, victims of sexual violence were predominantly attacked on the basis of their gender and ethnicity. The victims were mostly Tutsi women and girls, of all ages, while men were only seldom the victims of war rape. Women were demonized in the anti-Tutsi propaganda prior to the 1994 genocide.

The December 1990 issue of the newspaper Kangura published the "Ten Commandments", four of which portrayed Tutsi women as tools of the Tutsi community, as sexual weapons that would be used by the Tutsi to weaken and ultimately to destroy the Hutu men.[421] Gender based propaganda also included cartoons printed in newspapers that portrayed Tutsi women as sex objects. Examples of gender based hate propaganda used to incite war rape included statements by perpetrators such as "You Tutsi women think that you are too good for us" and "Let us see what a Tutsi woman tastes like".[421] Victims of war rape during the Rwandan genocide also included Hutu women considered moderates, such as Hutu women married to Tutsi men and Hutu women politically affiliated with the Tutsi. War rape also occurred regardless of ethnicity or political affiliation, with young or beautiful women being targeted based on their gender only.

Sexual violence against men occurred significantly less frequently, but it frequently included the mutilation of their genitals, which were often displayed in public.[421] The perpetrators of war rape during the Rwandan genocide were mainly members of the Hutu militia, the "Interahamwe". Rapes were also committed by military personnel within the Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR), including the Presidential Guard, and civilians.[421]

Sexual violence against women and girls during the Rwandan genocide included: rape, gang rape, sexual slavery (either collectively or individually through "forced marriages"), rape with objects such as sticks and weapons often leading to the victim's death, sexual mutilation of, in particular, breasts, vaginas or buttocks, often during or following rape. Pregnant women were not spared from sexual violence and on many occasions victims were killed following rape. Many women were raped by men who knew they were HIV positive and it has been suggested that there were deliberate attempts to transmit the virus to Tutsi women and their families. War rape occurred all over the country and it was frequently perpetrated in plain view of others, at sites such as schools, churches, roadblocks, government buildings or in the bush. Some women were kept as personal slaves for years after the genocide, and they were eventually forced to move to neighbouring countries after the genocide along with their captors.[422]

The long-term effects of war rape in Rwanda on its victims include social isolation (the social stigma attached to rape meant that some husbands left their wives who had become victims of war rape, or that the victims became unmarriageable), unwanted pregnancies and babies (some women resorted to self-induced abortions), sexually transmitted diseases, including syphilis, gonorrhoea and HIV/AIDS (access to anti-retroviral drugs remains limited).[422]

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, established in 1994 after the Rwandan Genocide, has only brought three perpetrators before the Tribunal, with the first conviction in 1998.[423]

Sri Lankan Civil War

During the Sri Lankan Civil War, multiple Human Rights Organizations reported cases of rape, violence and disappearance of women in the 1990s, claiming to be committed by security forces. Government officials, including the president, have denied the claims and agreed to co-operate with the investigations and prosecute whomever they find guilty.[424] The UN Special Rapporteur has reported that individual investigations and proceedings relating to these cases have commenced at the local magistrates courts.[425]

Some of the notable cases of murdered raped victims and the massacres associated with the rape incidents are Krishanti Kumaraswamy, Arumaithurai Tharmaletchumi, Ida Carmelitta, Ilayathambi Tharsini, Murugesapillai Koneswary, Premini Thanuskodi, Sarathambal, Kumarapuram massacre and Vankalai massacre.

Philippines: Mindanao and Sulu

On 24 September 1974, in the Malisbong massacre the Armed Forces of the Philippines slaughtered 1,766 Moro Muslim civilians who were praying at a Mosque in addition to mass raping Moro girls who had been taken aboard a boat.[426][427]

Bangladesh: Chittagong Hill Tracts

In the Chittagong Hill Tracts Bengali settlers and soldiers have raped native Jumma (Chakma) women "with impunity" with the Bangladeshi security forces doing little to protect the Jummas and instead assisting the rapists and settlers.[428]

