La arquitectura románica es un estilo arquitectónico de la Europa medieval que predominó en los siglos XI y XII. [1] El estilo finalmente evolucionó hacia el estilo gótico con la forma de los arcos proporcionando una distinción simple: el románico se caracteriza por arcos de medio punto , mientras que el gótico se caracteriza por los arcos apuntados . El románico surgió casi simultáneamente en varios países (Francia, Alemania, Italia, España); [1] sus ejemplos se pueden encontrar en todo el continente, lo que lo convierte en el primer estilo arquitectónico paneuropeo desde la arquitectura romana imperial . De manera similar al gótico, el nombre del estilo se transfirió al arte románico contemporáneo . [1]
La arquitectura románica, que combina características de los edificios romanos y bizantinos antiguos y otras tradiciones locales, se caracteriza por su calidad maciza, sus gruesos muros, sus arcos de medio punto, sus robustos pilares , sus bóvedas de cañón , sus grandes torres y sus arcadas decorativas . Cada edificio tiene formas claramente definidas, a menudo de planta muy regular y simétrica . El aspecto general es de sencillez en comparación con los edificios góticos que le siguieron. El estilo se puede identificar en toda Europa, a pesar de las características regionales y los diferentes materiales.
Durante este período se construyeron muchos castillos , pero estos son mucho menos numerosos que las iglesias. Las más significativas son las grandes iglesias abadiales , muchas de las cuales aún se mantienen en pie, más o menos completas y con frecuencia en uso. [2] La enorme cantidad de iglesias construidas en el período románico fue sucedida por el período aún más activo de la arquitectura gótica, que reconstruyó parcial o totalmente la mayoría de las iglesias románicas en áreas prósperas como Inglaterra y Portugal. Los grupos más grandes de sobrevivientes románicos se encuentran en áreas que fueron menos prósperas en períodos posteriores, incluidas partes del sur de Francia , la España rural y la Italia rural. Los sobrevivientes de casas seculares y palacios románicos no fortificados, y los cuartos domésticos de los monasterios son mucho más raros, pero estos utilizaron y adaptaron las características encontradas en los edificios de las iglesias, a escala doméstica.
El término francés " romane " o el término inglés romanesque , que significa "a la manera de los romanos", [3] se ha utilizado para describir el estilo arquitectónico de la época medieval, anterior a la arquitectura gótica más fácilmente reconocible, desde principios del siglo XIX. [4] Describe el estilo arquitectónico que floreció en toda Europa desde el siglo XI hasta el XIII, y se distingue del estilo gótico que siguió por arcos de medio punto y formas más macizas. El desarrollo de bóvedas de cañón y arista a bóvedas de crucería fue la principal innovación estructural de este período. [5]
La distinción entre el estilo arquitectónico conocido hoy como románico y el estilo posterior, el gótico , se reconoció ya en el siglo XV, como lo demuestran algunas obras de arte de ese período. Robert Campin presentó claramente la división en su obra Los desposorios de la Virgen : en el lado izquierdo, que representa el Antiguo Testamento , el edificio es de estilo románico, mientras que el de la derecha, que representa el Nuevo Testamento , es gótico. Sin embargo, hasta el siglo XIX, el estilo que precedió al gótico no se reconoció como un todo y, en cambio, al igual que el gótico en ese momento, se trató como una multitud de estilos: Giorgio Vasari y Christopher Wren escribieron sobre arquitecturas "toscanas", "sajonas" o "normandas". [6] [7]
La palabra románico ("a la manera de los romanos" [3] ) apareció en inglés en 1666 y se utilizó para designar lo que ahora se llama lenguas romances . [8] La definición de arquitectura románica cambió con el tiempo; [4] el desarrollo del significado moderno en inglés de la palabra implicó principalmente dos pasos:
El término francés " romane " fue utilizado por primera vez en el sentido arquitectónico por el arqueólogo Charles de Gerville en una carta del 18 de diciembre de 1818 a Auguste Le Prévost para describir lo que Gerville ve como una arquitectura romana degradada . [Notas 1] [14] En una conferencia pública de 1823 (publicada en 1824) [9] el amigo de Gerville, Arcisse de Caumont, adoptó la etiqueta " roman " para describir la arquitectura europea "degradada" de los siglos V al XIII, en su Essai sur l'architecture religieuse du moyen-âge, particulièrement en Normandie , [15] en un momento en el que no se habían determinado las fechas reales de muchos de los edificios así descritos: [16] [17] [18]
"El nombre de romanesco que damos a esta arquitectura, que debería ser universal, ya que es la misma en todas partes con ligeras diferencias locales, tiene también el mérito de indicar su origen y no es nuevo, ya que se utilizaba para describir la lengua de la misma época. La lengua romance es una lengua latina degenerada. La arquitectura románica es una arquitectura romana degradada." [Notas 2]
El término " prerrománico " se aplica a veces a la arquitectura de Alemania de los períodos carolingio y otoniano y a las construcciones visigodas , mozárabes y asturianas entre los siglos VIII y X en la península Ibérica, mientras que " primer románico " se aplica a los edificios del norte de Italia y España y partes de Francia que tienen características románicas pero son anteriores a la influencia de la abadía de Cluny . El estilo románico en Inglaterra y Sicilia todavía se conoce como arquitectura normanda . Un estilo "deslumbrante" [20] desarrollado en Pisa a mediados del siglo XI se llama " románico pisano ". [21]
Eric Fernie escribe que a principios del siglo XXI hay "algo así como un acuerdo" sobre las características del estilo románico. [22] Algunos investigadores sostienen que debido a una "asombrosa diversidad" de los edificios románicos, una definición unánime es imposible: "[n]ingún modelo único, ninguna regla única, parece adecuada para prevalecer", [23] y el románico debería ser tratado como una "colección de tendencias". [3] A pesar del desacuerdo, el término se convirtió en una "moneda común", y es universalmente aceptado al menos por conveniencia. [23]
En el estilo románico se construyeron edificios de todo tipo, y quedan evidencias de edificios domésticos sencillos, elegantes casas urbanas, grandes palacios, locales comerciales, edificios cívicos, castillos, murallas, puentes, iglesias de pueblos, iglesias abadiales, complejos abadiales y grandes catedrales. [24] De estos tipos de edificios, los edificios domésticos y comerciales son los más raros, con solo un puñado de sobrevivientes en el Reino Unido, varios grupos en Francia, edificios aislados en toda Europa y, con mucho, el mayor número, a menudo no identificado y alterado a lo largo de los siglos, en Italia. Existen muchos castillos, cuyos cimientos datan del período románico. La mayoría han sido alterados sustancialmente y muchos están en ruinas.
