stringtranslate.com

Persecución de los cristianos

Cristianos griegos en 1922, huyendo de sus hogares en Kharput y trasladándose a Trebisonda . En las décadas de 1910 y 1920, los genocidios armenio , griego y asirio fueron perpetrados por el Imperio Otomano y su estado sucesor, la República de Turquía . [9]

La persecución de los cristianos se puede rastrear históricamente desde el primer siglo de la era cristiana hasta nuestros días . Tanto los misioneros cristianos como los conversos al cristianismo han sido objeto de persecución, a veces hasta el punto de ser martirizados por su fe , desde el surgimiento del cristianismo.

Los primeros cristianos fueron perseguidos a manos de los judíos , de cuya religión surgió el cristianismo , y de los romanos que controlaban muchos de los primeros centros del cristianismo en el Imperio romano . Desde el surgimiento de los estados cristianos en la Antigüedad tardía , los cristianos también han sido perseguidos por otros cristianos debido a diferencias en la doctrina que han sido declaradas heréticas . A principios del siglo IV , las persecuciones oficiales del imperio terminaron con el Edicto de Serdica en 311 y la práctica del cristianismo fue legalizada por el Edicto de Milán en 312. Para el año 380, los cristianos habían comenzado a perseguirse entre sí. Los cismas de la Antigüedad tardía y la Edad Media , incluidos los cismas de Roma-Constantinopla y las muchas controversias cristológicas , junto con la posterior Reforma protestante provocaron graves conflictos entre las denominaciones cristianas . Durante estos conflictos, los miembros de las diversas denominaciones se persiguieron con frecuencia entre sí y participaron en la violencia sectaria . En el siglo XX, las poblaciones cristianas fueron perseguidas, en ocasiones hasta el punto del genocidio , por diversos estados, entre ellos el Imperio Otomano y su estado sucesor , que cometieron las masacres hamidianas , el genocidio armenio , el genocidio asirio , el genocidio griego y el genocidio de Diyarbekir , y estados ateos como los del antiguo Bloque del Este .

La persecución de los cristianos ha continuado durante el siglo XXI . El cristianismo es la religión más grande del mundo y sus seguidores viven en todo el mundo. Aproximadamente el 10% de los cristianos del mundo son miembros de grupos minoritarios que viven en estados de mayoría no cristiana. [10] La persecución contemporánea de los cristianos incluye la persecución estatal oficial que ocurre principalmente en países ubicados en África y Asia porque tienen religiones estatales o porque sus gobiernos y sociedades practican el favoritismo religioso. Tal favoritismo suele ir acompañado de discriminación religiosa y persecución religiosa .

Según el informe de 2020 de la Comisión de los Estados Unidos para la Libertad Religiosa Internacional , los cristianos en Birmania , China , Eritrea , India , Irán , Nigeria , Corea del Norte , Pakistán , Rusia , Arabia Saudita , Siria y Vietnam son perseguidos; estos países están etiquetados como "países de especial preocupación" por el Departamento de Estado de los Estados Unidos , debido a la participación de sus gobiernos en, o la tolerancia de, "graves violaciones de la libertad religiosa". [11] : 2  El mismo informe recomienda que Afganistán , Argelia , Azerbaiyán , Bahréin , la República Centroafricana, Cuba , Egipto , Indonesia , Irak , Kazajstán , Malasia , Sudán y Turquía constituyan la "lista de vigilancia especial" del Departamento de Estado de los Estados Unidos de países en los que el gobierno permite o participa en "graves violaciones de la libertad religiosa ". [11] : 2 

Gran parte de la persecución de los cristianos en los últimos tiempos es perpetrada por actores no estatales que son etiquetados como "entidades de particular preocupación" por el Departamento de Estado de los EE. UU., incluidos los grupos islamistas Boko Haram en Nigeria , el movimiento Houthi en Yemen , el Estado Islámico de Irak y el Levante - Provincia de Khorasan en Pakistán , al-Shabaab en Somalia , los talibanes en Afganistán , el Estado Islámico , así como el Ejército Unido del Estado Wa y los participantes en el conflicto de Kachin en Myanmar . [11] : 2 