Kashmir conflict

Numerous scholars and human rights agencies assert that since the onset of the insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir in 1988, rape has been leveraged as a 'weapon of war' by Indian security forces comprising the Indian Army,[429] Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) and Border Security personnel.[430][431][432]

21st century

According to Amnesty International, documented cases of war rape in the early twenty-first century include incidents in Afghanistan, Chechnya, Colombia, Iraq, Sudan, and Nepal.[355]

Commenting on the rape of women and children in African conflict zones, UNICEF said in 2008 that rape was no longer just perpetrated by combatants but also by civilians. According to UNICEF rape is common in countries affected by wars and natural disasters, drawing a link between the occurrence of sexual violence and significant uprooting of a society and the crumbling of social norms. UNICEF states that in Kenya reported cases of sexual violence doubled within days of post-election conflict erupting. According to UNICEF rape was prevalent in conflict zones in Sudan, Chad, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.[433]

Democratic Republic of the Congo

South Kivu Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Democratic Republic of the Congo

In Eastern Congo, the prevalence and intensity of rape and other sexual violence is described as the worst in the world.[434] A 2010 study found that 22% of men and 30% of women in Eastern Congo reported conflict-related sexual violence.[360]

Since fighting broke out in 1998 tens of thousands of people have been raped in the Democratic Republic of Congo.[435] It is estimated that there are as many as 200,000 surviving rape victims living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo today.[436][437] War rape in the Democratic Republic of Congo has frequently been described as a "weapon of war" by commentators. Louise Nzigire, a local social worker, states that "this violence was designed to exterminate the population." Nzigire observes that rape has been a "cheap, simple weapon for all parties in the war, more easily obtainable than bullets or bombs."[438] The rape of men is also common. Men who admit they were raped risk ostracism by their community, and criminal prosecution, because they may be seen as homosexual, which is a crime in 38 African countries.[360]

Despite the peace process launched in 2003, sexual assault by soldiers from armed groups and the national army continues in the eastern provinces of the country.[435] Evidence of war rape emerged when United Nations troops move into areas previously ravaged by war after the peace process started. Gang rape and rape with objects has been reported. The victims of war rape may suffer from incontinence and vaginal fistula as a result of particularly violent rape.[374] Witness accounts include an instance of a woman who had the barrel of a gun inserted into her vagina, after which the soldier opened fire.[374] Incontinence and vaginal fistula leads to the isolation of war rape victims from her community and access to reconstructive surgery is limited in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[374]

More than 500 rapes were reported in Eastern Congo in August 2010, leading to an apology from Atul Khare that the UN peacekeepers had failed to protect the population from brutalisation.[439] In 2020 the UN reported that in the Democratic Republic of Congo, a young man from Tanganyika Province was stripped naked, raped, and coerced by the Twa militia to rape his own mother. Similar violence against men and boys while in detention were also reported.[440]

Darfur region in Sudan

Map of Sudan. The Darfur region is shaded.

A 19 October 2004 UN News Centre article[441] titled "UNICEF adviser says rape in Darfur, Sudan continues with impunity" reported:

Armed militias in Sudan's strife-torn Darfur region are continuing to rape women and girls with impunity, an expert from the United Nations children's agency said today on her return from a mission to the region. Pamela Shifman, the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) adviser on violence and sexual exploitation, said she heard dozens of harrowing accounts of sexual assaults – including numerous reports of gang-rapes – when she visited internally displaced persons (IDPs) at one camp and another settlement in North Darfur last week. "Rape is used as a weapon to terrorize individual women and girls, and also to terrorize their families and to terrorize entire communities," she said in an interview with the UN News Service. "No woman or girl is safe."

In the same article Pamela Shifman was reported to have said that:

Every woman or girl she spoke to had either endured sexual assault herself, or knew of someone who had been attacked, particularly when they left the relative safety of their IDP camp or settlement to find firewood.

Iraq War

Iraqi male prisoners forced into homosexual contact with each other's genitals touching other men's bodies in a "human pyramid" pile.