La mayor parte de los edificios románicos que se conservan son iglesias, desde pequeñas capillas hasta grandes catedrales . Aunque muchas de ellas han sido ampliadas y modificadas en diferentes estilos, una gran cantidad permanecen prácticamente intactas o restauradas con esmero, lo que demuestra la forma, el carácter y la decoración de la arquitectura eclesiástica románica. [24]
La arquitectura románica fue el primer estilo distintivo que se extendió por Europa desde el Imperio romano . Con la decadencia de Roma, los métodos de construcción romanos sobrevivieron en cierta medida en Europa occidental, donde los sucesivos arquitectos merovingios , carolingios y otonianos continuaron construyendo grandes edificios de piedra, como iglesias monásticas y palacios. En los países más septentrionales, los estilos y técnicas de construcción romanos nunca se habían adoptado excepto para los edificios oficiales, mientras que en Escandinavia eran desconocidos. Aunque el arco de medio punto siguió utilizándose, se perdieron las habilidades de ingeniería necesarias para abovedar grandes espacios y construir grandes cúpulas. Hubo una pérdida de continuidad estilística, particularmente evidente en el declive del vocabulario formal de las órdenes clásicas . En Roma, varias grandes basílicas constantinianas continuaron en uso como inspiración para los constructores posteriores. Algunas tradiciones de la arquitectura romana también sobrevivieron en la arquitectura bizantina, siendo la Basílica bizantina octogonal de San Vitale en Rávena del siglo VI la inspiración para el edificio más grande de la Alta Edad Media en Europa, la Capilla Palatina del emperador Carlomagno en Aquisgrán , Alemania, construida alrededor del año 800 d. C. [25]
Poco después de la Capilla Palatina se encuentra un notable manuscrito suizo del siglo IX conocido como el Plano de San Gall , que muestra un plano muy detallado de un complejo monástico, con todos sus diversos edificios monásticos y sus funciones etiquetadas. El edificio más grande es la iglesia, cuya planta es claramente germánica, con un ábside en ambos extremos, una disposición que no se ve generalmente en ningún otro lugar. Otra característica de la iglesia es su proporción regular, la planta cuadrada de la torre del crucero proporciona un módulo para el resto de la planta. Ambas características se pueden ver en la iglesia protorrománica de San Miguel, Hildesheim , 1001-1030. [25]
La arquitectura de estilo románico también se desarrolló simultáneamente en el norte de Italia, partes de Francia y en la península Ibérica en el siglo X y antes de la influencia posterior de la abadía de Cluny . El estilo, a veces llamado primer románico o románico lombardo , se caracteriza por paredes gruesas, falta de esculturas y la presencia de arcos ornamentales rítmicos conocidos como banda lombarda .
Carlomagno fue coronado por el papa León III en la antigua basílica de San Pedro el día de Navidad del año 800, con el objetivo de restablecer el antiguo Imperio Romano . Los sucesores políticos de Carlomagno continuaron gobernando gran parte de Europa, con un surgimiento gradual de los estados políticos separados que finalmente se unirían en naciones, ya sea por lealtad o por derrota, en el Reino de Alemania dando lugar al Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico . La invasión de Inglaterra por Guillermo, duque de Normandía , en 1066, vio la construcción de castillos e iglesias que reforzaron la presencia normanda. Varias iglesias importantes que se construyeron en esta época fueron fundadas por gobernantes como sedes del poder temporal y religioso, o lugares de coronación y entierro. Estas incluyen la Abadía de Saint-Denis , la Catedral de Speyer y la Abadía de Westminster (donde ahora queda poco de la iglesia anterior a la conquista).
En una época en la que las estructuras arquitectónicas restantes del Imperio romano estaban en decadencia y se perdía gran parte de su conocimiento y tecnología, la construcción de cúpulas de mampostería y el tallado de detalles arquitectónicos decorativos continuaron sin cesar, aunque evolucionaron mucho en estilo desde la caída de Roma, en el duradero Imperio bizantino . Las iglesias abovedadas de Constantinopla y Europa del Este afectaron en gran medida la arquitectura de ciertas ciudades, particularmente a través del comercio y las Cruzadas . El edificio individual más notable que demuestra esto es la Basílica de San Marcos , en Venecia , pero hay muchos ejemplos menos conocidos, particularmente en Francia, como la iglesia de Saint-Front , Périgueux y la Catedral de Angulema . [26]
Gran parte de Europa se vio afectada por el feudalismo, en el que los campesinos tenían la tenencia de los gobernantes locales sobre la tierra que cultivaban a cambio de servicio militar . El resultado de esto fue que podían ser llamados, no solo para disputas locales y regionales, sino para seguir a su señor para viajar a través de Europa a las Cruzadas, si así lo requerían. Las Cruzadas , 1095-1270, provocaron un gran movimiento de personas y, con ellas, ideas y habilidades comerciales, particularmente las relacionadas con la construcción de fortificaciones y el trabajo del metal necesario para el suministro de armas, que también se aplicó al montaje y decoración de edificios. El movimiento continuo de personas, gobernantes, nobles, obispos, abades, artesanos y campesinos, fue un factor importante en la creación de una homogeneidad en los métodos de construcción y un estilo románico reconocible , a pesar de las diferencias regionales.
La vida se volvió menos segura en general después del período carolingio. Esto dio como resultado la construcción de castillos en puntos estratégicos, muchos de ellos construidos como fortalezas de los normandos, descendientes de los vikingos que invadieron el norte de Francia bajo el mando de Rollo en 911. Las luchas políticas también dieron como resultado la fortificación de muchas ciudades, o la reconstrucción y el fortalecimiento de las murallas que permanecían del período romano. Una de las fortificaciones supervivientes más notables es la de la ciudad de Carcasona . El cercamiento de las ciudades provocó una falta de espacio habitable dentro de las murallas y dio como resultado un estilo de casa urbana que era alta y estrecha, a menudo rodeando patios comunales, como en San Gimignano en Toscana y Bolonia y Pavía en Lombardía . [27] [28] [29]
En Alemania, los emperadores del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico construyeron una serie de residencias fortificadas, pero esencialmente palacios más que castillos, en puntos estratégicos y en las rutas comerciales. El Palacio Imperial de Goslar (profundamente restaurado en el siglo XIX) fue construido a principios del siglo XI por Otón III y Enrique III, mientras que el palacio en ruinas de Gelnhausen fue recibido por Federico Barbarroja antes de 1170. [30] El movimiento de personas y ejércitos también provocó la construcción de puentes, algunos de los cuales han sobrevivido, incluido el puente del siglo XII en Besalú , Cataluña , el Puente de la Reina del siglo XI, Navarra y el Pont-Saint-Bénézet, Avignon . [31]
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En toda Europa, a finales del siglo XI y a finales del siglo XII se produjo un crecimiento sin precedentes del número de iglesias. [32] Un gran número de estos edificios, tanto grandes como pequeños, permanecen, algunos casi intactos y en otros alterados casi hasta quedar irreconocibles en siglos posteriores. Entre ellos se incluyen muchas iglesias muy conocidas, como Santa Maria in Cosmedin en Roma, [33] el Baptisterio de Florencia [34] y San Zeno Maggiore en Verona. [35] En Francia, las famosas abadías de Aux Dames y Les Hommes en Caen y Mont Saint-Michel datan de este período, así como las abadías de la ruta de peregrinación a Santiago de Compostela . Muchas catedrales deben su fundación a esta fecha, y otras comenzaron como iglesias abadiales y luego se convirtieron en catedrales. En Inglaterra, de las catedrales de fundación antigua, todas se iniciaron en este período con la excepción de Salisbury, donde los monjes se trasladaron de la iglesia normanda en Old Sarum , y varias, como Canterbury , que fueron reconstruidas en el sitio de iglesias sajonas. [36] [37] En España, la iglesia más famosa de la época es Santiago de Compostela . En Alemania, el Rin y sus afluentes fueron la ubicación de muchas abadías románicas, en particular Maguncia , Worms , Espira y Bamberg . En Colonia , entonces la ciudad más grande al norte de los Alpes, un grupo muy importante de grandes iglesias urbanas sobrevivió en gran parte intacto. A medida que el monacato se extendió por Europa, surgieron iglesias románicas en Escocia, Escandinavia, Polonia, Hungría, Sicilia, Serbia y Túnez. Varias iglesias románicas importantes se construyeron en los reinos cruzados . [38] [39]
El sistema del monacato en el que los religiosos se convierten en miembros de una orden, con lazos comunes y una regla común, viviendo en una comunidad mutuamente dependiente, en lugar de como un grupo de eremitas que viven en proximidad pero esencialmente separados, fue establecido por el monje Benito en el siglo VI. Los monasterios benedictinos se extendieron desde Italia por toda Europa, siendo siempre con diferencia los más numerosos en Inglaterra. Les siguieron la orden cluniacense , los cistercienses , los cartujos y los canónigos agustinos . Durante las Cruzadas , se fundaron las órdenes militares de los Caballeros Hospitalarios y los Caballeros Templarios .