Antigüedad

Muerte de San Esteban , "el Protomártir", relatada en Hechos 7 , representada en un grabado de Gustave Doré (publicado en 1866)
Crucifixión de San Pedro de Caravaggio (1600, Capilla Cerasi )

Nuevo Testamento

El cristianismo primitivo comenzó como una secta entre los judíos del Segundo Templo . La disensión intercomunitaria comenzó casi inmediatamente. [12] Según el relato del Nuevo Testamento , Saulo de Tarso, antes de su conversión al cristianismo, persiguió a los primeros judeocristianos . Según los Hechos de los Apóstoles , un año después de la crucifixión romana de Jesús , Esteban fue apedreado por sus transgresiones a la ley judía . [13] Y Saulo (también conocido como Pablo ) consintió, mirando y presenciando la muerte de Esteban. [12] Más tarde, Pablo comienza una lista de sus propios sufrimientos después de la conversión en 2 Corintios 11: "Cinco veces recibí de los judíos los cuarenta azotes menos uno. Tres veces fui azotado con varas, una vez fui apedreado ..." [14]

Judeocristiano primitivo

En el año 41 d. C., Herodes Agripa , que ya poseía el territorio de Herodes Antipas y Filipo (sus antiguos colegas en la tetrarquía herodiana ), obtuvo el título de rey de los judíos y, en cierto sentido, reformó el reino de Judea de Herodes el Grande ( r.  37-4 a. C. ). Herodes Agripa estaba ansioso por ganarse el cariño de sus súbditos judíos y continuó la persecución en la que Santiago el Grande perdió la vida, San Pedro escapó por poco y el resto de los apóstoles huyeron. [12] Después de la muerte de Agripa en el año 44, comenzó la procuraduría romana (antes del 41 eran prefectos en la provincia de Judea) y esos líderes mantuvieron una paz neutral, hasta que el procurador Porcio Festo murió en el año 62 y el sumo sacerdote Ananus ben Ananus aprovechó el vacío de poder para atacar a la Iglesia y ejecutar a Santiago el Justo , entonces líder de los cristianos de Jerusalén .

El Nuevo Testamento afirma que Pablo fue encarcelado en varias ocasiones por las autoridades romanas, apedreado por los fariseos y dejado por muerto en una ocasión, y finalmente llevado a Roma como prisionero. Pedro y otros cristianos primitivos también fueron encarcelados, golpeados y acosados. La Primera Rebelión Judía , impulsada por la matanza romana de 3.000 judíos, condujo a la destrucción de Jerusalén en el año 70 d. C. , el fin del judaísmo del Segundo Templo (y el posterior ascenso lento del judaísmo rabínico ). [12]

Claudia Setzer afirma que "los judíos no vieron a los cristianos como claramente separados de su propia comunidad hasta al menos mediados del siglo II", pero la mayoría de los estudiosos sitúan la "separación de caminos" mucho antes, y la separación teológica se produjo inmediatamente. [15] El judaísmo del Segundo Templo había permitido más de una manera de ser judío. Después de la caída del Templo, una manera condujo al judaísmo rabínico, mientras que otra se convirtió en el cristianismo; pero el cristianismo fue "moldeado en torno a la convicción de que el judío, Jesús de Nazaret, no solo era el Mesías prometido a los judíos, sino el hijo de Dios, que ofrecía acceso a Dios y la bendición de Dios a los no judíos tanto como, y quizás eventualmente más que, a los judíos". [16] : 189  Si bien la escatología mesiánica tenía raíces profundas en el judaísmo, y la idea del siervo sufriente, conocido como el Mesías Efraín, había sido un aspecto desde la época de Isaías (siglo VII a. C.), en el primer siglo, esta idea fue vista como usurpada por los cristianos. Luego fue suprimido y no volvió a aparecer en la enseñanza rabínica hasta los escritos del siglo VII de Pesiqta Rabati. [17]