Male prisoners of war may be subject to rape and sexual violence. Sexual violence against male prisoners of the Iraq War gained wide publicity after graphic photos documented such abuses on male Iraqi prisoners by US guards at Abu Ghraib prison,[442] where prisoners were forced to humiliate themselves. American soldiers gang raped a 14-year-old Iraqi girl in the Mahmudiyah rape and killings. US soldiers also sodomized children with women present when the women and children were arrested together and it was recorded on video tape according to Seymour Hersh.[443] An Iraqi girl, 14 years old, was raped multiple times by US guards according to The Guardian and an Iraqi woman called Noor sent a letter from the prison detailing her rape by US military policeman which was verified by US Major General Antonio Taguba in his report.[444] US soldiers forced Iraqi male detainees at Abu Ghraib to engage in homosexual activities with each other and forced their anuses to make contact with each other's penises by piling them up on each other while their legs and hands were shackled and handcuffed.[445] Iraqi female lawyer Amal Kadham Swadi interviewed an Iraqi woman raped by multiple American soldiers, telling her to keep it a secret, saying "We have daughters and husbands. For God's sake don't tell anyone about this." She had stitches on her arm from injuries when she tried to resist the rape and these were seen by Swadi. She was held in Baghdad in November 2003 at the former police compound al-Kharkh which was used as a US military base.[446]

2011 – present Iraqi insurgency

The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) has employed sexual violence against women and men in a manner that has been described as "terrorism".[447] ISIL has utilized sexual violence in order to undermine a sense of security within communities, as well as to raise funds through the sale of captives into sexual slavery.[447] According to The Wall Street Journal, ISIL appeals to apocalyptic beliefs and claims "justification by a Hadith that they interpret as portraying the revival of slavery as a precursor to the end of the world".[448] In late 2014, ISIL released a pamphlet on the treatment of female slaves.[449][450][451][452][453] The New York Times said in August 2015 that "[t]he systematic rape of women and girls from the Yazidi religious minority has become deeply enmeshed in the organization and the radical theology of the Islamic State in the year since the group announced it was reviving slavery as an institution."[454]

2011 Libyan civil war

The chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC), Luis Moreno Ocampo, claimed that there is evidence that Gaddafi's troops used rape as a weapon during the Libyan civil war. He also said, "Apparently, he [Gaddafi] decided to punish, using rape," while witnesses confirmed that the Libyan government also purchased a large number of Viagra-like drugs. The Libyan government, on the other hand, does not recognize the ICC's jurisdiction.[455]

Afghan Taliban

In 2015, Amnesty International reported that the Afghan Taliban had engaged in mass murders and gang rapes of Afghan civilians in Kunduz.[456] Taliban fighters killed and raped the female relatives of police commanders and soldiers. The Taliban also raped and killed midwives who they accused of providing reproductive health services to women in the city.[456] One female human rights activist described the situation:[456]

When the Taliban asserted their control over Kunduz, they claimed to be bringing law and order and Shari'a to the city. But everything they've done has violated both. I don't know who can rescue us from this situation.

Rape in contemporary peace operations by UN peacekeepers

In contemporary conflict zones, international organizations, particularly the United Nations peacekeepers, have been involved in maintaining peace and stability in the area as well as distribute humanitarian aid to the local population. At present there are 16 Peace Operations directed by the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations. The peacekeepers are mainly composed of military personnel (but to a less number also the police) sent by governments of various member-states.[457] However, over the course of their involvement in the field, peacekeepers have also been accused and at times found guilty of committing rape and other forms of sexual violence to the local population, in particular to women and children. Among all international staff in the conflict zone, United Nations peacekeepers (handled by the Department of Peacekeeping Operations) have been most frequently identified as the perpetrators of rape.[458]

Motivations for rape and sexual abuse by peacekeepers

Like traditional military ventures, peacekeepers are deployed in highly unstable areas similar to war zones, where there is absence of the rule of law, disintegration of society and great psychological and economic hardships.[459] Having an image of wealth and authority, peacekeepers can easily exercise power over the local population, which is often abused.[460]