Los monasterios, que a veces funcionaban también como catedrales, y las catedrales que albergaban cuerpos de clérigos seculares que a menudo vivían en comunidad, eran una fuente importante de poder en Europa. Los obispos y los abades de los monasterios importantes vivían y actuaban como príncipes. Los monasterios eran las principales sedes de todo tipo de conocimientos. Benito había ordenado que todas las artes se enseñaran y practicaran en los monasterios. Dentro de los monasterios, los libros se transcribían a mano, y pocas personas fuera de los monasterios sabían leer o escribir. [2]
En Francia, Borgoña era el centro del monacato. El enorme y poderoso monasterio de Cluny tuvo un efecto duradero en la disposición de otros monasterios y en el diseño de sus iglesias. Muy poco queda de la iglesia abacial de Cluny; la reconstrucción de "Cluny II" de 963 en adelante ha desaparecido por completo, pero tenemos una buena idea del diseño de "Cluny III" de 1088 a 1130, que hasta el Renacimiento siguió siendo el edificio más grande de Europa. Sin embargo, la iglesia de Saint-Sernin en Toulouse , 1080-1120, se ha mantenido intacta y demuestra la regularidad del diseño románico con su forma modular, su apariencia maciza y la repetición del sencillo motivo de la ventana arqueada. [25]
Uno de los efectos de las Cruzadas , que pretendían arrebatar los Santos Lugares del Levante del control islámico , fue despertar un gran fervor religioso, que a su vez inspiró grandes programas de construcción. La nobleza de Europa, al regresar sana y salva, daba gracias a Dios construyendo una nueva iglesia o mejorando una antigua. Del mismo modo, aquellos que no regresaban de las Cruzadas podían ser conmemorados adecuadamente por su familia con una obra de piedra y mortero.
Las Cruzadas dieron como resultado el traslado, entre otras cosas, de un gran número de Sagradas Reliquias de santos y apóstoles . Muchas iglesias, como Saint-Front, Périgueux , tenían su propio santo de cosecha propia, mientras que otras, sobre todo Santiago de Compostela , reclamaban los restos y el patrocinio de un santo poderoso, en este caso uno de los Doce Apóstoles . Santiago de Compostela , situada en el Reino de Galicia (actual Galicia , España) se convirtió en uno de los destinos de peregrinación más importantes de Europa. La mayoría de los peregrinos recorrieron el Camino de Santiago a pie, muchos de ellos descalzos en señal de penitencia. Se desplazaron a lo largo de una de las cuatro rutas principales que pasaban por Francia, congregándose para el viaje en Jumièges , París, Vézelay , Cluny , Arles y Saint-Gall en Suiza. Cruzaron dos pasos en los Pirineos y convergieron en un solo arroyo para atravesar el noroeste de España. A lo largo de la ruta, los peregrinos los animaban a continuar su camino. En cada una de las rutas, abadías como las de Moissac , Toulouse , Roncesvalles , Conques , Limoges y Burgos atendían el flujo de gente y se enriquecían con el comercio que pasaba. Saint-Benoît-du-Sault , en la provincia de Berry, es un ejemplo típico de las iglesias que se fundaron en la ruta de los peregrinos. [2] [25]
La impresión general que da la arquitectura románica, tanto en edificios eclesiásticos como profanos, es de solidez y fuerza masivas. A diferencia de la arquitectura romana anterior y la gótica posterior , en las que los elementos estructurales que soportan la carga son, o parecen ser, columnas, pilastras y arcos, la arquitectura románica, al igual que la arquitectura bizantina , se apoya en sus muros o secciones de muros llamados pilares. [2]
La arquitectura románica suele dividirse en dos períodos, conocidos como el estilo " primer románico " y el estilo "románico". La diferencia radica principalmente en la maestría con la que se construyeron los edificios. El primer románico empleaba muros de mampostería, ventanas más pequeñas y tejados sin bóveda. El segundo románico se caracteriza por un mayor refinamiento, junto con un mayor uso de la bóveda y la piedra labrada.
Los muros de los edificios románicos suelen ser de gran espesor y presentan pocas aberturas, comparativamente pequeñas. Suelen ser de doble pared y están rellenos de escombros.
El material de construcción varía mucho en toda Europa, dependiendo de la piedra local y de las tradiciones de construcción. En Italia, Polonia, gran parte de Alemania y partes de los Países Bajos, se utiliza generalmente el ladrillo. En otras zonas se hizo un uso extensivo de la piedra caliza, el granito y el sílex. La piedra de construcción se utilizaba a menudo en piezas comparativamente pequeñas e irregulares, colocadas en mortero grueso. La mampostería de sillares lisos no era una característica distintiva del estilo (especialmente no en la primera parte del período), pero sí se daba, principalmente donde había piedra caliza fácil de trabajar. [40]
Debido a la naturaleza maciza de los muros románicos, los contrafuertes no son un elemento muy significativo, como lo son en la arquitectura gótica. Los contrafuertes románicos son generalmente de perfil cuadrado plano y no sobresalen mucho del muro. En el caso de las iglesias con naves laterales, las bóvedas de cañón o las bóvedas de medio cañón sobre las naves laterales ayudaban a apuntalar la nave, si era abovedada.
En los casos en que se utilizaron bóvedas de medio cañón, se convirtieron en realidad en una especie de arbotantes . A menudo, las naves laterales se extendían a lo largo de dos pisos, en lugar del habitual en la arquitectura gótica, para soportar mejor el peso de una nave abovedada. En el caso de la catedral de Durham, se han empleado arbotantes, pero están ocultos dentro de la galería del triforio. [37]
Los arcos utilizados en la arquitectura románica son casi siempre de medio punto, para aberturas como puertas y ventanas, para bóvedas y para arcadas. Las puertas anchas suelen estar rematadas por un arco de medio punto, excepto cuando una puerta con dintel se coloca en un gran hueco arqueado y se remata con una "luneta" de medio punto con talla decorativa. [25] Estas puertas a veces tienen una jamba central tallada.
Las puertas estrechas y las ventanas pequeñas pueden estar rematadas por un dintel de piedra maciza. Las aberturas más grandes casi siempre están arqueadas. Un rasgo característico de la arquitectura románica, tanto eclesiástica como doméstica, es la combinación de dos ventanas arqueadas o aberturas de arcada, separadas por un pilar o columnilla y a menudo colocadas dentro de un arco más grande. Las ventanas ojivales son comunes en Italia, particularmente en el hastial de la fachada, y también se ven en Alemania. Las iglesias románicas posteriores pueden tener ventanas de rueda o rosetones con tracería de placas .
Hay un número muy reducido de edificios de estilo románico, como la catedral de Autun en Francia y la catedral de Monreale en Sicilia en los que se han utilizado ampliamente los arcos apuntados, aparentemente por razones estilísticas. Se cree que en estos casos hay una imitación directa de la arquitectura islámica . En otras iglesias del románico tardío, como la catedral de Durham y la catedral de Cefalú , el arco apuntado se introdujo como un recurso estructural en las bóvedas de crucería. Su creciente aplicación fue fundamental para el desarrollo de la arquitectura gótica .
Una arcada es una hilera de arcos, apoyada sobre pilares o columnas. Se encuentra en el interior de grandes iglesias, separando la nave de las naves laterales, y en grandes espacios interiores seculares, como el gran salón de un castillo, sosteniendo las vigas de un techo o piso superior. Las arcadas también se encuentran en claustros y atrios, encierrando un espacio abierto.
Las arcadas pueden aparecer en pisos o niveles. Mientras que la arcada de un claustro suele ser de un solo nivel, la arcada que divide la nave y los pasillos laterales de una iglesia suele ser de dos niveles, con un tercer nivel de aberturas de ventanas conocido como triforio que se eleva por encima de ellas. Las arcadas a gran escala generalmente cumplen una función estructural, pero también se utilizan, generalmente a menor escala, como elemento decorativo, tanto en el interior como en el exterior, donde con frecuencia son " arcadas ciegas " con solo una pared o un pasaje estrecho detrás.