La visión tradicional de la separación del judaísmo y el cristianismo sostiene que los judíos cristianos huyeron en masa a Pella (poco antes de la caída del Templo en el año 70 d. C.) como resultado de la persecución y el odio judíos. [18] Steven D. Katz dice que "no puede haber duda de que la situación posterior al 70 fue testigo de un cambio en las relaciones entre judíos y cristianos". [19] El judaísmo intentó reconstituirse después del desastre, lo que incluyó determinar la respuesta adecuada al cristianismo judío. La forma exacta de esto no se conoce directamente, pero se alega tradicionalmente que tomó cuatro formas: la circulación de pronunciamientos oficiales anticristianos, la emisión de una prohibición oficial contra los cristianos que asistían a la sinagoga, una prohibición contra la lectura de escritos cristianos y la difusión de la maldición contra los herejes cristianos: el Birkat haMinim . [19]

Imperio romano

La persecución de Nerón

Una Dirce cristiana , de Henryk Siemiradzki (1897, Museo Nacional, Varsovia ) Una mujer cristiana es martirizada bajo el reinado de Nerón en esta recreación del mito de Dirce.

El primer caso documentado de persecución de cristianos bajo supervisión imperial en el Imperio romano comienza con Nerón (54-68). En los Anales , Tácito afirma que Nerón culpó a los cristianos por el Gran Incendio de Roma , y ​​aunque generalmente se cree que es auténtico y confiable, algunos eruditos modernos han puesto en duda esta opinión, en gran parte porque no hay más referencias a que Nerón culpara a los cristianos por el incendio hasta finales del siglo IV. [20] [21] Suetonio menciona los castigos infligidos a los cristianos, definidos como hombres que seguían una nueva y maléfica superstición, pero no especifica las razones del castigo; simplemente enumera el hecho junto con otros abusos denunciados por Nerón. [21] : 269  Hay un amplio consenso en que el Número de la bestia en el Libro del Apocalipsis , que suma 666, se deriva de una gematría del nombre de Nerón César, lo que indica que Nerón era visto como una figura excepcionalmente malvada. [22] Varias fuentes cristianas informan que el apóstol Pablo y San Pedro murieron durante la persecución neroniana. [23] [24] [25] [26]

De Nerón a Decio

La última oración de los mártires cristianos, de Jean-Léon Gérôme (1863-1883, Walters Art Museum ). Una escena fantástica de damnatio ad bestias en el Circo Máximo de la antigua Roma, bajo el monte Palatino .

En los dos primeros siglos, el cristianismo era una secta relativamente pequeña que no era una preocupación importante para el emperador. Rodney Stark estima que había menos de 10.000 cristianos en el año 100. El cristianismo creció hasta unos 200.000 en el año 200, lo que equivale a alrededor del 0,36% de la población del imperio, y luego a casi 2 millones en el año 250, lo que todavía representa menos del 2% de la población total del imperio. [27] Según Guy Laurie, la Iglesia no estaba en una lucha por su existencia durante sus primeros siglos. [28] Sin embargo, Bernard Green dice que, aunque las primeras persecuciones de los cristianos fueron generalmente esporádicas, locales y bajo la dirección de gobernadores regionales, no emperadores, los cristianos "siempre estuvieron sujetos a la opresión y en riesgo de persecución abierta". [29] La política de Trajano hacia los cristianos no era diferente del trato hacia otras sectas, es decir, sólo serían castigados si se negaban a adorar al emperador y a los dioses, pero no debían ser buscados. [30]

Ejecución de Ignacio de Antioquía , supuestamente asesinado en Roma bajo el emperador Trajano , representada en el Menologio de Basilio II , un manuscrito iluminado preparado para el emperador Basilio II en c.  1000.

James L. Papandrea dice que hay diez emperadores generalmente aceptados por haber patrocinado la persecución estatal de los cristianos, [31] aunque la primera persecución patrocinada por el gobierno de todo el imperio no fue hasta Decio en 249. [32] Un relato temprano de una matanza en masa es la persecución en Lyon en la que los cristianos fueron supuestamente masacrados en masa al ser arrojados a las bestias salvajes bajo el decreto de los funcionarios romanos por supuestamente negarse a renunciar a su fe según Ireneo . [33] [34] En el siglo III, la casa del emperador Severo Alejandro contenía muchos cristianos, pero su sucesor, Maximino Tracio , odiando esta casa, ordenó que los líderes de las iglesias fueran ejecutados. [35] [36] Según Eusebio, esta persecución envió a Hipólito de Roma y al Papa Ponciano al exilio, pero otra evidencia sugiere que las persecuciones fueron locales en las provincias donde ocurrieron en lugar de suceder bajo la dirección del Emperador. [37]