Moreover, as members of their respective country's militaries, peacekeepers also carry with them in the peace operations the "hyper-masculine culture" that encourages sexual exploitation and abuse.[461] The motivations for rape differ from the traditional perpetrators (government and rebel forces) in that rape is not part of a war strategy that contributes to fulfilling the organization's mission, but rather more as means to relieve the perpetrators' sexual urges most often related to the military culture.[462] Apart from putting the victim under the threat of physical violence, perpetrators induce sexual acts from the victim through payment, and granting or denying humanitarian aid.[463]

Cases of rape and sexual abuse in peace operations

UN peacekeepers' involvement in rape was found as early as 1993 during the Bosnian genocide, where peacekeepers were found to regularly visit a Serb-run brothel in Sarajevo that housed Bosniak and Croat women who were forced to become prostitutes.[464] According to the Outlook, sexual misconduct by Indian soldiers and officers on UN duty in Congo raised disturbing questions.[465] In the early twenty-first century, several UN soldiers in Haiti have been accused and convicted of raping boys as young as 14 years. In one instance, Uruguayan UN soldiers were accused in 2011 of raping a Haitian boy, sparking protests that called for the withdrawal of UN peacekeeping forces.[466] In Congo in 2004, peacekeepers from Uruguay, Morocco, Tunisia, South Africa and Nepal have faced 68 cases of rape, prostitution and pedophilia. The investigation resulted in the jailing of six Nepalese troops.[467] In Sudan, the Egyptian contingent was accused of raping six women when the civilians took shelter at the peacekeepers' headquarters in order to flee from the fighting.[468][469] Allegations of rape of young women and children have also been launched against UN peacekeepers in South Sudan.[470] In Mali, four UN peacekeepers from Chad were involved in the rape of a woman.[471] Members of the Moroccan contingent faced rape charges during the course of their duties at the UN mission in Ivory Coast.[472]

Punitive measures

The most common challenge in reprimanding perpetrators is the significant underreporting of the issue mainly due to three reasons. First, the victims do not report or file complaints due to fears of revenge from the offender(s), denial of aid and the social stigma against rape victims in the victims' own community.[473] Second, UN higher officials previously dismissed such allegations as "boys will be boys".[474] Third, fellow peacekeepers are accustomed to the "wall of silence" in the spirit of brotherhood characteristic of military culture but also to protect the reputation of their sending government.[475] As a consequence, whistleblowers are often stigmatised.[476]

However, if there would indeed be reports, the UN instituted the Conduct and Discipline Teams (CDTs) to conduct an investigation referring the allegations for serious offense to the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS).[477] When found guilty, the course of the specific disciplinary action is dependent on the employee status of the offender. UN civilian staff and personnel have functional immunity that can only be waived by the UN Secretary-General. In the case of military personnel, they are subject to the jurisdiction of their respective sending governments.[478] The usual practice for offending soldiers has been to repatriate the personnel and prosecute them in their home country. In several cases, punitive measures are imposed such as demotion or dishonorable dismissal. However, very few among guilty personnel have faced criminal charges in their home countries after repatriation.[479]

Myanmar

In 2016–2017 and beyond, many Rohingya Muslim women were raped by Burmese soldiers during the Rohingya genocide. Mass rape has been a central weapon of war against the ethnic minorities by the Myanmar military. According to the 2018 report of the UN Secretary-General on conflict-related sexual violence, the mass rape of Rohingya girls and women were not a culmination of individual choices to rape nor an unfortunate by-product of war but a part of the Myanmar military policy strategically carried out to forcibly remove the Rohingya ethnic group.