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En la arquitectura románica, los pilares se utilizaban a menudo para sostener los arcos. Estaban construidos con mampostería y tenían una sección cuadrada o rectangular, generalmente con una moldura horizontal que representaba un capitel en el arranque del arco. A veces, los pilares tienen fustes verticales adosados a ellos, y también pueden tener molduras horizontales a nivel de la base.
Aunque son básicamente rectangulares, los pilares a menudo pueden tener una forma muy compleja, con medios segmentos de grandes columnas con núcleo hueco en la superficie interior que sostienen el arco, o un grupo agrupado de ejes más pequeños que conducen a las molduras del arco.
Los pilares que se encuentran en la intersección de dos arcos grandes, como los que se encuentran debajo del crucero de la nave y el transepto, generalmente tienen forma cruciforme, y cada arco tiene su propio pilar rectangular de soporte en ángulo recto con el otro. [2] [25]
Las columnas son un elemento estructural importante de la arquitectura románica. Las columnillas y los fustes adosados también se utilizan con fines estructurales y decorativos. Las columnas monolíticas talladas a partir de una sola pieza de piedra se utilizaban con frecuencia en Italia, como en la arquitectura romana y paleocristiana. [2] También se utilizaban, sobre todo en Alemania, cuando se alternaban con pilares más macizos. [38] Las arcadas de columnas talladas a partir de piezas individuales también son comunes en estructuras que no soportan pesos masivos de mampostería, como los claustros, donde a veces se encuentran pareadas. [2]
En Italia, durante este período, se recuperaron y reutilizaron un gran número de columnas romanas antiguas en los interiores y en los pórticos de las iglesias. Las más duraderas de estas columnas son de mármol y tienen la piedra colocada horizontalmente. La mayoría tienen una base vertical y a veces son de una variedad de colores. Es posible que hayan conservado sus capiteles romanos originales, generalmente de estilo corintio o romano compuesto . [38] Algunos edificios, como Santa Maria in Cosmedin (ilustrado arriba) y el atrio de San Clemente en Roma, pueden tener una extraña variedad de columnas en las que los capiteles grandes se colocan en columnas cortas y los capiteles pequeños se colocan en columnas más altas para igualar la altura. Se ven compromisos arquitectónicos de este tipo donde se han recuperado materiales de varios edificios. Las columnas recuperadas también se utilizaron en menor medida en Francia.
En la mayor parte de Europa, las columnas románicas eran enormes, ya que sostenían gruesos muros superiores con pequeñas ventanas y, a veces, pesadas bóvedas. El método de construcción más común era construirlas con cilindros de piedra llamados tambores, como en la cripta de la catedral de Espira . [38] [41]
En los casos en que se necesitaban columnas realmente macizas, como las de la catedral de Durham , se construyeron con mampostería de sillería y el núcleo hueco se rellenó con escombros. Estas enormes columnas sin ahusamiento a veces están ornamentadas con decoraciones incisas. [37]
Una característica común de los edificios románicos, presente tanto en las iglesias como en las arcadas que separan grandes espacios interiores de los castillos, es la alternancia de pilares y columnas.
La forma más sencilla de hacerlo es colocar una columna entre cada pilar contiguo. A veces, las columnas son múltiplos de dos o tres. En la iglesia de San Miguel de Hildesheim , se observa una alternancia ABBA en la nave, mientras que en los transeptos se puede observar una alternancia ABA.
En Jumièges hay altas columnas de tambor entre los pilares, cada una de las cuales tiene una media columna que sostiene el arco. Hay muchas variaciones sobre este tema, sobre todo en la catedral de Durham, donde las molduras y los fustes de los pilares son de una riqueza excepcional y las enormes columnas de mampostería están profundamente incisas con patrones geométricos. [38]
A menudo, la disposición se hacía más compleja por la complejidad de los propios pilares, de modo que no se alternaban pilares y columnas, sino más bien pilares de forma completamente diferente entre sí, como los de Sant' Ambrogio, Milán , donde la naturaleza de la bóveda dictaba que los pilares alternados soportaban mucho más peso que los intermedios y, por lo tanto, eran mucho más grandes. [25]
El estilo corintio foliado sirvió de inspiración para muchos capiteles románicos, y la precisión con la que fueron tallados dependía en gran medida de la disponibilidad de modelos originales; los de las iglesias italianas como la Catedral de Pisa o la iglesia de Sant'Alessandro en Lucca y el sur de Francia eran mucho más cercanos al clásico que los de Inglaterra. [2] [38]
The Corinthian capital is essentially round at the bottom where it sits on a circular column and square at the top, where it supports the wall or arch. This form of capital was maintained in the general proportions and outline of the Romanesque capital. This was achieved most simply by cutting a rectangular block and taking the four lower corners off at an angle so that the block was square at the top, but octagonal at the bottom, as can be seen at St. Michael's Hildesheim.[38]This shape lent itself to a wide variety of superficial treatments, sometimes foliate in imitation of the source, but often figurative. In Northern Europe the foliate capitals generally bear far more resemblance to the intricacies of manuscript illumination than to Classical sources. In parts of France and Italy, there are strong links to the pierced capitals of Byzantine architecture. It is in the figurative capitals that the greatest originality is shown. While some are dependent on manuscripts illustrations of Biblical scenes and depictions of beasts and monsters, others are lively scenes of the legends of local saints.[26]
The capitals, while retaining the form of a square top and a round bottom, were often compressed into little more than a bulging cushion-shape. This is particularly the case on large masonry columns, or on large columns that alternate with piers as at Durham.(See illustrated above)
The majority of buildings have wooden roofs, generally of a simple truss, tie beam or king post form. In the case of trussed rafter roofs, they are sometimes lined with wooden ceilings in three sections like those that survive at Ely and Peterborough cathedrals in England. In churches, typically the aisles are vaulted, but the nave is roofed with timber, as is the case at both Peterborough and Ely.[37] In Italy where open wooden roofs are common, and tie beams frequently occur in conjunction with vaults, the timbers have often been decorated as at San Miniato al Monte, Florence.[2]
Vaults of stone or brick took on several different forms and showed marked development during the period, evolving into the pointed ribbed arch characteristic of Gothic architecture.
The simplest type of vaulted roof is the barrel vault in which a single arched surface extends from wall to wall, the length of the space to be vaulted, for example, the nave of a church. An important example, which retains Medieval paintings, is the vault of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, France, of the early 12th century. However, the barrel vault generally required the support of solid walls, or walls in which the windows were very small.[38]
Groin vaults occur in early Romanesque buildings, notably at Speyer Cathedral where the high vault of about 1060 is the first employment in Romanesque architecture of this type of vault for a wide nave.[38] In later buildings employing ribbed vaultings, groin vaults are most frequently used for the less visible and smaller vaults, particularly in crypts and aisles. A groin vault is almost always square in plan and is constructed of two barrel vaults intersecting at right angles. Unlike a ribbed vault, the entire arch is a structural member. Groin vaults are frequently separated by transverse arched ribs of low profile as at Speyer and Santiago de Compostela. At Sainte Marie Madeleine, Vézelay, the ribs are square in section, strongly projecting and polychrome.[42]
Ribbed vaults came into general use in the 12th century. In ribbed vaults, not only are there ribs spanning the vaulted area transversely, but each vaulted bay has diagonal ribs, following the same course as the groins in a groin vault. However, whereas in a groin vault, the vault itself is the structural member, in a ribbed vault, it is the ribs that are the structural members, and the spaces between them can be filled with lighter, non-structural material.[43]
Because Romanesque arches are nearly always semi-circular, the structural and design problem inherent in the ribbed vault is that the diagonal span is larger and therefore higher than the transverse span.[43] The Romanesque builders used a number of solutions to this problem. One was to have the centre point where the diagonal ribs met as the highest point, with the infill of all the surfaces sloping upwards towards it, in a domical manner. This solution was employed in Italy at San Michele, Pavia, and Sant' Ambrogio, Milan.[38]
The solution employed in England was to stilt the transverse ribs, maintaining a horizontal central line to the roof like that of a barrel vault.[43] The diagonal ribs could also be depressed, a solution used on the sexpartite vaults at both the Saint-Étienne, (Abbaye-aux-Hommes) and Sainte-Trinité, (Abbaye-aux-Dames) at Caen, France, in the late 11th and early 12th centuries.[43]
The problems encountered in the structure and appearance of vaults was solved late in the Romanesque period with the introduction of pointed arched ribs which allowed the height of both diagonal and transverse ribs to be varied in proportion to each other.[43] Pointed ribs made their first appearance in the transverse ribs of the vaults at Durham Cathedral in northern England, dating from 1128. Durham is a cathedral of massive Romanesque proportions and appearance, yet its builders introduced several structural features that were new to architectural design and were later to be hallmark features of the Gothic style. Another Gothic structural feature employed at Durham is the flying buttress. However, these are hidden beneath the roofs of the aisles. The earliest pointed vault in France is that of the narthex of La Madeleine, Vézelay, dating from 1130.[40] They were subsequently employed with the development of the Gothic style at the east end of the Basilica of St Denis in Paris in 1140.[2] An early ribbed vault in the Romanesque architecture of Sicily is that of the chancel at the Cathedral of Cefalù.