Según dos tradiciones cristianas diferentes, Simón bar Kokhba , el líder de la segunda revuelta judía contra Roma (132-136 d. C.), que fue proclamado Mesías, persiguió a los cristianos: Justino Mártir afirma que los cristianos fueron castigados si no negaban y blasfemaban contra Jesucristo, mientras que Eusebio afirma que Bar Kokhba los acosó porque se negaron a unirse a su revuelta contra los romanos. [38]

Martirio voluntario
Ilustración en xilografía para la edición de 1570 del Libro de los Mártires de John Foxe que muestra las "persecuciones de la Iglesia primitiva bajo los tiranos paganos de Roma" y representa los "diversos tipos de tormentos ideados contra los cristianos".

Algunos cristianos primitivos buscaron y dieron la bienvenida al martirio. [39] [40] Según Droge y Tabor, "en 185, un grupo de cristianos se acercó al procónsul de Asia, Arrio Antonino, y le exigió ser ejecutado. El procónsul obligó a algunos de ellos y luego despidió al resto, diciendo que si querían suicidarse, había muchas cuerdas disponibles o acantilados desde los que podían saltar". [41] Este entusiasmo por la muerte se encuentra en las cartas de San Ignacio de Antioquía , quien fue arrestado y condenado como criminal antes de escribir sus cartas mientras se dirigía a la ejecución. Ignacio presenta su propio martirio como un sacrificio eucarístico voluntario que debe ser aceptado. [42] : 55 

"Muchos actos martiriales presentan el martirio como una elección aguda que llega al núcleo de la identidad cristiana: vida o muerte, salvación o condenación, Cristo o apostasía..." [42] : 145  Posteriormente, la literatura sobre el martirio ha establecido distinciones entre aquellos que eran entusiastamente pro-martirio voluntario (los montanistas y donatistas ), aquellos que ocupaban una posición neutral y moderada (los ortodoxos), y aquellos que eran anti-martirio (los gnósticos ). [42] : 145 

La categoría de mártir voluntario comenzó a surgir recién en el siglo III en el contexto de los esfuerzos por justificar la huida de la persecución. [43] La condena del martirio voluntario se utiliza para justificar la huida de Clemente de la persecución de los Severos en Alejandría en el año 202 d. C., y el martirio de Policarpo justifica la huida de Policarpo por las mismas razones. "El martirio voluntario se interpreta como una locura apasionada", mientras que "la huida de la persecución es paciencia" y el resultado es un verdadero martirio. [42] : 155 

Daniel Boyarin rechaza el uso del término "martirio voluntario", diciendo que "si el martirio no es voluntario, no es martirio". [44] GEM de Ste. Croix añade una categoría de "martirio cuasi voluntario": "mártires que no fueron directamente responsables de su propio arresto pero que, después de ser arrestados, se comportaron con" una negativa obstinada a obedecer o acatar la autoridad. [42] : 153  Candida Moss afirma que el juicio de De Ste. Croix sobre qué valores vale la pena morir es moderno y no representa valores clásicos. Según ella, no existía el concepto de "martirio cuasi voluntario" en la antigüedad. [42] : 153 

Persecución deciana

En el reinado del emperador Decio ( r.  249-251 ), se emitió un decreto que requería que todos los residentes del imperio realizaran sacrificios, que se haría cumplir mediante la emisión de cada persona con un libelo que certificara que habían realizado el ritual necesario. [45] No se sabe qué motivó el decreto de Decio, o si estaba destinado a atacar a los cristianos, aunque es posible que el emperador estuviera buscando favores divinos en las próximas guerras con los carpos y los godos . [45] Los cristianos que se negaron a ofrecer sacrificios públicamente o quemar incienso a los dioses romanos fueron acusados ​​​​de impiedad y castigados con arresto, prisión, tortura o ejecución. [32] Según Eusebio, los obispos Alejandro de Jerusalén , Babilas de Antioquía y Fabián de Roma fueron encarcelados y asesinados. [45] El patriarca Dionisio de Alejandría escapó del cautiverio, mientras que el obispo Cipriano de Cartago huyó de su sede episcopal al campo. [45] La Iglesia cristiana, a pesar de que no hay ninguna indicación en los textos supervivientes de que el edicto se dirigiera a ningún grupo específico, nunca olvidó el reinado de Decio, a quien etiquetaron como ese "tirano feroz". [32] Después de la muerte de Decio, Treboniano Galo ( r.  251-253 ) lo sucedió y continuó la persecución deciana durante la duración de su reinado. [45]