Tigray

In the Tigray War of 2020–2022 in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia, there were widespread reports of rape and other sexual abuse.[480] Europe External Programme with Africa (EEPA) described an incident of six young girls raped in Mekelle in which the Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) soldiers justified the rape on the grounds that "[the girls]' father is Dr. Debretsion and [the soldiers father]' is Dr. Abiy. We are not all the same", in reference to the two main political leaders of the conflict, Debretsion Gebremichael, the deposed leader of the Tigray Region, and Abiy Ahmed, the prime minister of Ethiopia.[481] Weyni Abraha from Yikono, a Tigrayan women's rights group, viewed the sexual violence as a deliberate use of rape as a weapon of war, stating "This is being done purposely to break the morale of the people, threaten them and make them give up the fight."[482]

Arguments for sexual violence in the Tigray War constituting a deliberate campaign satisfying the definition of genocide include the well-organised command hierarchy of the ENDF as the largest contributor of armed forces to United Nations peacekeeping operations, the strict command hierarchy of the Eritrean Defence Forces (EDF) as the tool of a totalitarian state, testimonies about soldiers refusing to rape being punished, the systematic continuation of patterns of rape over six to seven months, and similarities with rape during the Bosnian War and during the Rwandan genocide.[483]

Rape camps

A rape camp is a detention facility that is designed for or becomes a place where detainees are systematically and repeatedly raped, under the control and authority of state or non-state, armed or civilian, organisational structures.[484][483]

Late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries

Bangladesh Genocide

During the Bangladesh Liberation War, the Pakistani military used Army Camps as rape camps as a part of the genocide.[485][486] The Australian doctor Geoffrey Davis who specialised in Abortions described in an interview with Bina D'costa about how the Pakistani military shelled hospitals and schools and segregated sexually matured women who were then taken to the compound made available for the troops.[485]

Bosnian War

Rape camps set up by the Bosnian Serb authorities have been extensively documented in the Bosnian War.[484][487]

Tigray War

Sexual violence in the Tigray War included three known rape camps: a rape camp in Hawzen established by the Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) and with rapists from the ENDF and Eritrean Defence Forces (EDF); an ENDF–EDF rape camp at a construction site during which queueing rapists took turns to hold the baby of the victim; and a third rape camp next to a river.[483]

Forced prostitution and sexual slavery in war

Forced prostitution and sexual slavery are distinct as forms of war rape, as they entail more than the opportunistic rape by soldiers of women captives. Instead, women and girls are forced into sexual slavery, in some cases for prolonged periods. This is defined by the UN as "the status or condition of a person over whom any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership are exercised, including sexual access through rape or other forms of sexual violence".[488] War time forced prostitution takes several forms ranging from individual trafficking by armed forces to the institutionalization of the act of rape by military or civil authorities. The term 'forced prostitution' is often used in the press to refer to women and girls displaced by war who are forced to engage in prostitution to survive.[489]

Heraldic penis controversy

Commander Karl Engelbrektson next to coats of arms of the Nordic Battlegroup on 15 March 2007

In 2007, commander Karl Engelbrektson decided that the lion's penis in the coat of arms of the Nordic Battlegroup had to be removed.[490] In a February 2008 interview with Sveriges Radio, Engelbrektsson revealed that contrary to initial media reports which stated that the decision was made in response to complaints by female soldiers, it was he who made the decision, based on the 2000 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 on women, peace, and security.[490] Since civilian women are often sexually assaulted in the war zones of the world, the commander did not consider the depiction of a penis appropriate on a uniform which was worn into battle.[490] The decision was questioned by some Swedish heraldists, with Vladimir Sagerlund asserting that coats of arms which contain pictures of lions without penises were historically given to those who had betrayed the Swedish Crown.[490] The state heraldist Henrik Klackenberg complained by stating that his heraldry unit should have been consulted before such a change was made, but he did not intend to take any legal action.[490] The controversy attracted attention from countries around the world.[490]

See also

References

Citations

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    The role that Slavic women harassed by Avar warriors play in both stories may suggest that they both emerged from the same tradition.... There are however important differences between Nestor's and Fredegar's versions, which may indicate that they had access to different stages in the development of the story. Whatever the case, it is clear that Fredegar used here a Slavic tradition, though in a rationalized form.

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Bibliography

Further reading

  1. ^ Matloff, Judith (22 de septiembre de 2020). "El crimen de guerra del que nadie quiere hablar". The New York Times . Archivado desde el original el 25 de septiembre de 2020.