Domes in Romanesque architecture are generally found within crossing towers at the intersection of a church's nave and transept, which conceal the domes externally.[44] Called a tiburio, this tower-like structure often has a blind arcade near the roof.[45] Romanesque domes are typically octagonal in plan and use corner squinches to translate a square bay into a suitable octagonal base.[2] Octagonal cloister vaults appear "in connection with basilicas almost throughout Europe" between 1050 and 1100.[46] The precise form differs from region to region.[44]
Many parish churches, abbey churches and cathedrals are in the Romanesque style, or were originally built in the Romanesque style and have subsequently undergone changes. The simplest Romanesque churches are aisleless halls with a projecting apse at the chancel end, or sometimes, particularly in England, a projecting rectangular chancel with a chancel arch that might be decorated with mouldings. More ambitious churches have aisles separated from the nave by arcades.
Abbey and cathedral churches generally follow the Latin Cross plan. In England, the extension eastward may be long, while in Italy it is often short or non-existent, the church being of T plan, sometimes with apses on the transept ends as well as to the east. In France the church of St Front, Périgueux, appears to have been modelled on St. Mark's Basilica, Venice, or the Byzantine Church of the Holy Apostles and is of a Greek cross plan with five domes.[47] In the same region, Angoulême Cathedral is an aisleless church of the Latin cross plan, more usual in France, but is also roofed with domes.[2][38]In Germany, Romanesque churches are often of distinctive form, having apses at both east and west ends, the main entrance being central to one side. It is probable that this form came about to accommodate a baptistery at the west end.[40]
NOTE: The plans below do not show the buildings in their current states.[48]
The Abbey Church of St. Gall, Switzerland, shows the plan that was to become common throughout Germanic Europe. It is a Latin Cross with a comparatively long nave and short transepts and eastern end, which is apsidal. The nave is aisled, but the chancel and transepts are not. It has an apsidal west end, which was to become a feature of Churches of Germany, such as Worms Cathedral. Speyer Cathedral, Germany, also has aisleless transept and chancel. It has a markedly modular look. A typical Germanic characteristic is the presence of towers framing the chancel and the west end. There is marked emphasis on the western entrance, called Westwerk, which is seen in several other churches. Each vault compartment covers two narrow bays of the nave
At Autun Cathedral, France, the pattern of the nave bays and aisles extends beyond the crossing and into the chancel, each aisle terminating in an apse. Each nave bay is separated at the vault by a transverse rib. Each transept projects to the width of two nave bays. The entrance has a narthex which screens the main portal. This type of entrance was to be elaborated in the Gothic period on the transepts at Chartres. Angoulême Cathedral, France, is one of several instances in which the Byzantine churches of Constantinople seem to have been influential in the design in which the main spaces are roofed by domes. This structure has necessitated the use of very thick walls, and massive piers from which the domes spring. There are radiating chapels around the apse, which is a typically French feature and was to evolve into the chevet.
As was typically the case in England, Ely Cathedral was a Benedictine monastery, serving both monastic and secular function. To facilitate this, the chancel or "presbytery" is longer than usually found in Europe, as are the aisled transepts which contained chapels. In England, emphasis was placed on the orientation of the chapels to the east. The very large piers at the crossing signify that there was once a tower. The western end having two round towers flanking a tall central tower was unique in Britain. Ely Cathedral was never vaulted and retains a wooden ceiling over the nave.
The cathedral of Santiago de Compostela shares many features with Ely, but is typically Spanish in its expansive appearance. Santiago held the body of St. James and was the most significant pilgrimage site in Europe. The narthex, the aisles, the large aisled transepts and numerous projecting chapels reflect this. The chancel is short, compared to that of Ely, and the altar set so as to provide clear view to a vast congregation simultaneously.
The basilica Saint-Sernin of Toulouse is a typical example of a pilgrimage church. It is very large and its interior plan made it possible to direct traffic. With double side aisles and with an aisled transept and an ambulatory surrounding the apse, pilgrims could make the circuit around the church and were able to stop for meditation and prayer at the apsidal chapels of the transept and the radiating chapels of the choir.
Modena Cathedral shows a typically Italian Romanesque plan, often architecturally termed a "basilica", because of its similarity in plan to a Roman basilicas.
In section, the typical aisled church or cathedral has a nave with a single aisle on either side. The nave and aisles are separated by an arcade carried on piers or on columns. The roof of the aisle and the outer walls help to buttress the upper walls and vault of the nave, if present. Above the aisle roof are a row of windows known as the clerestory, which give light to the nave. During the Romanesque period there was a development from this two-stage elevation to a three-stage elevation in which there is a gallery, known as a triforium, between the arcade and the clerestory. This varies from a simple blind arcade decorating the walls, to a narrow arcaded passage, to a fully developed second story with a row of windows lighting the gallery.[38]
The eastern end of a Romanesque church is almost always semi-circular, with either a high chancel surrounded by an ambulatory as in France, or a square end from which an apse projects as in Germany and Italy. Where square ends exist in English churches, they are probably influenced by Anglo-Saxon churches. Peterborough and Norwich Cathedrals have retained round east ends in the French style. However, in France, simple churches without apses and with no decorative features were built by the Cistercians who also founded many houses in England, frequently in remote areas.[49]
Romanesque church façades, generally to the west end of the building, are usually symmetrical, have a large central portal made significant by its mouldings or porch, and an arrangement of arched-topped windows. In Italy there is often a single central ocular or wheel window.[50] The common decorative feature is arcading.[2]
Smaller churches often have a single tower that is usually placed to the western end in France or England, either centrally or to one side, while larger churches and cathedrals often have two.
In France, Saint-Étienne, Caen, presents the model of a large French Romanesque façade. It is a symmetrical arrangement of nave flanked by two tall towers each with two buttresses of low flat profile that divide the façade into three vertical units. The lowest stage is marked by large doors, each set within an arch in each of the three vertical sections. The wider central section has two tiers of three identical windows, while in the outer sections there are two tiers of single windows, giving emphasis to the mass of the towers. The towers rise above the façade through three further tiers, the lowest of tall blind arcading, the next of arcading pierced by two narrow windows and the third of two large windows, divided into two lights by a colonnette.[42]
This façade can be seen as the foundation for many other buildings, including both French and English Gothic churches. While the form is typical of northern France, its various components were common to many Romanesque churches of the period across Europe. Similar façades are found in Portugal. In England, Southwell Cathedral has maintained this form, despite the insertion of a huge Gothic window between the towers. Lincoln and Durham must once have looked like this. In Germany, Limburg Cathedral has a rich variety of openings and arcades in horizontal storeys of varying heights.