Persecución valeriana

La ascensión al trono de Valeriano (  253-260 ), sucesor de Treboniano Galo , puso fin a la persecución de Decio. [45] Sin embargo, en 257 Valeriano comenzó a imponer la religión pública. Cipriano de Cartago fue exiliado y ejecutado al año siguiente, mientras que el papa Sixto II también fue condenado a muerte. [45] Dionisio de Alejandría fue juzgado, se le instó a reconocer a "los dioses naturales" con la esperanza de que su congregación lo imitara, y fue exiliado cuando se negó. [45]

Valeriano fue derrotado por los persas en la batalla de Edesa y él mismo fue tomado prisionero en 260. Según Eusebio, el hijo de Valeriano, co- augusto y sucesor Galieno ( r.  253-268 ) permitió a las comunidades cristianas volver a utilizar sus cementerios e hizo la restitución de sus edificios confiscados. [45] Eusebio escribió que Galieno permitió a los cristianos "libertad de acción". [45]

Antigüedad tardía

Imperio romano

Ejecución de Santa Bárbara , supuestamente asesinada bajo el emperador Diocleciano , representada en el Menologio de Basilio II

La gran persecución

La Gran Persecución, o Persecución Diocleciana, fue iniciada por el augusto mayor y emperador romano Diocleciano ( r.  284-305 ) el 23 de febrero de 303. [45] En el imperio romano oriental, la persecución oficial duró de manera intermitente hasta 313, mientras que en el imperio romano occidental la persecución no se aplicó a partir de 306. [45] Según el De mortibus persecutorum ("sobre las muertes de los perseguidores") de Lactancio , el emperador menor de Diocleciano, el césar Galerio ( r.  293-311 ) presionó al augusto para que comenzara a perseguir a los cristianos. [45] La Historia de la Iglesia de Eusebio de Cesarea informa que se promulgaron edictos imperiales para destruir iglesias y confiscar escrituras, y para remover a los ocupantes cristianos de puestos gubernamentales, mientras que los sacerdotes cristianos debían ser encarcelados y obligados a realizar sacrificios en la antigua religión romana . [45] En el relato de Eusebio, un hombre cristiano anónimo (nombrado por hagiógrafos posteriores como Euecio de Nicomedia y venerado el 27 de febrero) derribó un aviso público de un edicto imperial mientras los emperadores Diocleciano y Galerio estaban en Nicomedia ( İzmit ), una de las capitales de Diocleciano; según Lactancio, fue torturado y quemado vivo. [46] Según Lactancio, la iglesia de Nicomedia ( İzmit ) fue destruida, mientras que el Apéndice Optatan tiene un relato de la prefectura pretoriana de África que involucra la confiscación de materiales escritos que llevaron al cisma donatista . [45] Según los Mártires de Palestina de Eusebio y el De mortibus persecutorum de Lactancio , un cuarto edicto de 304 exigía que todos realizaran sacrificios, aunque en el imperio occidental esto no se aplicó. [45]

Un diálogo "inusualmente filosófico" se registra en los procedimientos del juicio de Phileas de Thmuis , obispo de Thmuis en el delta del Nilo en Egipto , que sobreviven en papiros griegos del siglo IV entre los papiros Bodmer y los papiros Chester Beatty de las bibliotecas Bodmer y Chester Beatty y en manuscritos en latín , etíope y copto de siglos posteriores, un cuerpo de hagiografía conocido como los Hechos de Phileas . [45] Phileas fue condenado en su quinto juicio en Alejandría bajo Clodio Culciano, el praefectus Aegypti el 4 de febrero de 305 (el décimo día de Mecheir ).