The churches of San Zeno Maggiore, Verona, and San Michele, Pavia, present two types of façade that are typical of Italian Romanesque, that which reveals the architectural form of the building, and that which screens it. At San Zeno, the components of nave and aisles are made clear by the vertical shafts that rise to the level of the central gable and by the varying roof levels. At San Miniato al Monte the definition of the architectural parts is made even clearer by the polychrome marble, a feature of many Italian Medieval façades, particularly in Tuscany. At San Michele the vertical definition is present as at San Zeno, but the rooflines are screened behind a single large gable decorated with stepped arcading. At Santa Maria della Pieve, Arezzo, this screening is carried even further, as the roofline is horizontal and the arcading rises in many different levels while the colonettes that support them have a great diversity of decoration.[25][40]
In the Rhineland and Netherlands the Carolingian form of west end known as the westwerk prevailed. Towers and apse of the western end are often incorporated into a multi-storey structure that bears little structural or visual relationship to the building behind it. These westwerks take a great variety of forms as may be seen at Maria Laach Abbey, St Gertrude, Nivelles, and St Serviatius, Maastricht.
Towers were an important feature of Romanesque churches and a great number of them are still standing. They take a variety of forms: square, circular and octagonal, and are positioned differently in relation to the church building in different countries. In northern France, two large towers, such as those at Caen, were to become an integral part of the façade of any large abbey or cathedral. In central and southern France this is more variable and large churches may have one tower or a central tower. Large churches of Spain and Portugal usually have two towers.
Many abbeys of France, such as that at Cluny, had many towers of varied forms. This is also common in Germany, where the apses were sometimes framed with circular towers and the crossing surmounted by an octagonal tower as at Worms Cathedral. Large paired towers of square plan could also occur on the transept ends, such as those at Tournai Cathedral in Belgium. In Germany, where four towers frequently occur, they often have spires that may be four or eight sided, or the distinctive Rhenish helm shape seen on the cathedrals of Limburg[38] or Speyer.
In England, for large abbeys and cathedral buildings, three towers were favoured, with the central tower being the tallest. This was often not achieved, through the slow process of the building stages, and in many cases the upper parts of the tower were not completed until centuries later as at Durham and Lincoln. Large Norman towers exist at the cathedrals of Durham, Exeter, Southwell, Norwich and Tewkesbury Abbey.[37][49] Such towers were often topped during the late Medieval period with a Gothic spire of wooden construction covered with lead, copper or shingles. In the case of Norwich Cathedral, the huge, ornate, 12th-century crossing-tower received a 15th-century masonry spire rising to a height of 320 feet and remaining to this day.
In Italy towers are almost always free standing and the position is often dictated by the landform of the site, rather than aesthetics. This is the case in nearly all Italian churches both large and small, except in Sicily where a number of churches were founded by the Norman rulers and are more French in appearance.[2]
As a general rule, large Romanesque towers are square with corner buttresses of low profile, rising without diminishing through the various stages. Towers are usually marked into clearly defined stages by horizontal courses. As the towers rise, the number and size of openings increases as can be seen on the right tower of the transept of Tournai Cathedral where two narrow slits in the fourth level from the top becomes a single window, then two windows, then three windows at the uppermost level. This sort of arrangement is particularly noticeable on the towers of Italian churches, which are usually built of brick and may have no other ornament. Two fine examples occur at Lucca, at the church of San Frediano and at the Duomo. It is also seen in Spain.[2]
In Italy there are a number of large free-standing towers that are circular, the most famous of these being the Leaning Tower of Pisa. In other countries where circular towers occur, such as Germany, they are usually paired and often flank an apse. Circular towers are uncommon in England, but occur throughout the Early Medieval period in Ireland.
Polygonal towers were often used on crossings and occur in France, Germany, Italy and Spain such as that of the Old Cathedral, Salamanca, which is covered by a dome supported on a ribbed vault.[38]
Smaller churches sometimes had bell-gables instead of towers, a feature which, according to some authors, is characteristic of the simplicity of much architecture in the Romanesque style.[51]
Romanesque churches generally have a single portal centrally placed on the west front, the focus of decoration for the façade of the building. Some churches such as Saint-Étienne, Caen, (11th century) and Pisa Cathedral (late 12th century) had three western portals, in the manner of Early Christian basilicas. Many churches, both large and small, had lateral entrances that were commonly used by worshippers.
Romanesque doorways have a character form, with the jambs having a series of receding planes, into each of which is set a circular shaft, all surmounted by a continuous abacus. The semi-circular arch which rises from the abacus has the same series planes and circular mouldings as the jambs.[50] There are typically four planes containing three shafts, but there may be as many as twelve shafts, symbolic of the apostles.
The opening of the portal may be arched, or may be set with a lintel supporting a tympanum, generally carved, but in Italy sometimes decorated with mosaic or fresco. A carved tympanum generally constitutes the major sculptural work of a Romanesque church. The subject of the carving on a major portal may be Christ in Majesty or the Last Judgement. Lateral doors may include other subjects such as the Birth of Christ. The portal may be protected by a porch, with simple open porches being typical of Italy, and more elaborate structures typical of France and Spain.
The structure of large churches differed regionally and developed across the centuries. The use of piers of rectangular plan to support arcades was common, as at Mainz Cathedral and St Gertrude Nivelle, and remained usual in smaller churches across Europe, with the arcades often taking the form of openings through the surface of a wall. In Italy, where there was a strong tradition of using marble columns, complete with capital, base and abacus, this remained prevalent, often reusing existent ancient columns, as at San Miniato al Monte. A number of 11th-century churches have naves distinguished by huge circular columns with no clerestory, or a very small one as at St Philibert, Tournus. In England stout columns of large diameter supported decorated arches, gallery and clerestory, as at the nave of Malmesbury Abbey (see "Piers and columns", above). By the early 12th century composite piers had evolved, in which the attached shafts swept upward to a ribbed vault or were continued into the mouldings of the arcade, as at Vézelay Abbey, Saint-Étienne, Caen, and Peterborough Cathedral.
The nature of the internal roofing varied greatly, from open timber roofs, and wooden ceilings of different types, which remained common in smaller churches, to simple barrel vaults and groin vaults and increasingly to the use of ribbed vaults in the late 11th and 12th centuries, which were to become a common feature of larger abbey churches and cathedrals. A number of Romanesque churches are roofed with a series of Domes. At Fontevrault Abbey the nave is covered by four domes, while at the Church of Saint Front, Périgueux, the church is of Greek cross plan, with a central dome surrounded by four smaller domes over the nave, chancel and transepts.
Internal decoration varied across Europe. Where wide expanses of wall existed, they were often plastered and painted. Wooden ceilings and timber beams were decorated. In Italy walls were sometimes faced with polychrome marble. Where buildings were constructed of stone that was suitable for carving, many decorative details occur, including ornate capitals and mouldings.
The apsidal east end was often a focus of decoration, with both architectonic forms such as arcading and pictorial features such as carved figures, murals and occasionally mosaics. Stained glass came into increasing use from the 11th century. In many churches the eastern end has been rebuilt in a later style. Of England's Norman cathedrals, no eastern end remains unchanged. In France the eastern terminals of the important abbeys of Caen, Vézelay and, most significantly, the Basilica of St Denis were completely rebuilt in the Gothic style. In Germany, major reconstructions of the 19th century sought to return many Romanesque buildings to their original form. Examples of simple Romanesque apses can be seen in the images of St Gertrude, Nivelles; St Philibert, Tournus, and San Miniato al Monte.
Among the structures associated with church buildings are crypts, porches, chapter houses, cloisters and baptisteries.