En el imperio occidental, la persecución de Diocleciano cesó con la usurpación de dos hijos de emperadores en 306: la de Constantino, que fue aclamado augusto por el ejército después de que su padre Constancio I ( r.  293-306 ) muriera, y la de Majencio ( r.  306-312 ), que fue elevado a augusto por el Senado romano después del retiro a regañadientes de su padre Maximiano ( r.  285-305 ) y su co- augusto Diocleciano en mayo de 305. [45] De Majencio, que controlaba Italia con su padre ahora no retirado, y Constantino, que controlaba Britania , Galia e Iberia , ninguno estaba inclinado a continuar la persecución. [45] Sin embargo, en el imperio oriental, Galerio, ahora augusto , continuó la política de Diocleciano. [45] Tanto la Historia de la Iglesia de Eusebio como los Mártires de Palestina dan relatos del martirio y la persecución de los cristianos, incluido el propio mentor de Eusebio, Pánfilo de Cesarea , con quien estuvo encarcelado durante la persecución. [45]

La ejecución del patriarca Pedro de Alejandría bajo el emperador Maximino Daia , representada en el Menologio de Basilio II
La ejecución de los mártires Lucas el Diácono, Mocio el Lector y Silvano, obispo de Emesa , supuestamente asesinados bajo el emperador Maximino Daia , representada en el Menologio de Basilio II

Cuando Galerio murió en mayo de 311, Lactancio y Eusebio informaron que había compuesto un edicto en su lecho de muerte -el Edicto de Serdica- que permitía la reunión de cristianos en conventículos y explicaba los motivos de la persecución anterior. [45] Eusebio escribió que la Pascua se celebraba abiertamente. [45] Sin embargo, en otoño, el sobrino de Galerio, ex césar y co- augusto Maximino Daia ( r.  310-313 ) estaba haciendo cumplir la persecución de Diocleciano en sus territorios de Anatolia y la Diócesis de Oriente en respuesta a peticiones de numerosas ciudades y provincias, incluidas Antioquía , Tiro , Licia y Pisidia . [45] Maximino también se vio alentado a actuar por un pronunciamiento oracular hecho por una estatua de Zeus Philios erigida en Antioquía por Teotecno de Antioquía, quien también organizó una petición anticristiana que se enviaría desde los antioquenos a Maximino, solicitando que los cristianos de allí fueran expulsados. [45] Entre los cristianos que se sabe que murieron en esta fase de la persecución están el presbítero Luciano de Antioquía , el obispo Metodio del Olimpo en Licia y Pedro , el patriarca de Alejandría . Derrotado en una guerra civil por el augusto Licinio ( r.  308-324 ), Maximino murió en 313, poniendo fin a la persecución sistemática del cristianismo en su conjunto en el Imperio romano. [45] Sólo se conoce por su nombre un mártir del reinado de Licinio, quien emitió el Edicto de Milán conjuntamente con su aliado, co- augusto y cuñado Constantino, que tuvo el efecto de reanudar la tolerancia de antes de la persecución y devolver la propiedad confiscada a los propietarios cristianos. [45]

La Nueva Enciclopedia Católica afirma que «los hagiógrafos antiguos, medievales y modernos tendían a exagerar el número de mártires. Puesto que el título de mártir es el más alto al que puede aspirar un cristiano, esta tendencia es natural». [47] Los intentos de estimar las cifras implicadas se basan inevitablemente en fuentes inadecuadas. [48]

Periodo constantiniano

La Iglesia cristiana marcó la conversión de Constantino el Grande como el cumplimiento final de su victoria celestial sobre los "falsos dioses". [49] : xxxii  El estado romano siempre se había considerado a sí mismo como dirigido por Dios, ahora veía llegar a su fin la primera gran era de persecución, en la que se consideraba que el Diablo había usado la violencia abierta para disuadir el crecimiento del cristianismo. [50] Los cristianos católicos ortodoxos cercanos al estado romano representaban la persecución imperial como un fenómeno histórico, más que contemporáneo. [50] Según MacMullan, las historias cristianas están teñidas por este "triunfalismo". [51] : 4 