Crypts are often present as an underlying structure to a substantial church, and are generally a completely discrete space, but occasionally, as in some Italian churches, may be a sunken space under a raised chancel and open, via steps, to the body of the nave. Romanesque crypts have survived in many instances, such as Canterbury Cathedral, when the church itself has been rebuilt. The usual construction of a Romanesque crypt is with many short stout columns carrying groin vaults, as at Worcester Cathedral.
Porches sometimes occur as part of the original design of a façade. This is very much the case in Italy, where they are usually only one bay deep and are supported on two columns, often resting on couchant lions, as at St Zeno, Verona.See above. Elsewhere, porches of various dates have been added to the façade or side entrance of existent churches and may be quite a substantial structure, with several bays of vaulting supported on an open or partially open arcade, and forming a sort of narthex as at the Church of St Maria, Laach.See above In Spain, Romanesque churches often have large lateral porches, like loggias.
Chapter houses often occur adjacent to monastic or cathedral churches. Few have survived intact from the Romanesque period. Early chapter houses were rectangular in shape, with the larger ones sometimes having groin or ribbed vaults supported on columns. Later Romanesque chapter houses sometimes had an apsidal eastern end. The chapter house at Durham Cathedral is a wide space with a ribbed vault, restored as originally constructed in 1130. The circular chapter house at Worcester Cathedral, built by Bishop Wulfstan (1062–95), was the first circular chapter house in Europe and was much imitated in England.
Cloisters are generally part of any monastic complex and also occur at cathedral and collegiate churches. They were essential to the communal way of life, a place for both working during daylight hours and relaxing during inclement weather. They usually abut the church building and are enclosed with windowless walls on the outside and an open arcade on the inside, looking over a courtyard or "cloister garth". They may be vaulted or have timber roofs. The arcades are often richly decorated and are home to some of the most fanciful carved capitals of the Romanesque period with those of Santo Domingo de Silos in Spain and the Abbey of St Pierre Moissac, being examples. Many Romanesque cloisters have survived in Spain, France, Italy and Germany, along with some of their associated buildings.
Baptisteries often occur in Italy as a free standing structure, associated with a cathedral. They are generally octagonal or circular and domed. The interior may be arcaded on several levels as at Pisa Cathedral. Other notable Romanesque baptisteries are that at Parma Cathedral remarkable for its galleried exterior, and the polychrome Baptistery of San Giovanni of Florence Cathedral, with vault mosaics of the 13th century including Christ in Majesty, possibly the work of the almost legendary Coppo di Marcovaldo.
Arcading is the single most significant decorative feature of Romanesque architecture. It occurs in a variety of forms, from the Lombard band, which is a row of small arches that appear to support a roofline or course, to shallow blind arcading that is often a feature of English architecture and is seen in great variety at Ely Cathedral, to the open dwarf gallery, first used at Speyer Cathedral and widely adopted in Italy as seen on both Pisa Cathedral and its famous Leaning Tower. Arcades could be used to great effect, both externally and internally, as exemplified by the church of Santa Maria della Pieve, in Arezzo.[40]
The Romanesque period produced a profusion of sculptural ornamentation. This most frequently took a purely geometric form and was particularly applied to mouldings, both straight courses and the curved moldings of arches. In La Madeleine, Vezelay, for example, the polychrome ribs of the vault are all edged with narrow filets of pierced stone. Similar decoration occurs around the arches of the nave and along the horizontal course separating arcade and clerestory. Combined with the pierced carving of the capitals, this gives a delicacy and refinement to the interior.[40]
In England, such decoration could be discrete, as at Hereford and Peterborough cathedrals, or have a sense of massive energy as at Durham where the diagonal ribs of the vaults are all outlined with chevrons, the mouldings of the nave arcade are carved with several layers of the same and the huge columns are deeply incised with a variety of geometric patterns creating an impression of directional movement. These features combine to create one of the richest and most dynamic interiors of the Romanesque period.[52]
Although much sculptural ornament was sometimes applied to the interiors of churches, the focus of such decoration was generally the west front, and in particular, the portals. Chevrons and other geometric ornaments, referred to by 19th-century writers as "barbaric ornament", are most frequently found on the mouldings of the central door. Stylized foliage often appears, sometimes deeply carved and curling outward after the manner of the acanthus leaves on Corinthian capitals, but also carved in shallow relief and spiral patterns, imitating the intricacies of manuscript illuminations. In general, the style of ornament was more classical in Italy, such as that seen around the door of San Giusto in Lucca, and more "barbaric" in England, Germany and Scandinavia, such as that seen at Lincoln and Speyer Cathedrals. France produced a great range of ornament, with particularly fine interwoven and spiralling vines in the "manuscript" style occurring at Saint-Sernin, Toulouse.[26][38][40]
The name of the architectural style was transferred onto the art of he period. Romanesque art provided fine examples of painting and sculpture, but, while the Romanesque churches were flush with colours, most large paintings were lost. The period brought a major revival of sculpture.[1]
With the fall of the Roman Empire, the tradition of carving large works in stone and sculpting figures in bronze died out. The best-known surviving large sculptural work of Proto-Romanesque Europe is the life-size wooden Crucifix commissioned by Archbishop Gero of Cologne in about 960–65.[53] During the 11th and 12th centuries, figurative sculpture flourished in a distinctly Romanesque style that can be recognised across Europe, although the most spectacular sculptural projects are concentrated in South-Western France, Northern Spain and Italy.
Major figurative decoration occurs particularly around the portals of cathedrals and churches, ornamenting the tympanum, lintels, jambs and central posts. The tympanum is typically decorated with the imagery of Christ in Majesty with the symbols of the Four Evangelists, drawn directly from the gilt covers of medieval Gospel Books. This style of doorway occurs in many places and continued into the Gothic period. A rare survival in England is that of the "Prior's Door" at Ely Cathedral. In France, many have survived, with impressive examples at the Abbey of Saint-Pierre, Moissac, the Abbey of Sainte-Marie, Souillac,[54] and Abbey of la Madaleine, Vézelay – all daughter houses of Cluny, with extensive other sculpture remaining in cloisters and other buildings. Nearby, Autun Cathedral has a Last Judgement of great rarity in that it has uniquely been signed by its creator Giselbertus (who was perhaps the patron rather than the sculptor).[25][40] The same artist is thought to have worked at la Madeleine Vezelay which uniquely has two elaborately carved tympanum, the early inner one representing the Last Judgement and that on the outer portal of the narthex representing Jesus sending forth the Apostles to preach to the nations.
It is a feature of Romanesque art, both in manuscript illumination and sculptural decoration, that figures are contorted to fit the space that they occupy. Among the many examples that exist, one of the finest is the figure of the Prophet Jeremiah from the pillar of the portal of the Abbey of Saint-Pierre, Moissac, France, from about 1130.[40] A significant motif of Romanesque design is the spiral, a form applied to both plant motifs and drapery in Romanesque sculpture. An outstanding example of its use in drapery is that of the central figure of Christ on the outer portal at La Madaleine, Vezelay.[40]
Many of the smaller sculptural works, particularly capitals, are Biblical in subject and include scenes of Creation and the Fall of Man, episodes from the life of Christ and those Old Testament scenes that prefigure his Death and Resurrection, such as Jonah and the Whale and Daniel in the lions' den. Many Nativity scenes occur, the theme of the Three Kings being particularly popular. The cloisters of Santo Domingo de Silos Abbey in Northern Spain, and Moissac are fine examples surviving complete.
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The large wall surfaces and plain curving vaults of the Romanesque period lent themselves to mural decoration. Many of these early wall paintings have been destroyed by damp or the walls have been replastered and painted over. In most of Northern Europe such pictures were systematically destroyed in bouts of Reformation iconoclasm. In other countries they have suffered from war, neglect and changing fashion.