Peter Leithart dice que, "[Constantino] no castigó a los paganos por ser paganos, ni a los judíos por ser judíos, y no adoptó una política de conversión forzada". [52] : 61  Los paganos permanecieron en posiciones importantes en su corte. [52] : 302  Prohibió los espectáculos de gladiadores, destruyó algunos templos y saqueó más, y utilizó una retórica contundente contra los no cristianos, pero nunca participó en una purga. [52] : 302  Los partidarios de Majencio no fueron masacrados cuando Constantino tomó la capital; la familia y la corte de Licinio no fueron asesinadas. [52] : 304  Sin embargo, los seguidores de doctrinas que eran vistas como heréticas o causantes de cisma fueron perseguidos durante el reinado de Constantino, el primer emperador romano cristiano, y serían perseguidos nuevamente más tarde en el siglo IV. [53] La consecuencia de las disputas doctrinales cristianas era generalmente la excomunión mutua, pero una vez que el gobierno romano se involucraba en la política eclesiástica, las facciones rivales podían encontrarse sujetas a "represión, expulsión, encarcelamiento o exilio" llevado a cabo por el ejército romano. [54] : 317 

En el año 312, la secta cristiana llamada donatistas apeló a Constantino para resolver una disputa. Convocó un sínodo de obispos para escuchar el caso, pero el sínodo se puso de parte de ellos. Los donatistas se negaron a aceptar la decisión, por lo que se convocó una segunda reunión de 200 obispos en Arles, en el año 314, pero también fallaron en su contra. Los donatistas nuevamente se negaron a aceptar la decisión y procedieron a actuar en consecuencia estableciendo su propio obispo, construyendo sus propias iglesias y negándose a cooperar. [54] : 317  [53] : xv  Esto fue un desafío a la autoridad imperial y produjo la misma respuesta que Roma había tomado en el pasado contra tales negativas. Para un emperador romano, "la religión podía ser tolerada solo mientras contribuyera a la estabilidad del estado". [55] : 87  Constantino utilizó el ejército en un esfuerzo por obligar a la obediencia donatista, quemando iglesias y martirizando a algunos entre 317 y 321. [53] : ix, xv  Constantino fracasó en alcanzar su objetivo y finalmente admitió la derrota. El cisma permaneció y el donatismo continuó. [54] : 318  Después de Constantino, su hijo menor Flavio Julio Constante inició la campaña macariana contra los donatistas entre 346 y 348 que solo logró renovar la lucha sectaria y crear más mártires. El donatismo continuó. [53] : xvii 

El siglo IV estuvo dominado por sus numerosos conflictos que definían la ortodoxia frente a la heterodoxia y la herejía. En el imperio romano oriental, conocido como Bizancio, la controversia arriana comenzó con su debate sobre las fórmulas trinitarias que duró 56 años. [56] : 141  A medida que se trasladó a Occidente, el centro de la controversia fue el "campeón de la ortodoxia", Atanasio . En 355 Constancio, que apoyaba el arrianismo, ordenó la supresión y el exilio de Atanasio, expulsó al papa ortodoxo Liberio de Roma y exilió a los obispos que se negaron a consentir al exilio de Atanasio. [57] En 355, Dionisio , obispo de Mediolanum ( Milán ), fue expulsado de su sede episcopal y reemplazado por el cristiano arriano Auxentius de Milán . [58] Cuando Constancio regresó a Roma en 357, consintió en permitir el regreso de Liberio al papado; El papa arriano Félix II , que lo había reemplazado, fue expulsado junto con sus seguidores. [57]

El último emperador de la dinastía constantiniana , el hijo del medio hermano de Constantino, Juliano ( r.  361-363 ), se opuso al cristianismo y trató de restaurar la religión tradicional, aunque no organizó una persecución general u oficial. [45]

Período valentiniano-teodosiano

Según la Collectio Avellana , tras la muerte del papa Liberio en 366, Dámaso, asistido por bandas contratadas de "aurigas" y hombres "de la arena", irrumpió en la Basílica Julia para impedir violentamente la elección del papa Ursicino . [57] La ​​batalla duró tres días, "con gran matanza de fieles" y una semana después Dámaso tomó la Basílica de Letrán , se ordenó como papa Dámaso I y obligó al praefectus urbi Viventius y al praefectus annonae a exiliar a Ursicino. [ 57] Dámaso hizo arrestar a siete sacerdotes cristianos y los puso a la espera del destierro, pero escaparon y los "sepultureros" y el clero menor se unieron a otra turba de hombres del hipódromo y del anfiteatro reunidos por el papa para atacar la Basílica de Liberia , donde los leales a Ursacino se habían refugiado. [57] Según Amiano Marcelino , el 26 de octubre, la turba del Papa mató a 137 personas en la iglesia en un solo día, y muchas más murieron posteriormente. [57] El público romano con frecuencia exigía al emperador Valentiniano el Grande que derrocara a Dámaso del trono de San Pedro, llamándolo asesino por haber librado una "guerra sucia" contra los cristianos. [57]