A classic scheme for the full painted decoration of a church, derived from earlier examples often in mosaic, had, as its focal point in the semi-dome of the apse, Christ in Majesty or Christ the Redeemer enthroned within a mandorla and framed by the four winged beasts, symbols of the Four Evangelists, comparing directly with examples from the gilt covers or the illuminations of Gospel Books of the period. If the Virgin Mary was the dedicatee of the church, she might replace Christ here. On the apse walls below would be saints and apostles, perhaps including narrative scenes, for example of the saint to whom the church was dedicated. On the sanctuary arch were figures of apostles, prophets or the twenty-four "elders of the Apocalypse", looking in towards a bust of Christ, or his symbol the Lamb, at the top of the arch. The north wall of the nave would contain narrative scenes from the Old Testament, and the south wall from the New Testament. On the rear west wall would be a Doom painting or Last Judgement, with an enthroned and judging Christ at the top.[55]
One of the most intact schemes to exist is that at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe in France. (See picture above under "Vault") The long barrel vault of the nave provides an excellent surface for fresco, and is decorated with scenes of the Old Testament, showing the Creation, the Fall of Man and other stories including a lively depiction of Noah's Ark complete with a fearsome figurehead and numerous windows through with can be seen the Noah and his family on the upper deck, birds on the middle deck, while on the lower are the pairs of animals. Another scene shows with great vigour the swamping of Pharaoh's army by the Red Sea. The scheme extends to other parts of the church, with the martyrdom of the local saints shown in the crypt, and Apocalypse in the narthex and Christ in Majesty. The range of colours employed is limited to light blue-green, yellow ochre, reddish brown and black. Similar paintings exist in Serbia, Spain, Germany, Italy and elsewhere in France.[38]
The oldest-known fragments of medieval pictorial stained glass appear to date from the 10th century. The earliest intact figures are five prophet windows at Augsburg, dating from the late 11th century. The figures, though stiff and formalised, demonstrate considerable proficiency in design, both pictorially and in the functional use of the glass, indicating that their maker was well accustomed to the medium. At Canterbury and Chartres Cathedrals, a number of panels of the 12th century have survived, including, at Canterbury, a figure of Adam digging, and another of his son Seth from a series of Ancestors of Christ. Adam represents a highly naturalistic and lively portrayal, while in the figure of Seth, the robes have been used to great decorative effect, similar to the best stone carving of the period.
Many of the magnificent stained glass windows of France, including the famous windows of Chartres, date from the 13th century. Far fewer large windows remain intact from the 12th century. One such is the Crucifixion of Poitiers, a remarkable composition that rises through three stages, the lowest with a quatrefoil depicting the Martyrdom of St Peter, the largest central stage dominated by the crucifixion and the upper stage showing the Ascension of Christ in a mandorla. The figure of the crucified Christ is already showing the Gothic curve. The window is described by George Seddon as being of "unforgettable beauty".[56]
During the 12th century, features that were to become typical of Gothic architecture began to appear. It is not uncommon, for example, for a part of building that has been constructed over a lengthy period extending into the 12th century, to have very similar arcading of both semi-circular and pointed shape, or windows that are identical in height and width, but in which the later ones are pointed. This can be seen on the towers of Tournai Cathedral and on the western towers and façade at Ely Cathedral.[37][57] Other variations that appear to hover between Romanesque and Gothic occur, such as the façade designed by Abbot Suger at the Abbey of Saint-Denis, which retains much that is Romanesque in its appearance, and the façade of Laon Cathedral, which, despite its Gothic form, has round arches.[57]
Abbot Suger's innovative choir of the Abbey of Saint-Denis, 1140–44, led to the adoption of the Gothic style by Paris and its surrounding area, but other parts of France were slower to take it up, and provincial churches continued to be built in the heavy manner and rubble stone of the Romanesque, even when the openings were treated with the fashionable pointed arch.
In England, the Romanesque groundplan, which in that country commonly had a very long nave, continued to affect the style of building of cathedrals and those large abbey churches which were also to become cathedrals at the dissolution of the monasteries in the 16th century. Despite the fact that English cathedrals were built or rebuilt in many stages, substantial areas of Norman building can be seen in many of them, particularly in the nave arcades. In the case of Winchester Cathedral, the Gothic arches were literally carved out of the existent Norman piers.[37] Other cathedrals have sections of their building which are clearly an intermediate stage between Norman and Gothic, such as the western towers of Ely Cathedral and part of the nave at Worcester Cathedral. The first truly Gothic building in England is the long eastern end of Canterbury Cathedral commenced in 1175.[37]
In Italy, although many churches such as Florence Cathedral and Santa Maria Novella were built in the Gothic style, or utilising the pointed arch and window tracery, Romanesque features derived from the Roman architectural heritage, such as sturdy columns with capitals of a modified Corinthian form, continued to be used. The pointed vault was utilised where convenient, but it is commonly interspersed with semicircular arches and vaults wherever they conveniently fit. The façades of Gothic churches in Italy are not always easily distinguishable from the Romanesque.
Germany was not quick to adopt the Gothic style, and when it did so in the 1230s, the buildings were often modelled very directly upon French cathedrals, as Cologne Cathedral was modelled on Amiens. The smaller churches and abbeys continued to be constructed in a more provincial Romanesque manner, the date only being registered by the pointed window openings.[40]
The Romanesque period was a time of great development in the design and construction of defensive architecture. After churches and the monastic buildings with which they are often associated, castles are the most numerous type of building of the period. While most are in ruins through the action of war and politics, others, like William the Conqueror's White Tower within the Tower of London have remained almost intact.
In some regions, particularly Germany, large palaces were built for rulers and bishops. Local lords built great halls in the countryside, while rich merchants built grand town houses. In Italy, city councils constructed town halls (called Broletto or Arengario), while wealthy cities of Northern Europe protected their trading interests with warehouses and commercial premises. All over Europe, dwellers of the town and country built houses to live in, some of which, sturdily constructed in stone, have remained to this day with sufficient of their form and details intact to give a picture of the style of domestic architecture that was in fashion at the time.
Examples of all these types of buildings can be found scattered across Europe, sometimes as isolated survivals like the two merchants' houses on opposite sides of Steep Hill in Lincoln, England, and sometimes giving form to a whole medieval city like San Gimignano in Tuscany, Italy. These buildings are the subject of a separate article.
See also Romanesque Revival architecture in the United Kingdom
During the 19th century, when Gothic Revival architecture was fashionable, buildings were occasionally designed in the Romanesque style. There are a number of Romanesque Revival churches, dating from as early as the 1830s and continuing into the 20th century where the massive and "brutal" quality of the Romanesque style was appreciated and designed in brick.
The Natural History Museum, London, designed by Alfred Waterhouse, 1879, on the other hand, is a Romanesque revival building that makes full use of the decorative potential of Romanesque arcading and architectural sculpture. The Romanesque appearance has been achieved while freely adapting an overall style to suit the function of the building. The columns of the foyer, for example, give an impression of incised geometric design similar to those of Durham Cathedral. However, the sources of the incised patterns are the trunks of palms, cycads and tropical tree ferns. The animal motifs, of which there are many, include rare and exotic species.
The type of modern buildings for which the Romanesque style was most frequently adapted was the warehouse, where a lack of large windows and an appearance of great strength and stability were desirable features. These buildings, generally of brick, frequently have flattened buttresses rising to wide arches at the upper levels after the manner of some Italian Romanesque façades. This style was adapted to suit commercial buildings by opening the spaces between the arches into large windows, the brick walls becoming a shell to a building that was essentially of modern steel-frame construction, the architect Henry Hobson Richardson giving his name to the style, Richardsonian Romanesque. Good examples of the style are Marshall Field's Wholesale Store, Chicago, by H.H. Richardson, 1885, and the Chadwick Lead Works in Boston, United States, by William Preston, 1887. The style also lent itself to the building of cloth mills, steelworks and powerstations.[2][42]
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