En el siglo IV, el rey tervingo Atanarico ordenó en torno al año  375 la persecución gótica de los cristianos . [59] Atanarico le perturbaba la difusión del cristianismo gótico entre sus seguidores y temía que el paganismo gótico fuera desplazado .

No fue hasta finales del siglo IV, durante los reinados de los augustos Graciano ( r.  367-383 ), Valentiniano II ( r.  375-392 ) y Teodosio I ( r.  379-395 ), que el cristianismo se convertiría en la religión oficial del imperio con la promulgación conjunta del Edicto de Tesalónica , que establecía el cristianismo niceno como religión estatal y como iglesia estatal del Imperio romano el 27 de febrero de 380. Después de esto comenzó la persecución estatal de los cristianos no nicenos, incluidos los devotos arrianos y no trinitarios . [60] : 267 

Cuando Agustín se convirtió en obispo coadjutor de Hipona en 395, tanto el partido donatista como el católico habían existido, durante décadas, uno al lado del otro, con una doble línea de obispos para las mismas ciudades, todos compitiendo por la lealtad del pueblo. [53] : xv  [a] : 334  Agustín estaba angustiado por el cisma en curso, pero sostenía la opinión de que la creencia no puede ser obligada, por lo que apeló a los donatistas utilizando propaganda popular, debate, apelación personal, Concilios Generales, apelaciones al emperador y presión política, pero todos los intentos fracasaron. [62] : 242, 254  Los donatistas fomentaron protestas y violencia callejera, abordaron a los viajeros, atacaron a católicos al azar sin previo aviso, a menudo causando daños corporales graves y no provocados, como golpear a las personas con palos, cortarles las manos y los pies y sacarles los ojos, al mismo tiempo que invitaban a su propio martirio. [63] : 120–121  En 408, Agustín apoyó el uso de la fuerza por parte del estado contra ellos. [61] : 107–116  El historiador Frederick Russell dice que Agustín no creía que esto "haría a los donatistas más virtuosos", pero sí creía que los haría "menos viciosos". [64] : 128 

Agustín escribió que, en el pasado, hubo diez persecuciones cristianas, comenzando con la persecución de Nerón, y alegando persecuciones por parte de los emperadores Domiciano , Trajano , "Antonino" ( Marco Aurelio ), "Severo" ( Septimio Severo ) y Maximino ( Tracia ), así como persecuciones de Decio y Valeriano, y luego otra por Aureliano , así como por Diocleciano y Maximiano. [50] Estas diez persecuciones Agustín comparó con las 10 plagas de Egipto en el Libro del Éxodo . [nota 1] [65] Agustín no vio estas primeras persecuciones de la misma manera que la de los herejes del siglo IV. En la opinión de Agustín, cuando el propósito de la persecución es "corregir e instruir amorosamente", entonces se convierte en disciplina y es justa. [66] : 2  Agustín escribió que "la coerción no puede transmitir la verdad al hereje, pero puede prepararlos para escuchar y recibir la verdad". [61] : 107–116  Dijo que la iglesia disciplinaría a su gente por un amoroso deseo de sanarlo, y que, "una vez obligados a entrar, los herejes gradualmente darían su asentimiento voluntario a la verdad de la ortodoxia cristiana". [64] : 115  Se opuso a la severidad de Roma y a la ejecución de los herejes. [67] : 768 

Es su enseñanza sobre la coerción lo que hace que la literatura sobre Agustín se refiera frecuentemente a él como le prince et patriarche de persecuteurs (el príncipe y patriarca de los perseguidores). [63] : 116  [61] : 107  Russell dice que la teoría de la coerción de Agustín "no fue elaborada a partir de un dogma, sino en respuesta a una situación histórica única" y, por lo tanto, depende del contexto, mientras que otros la ven como inconsistente con sus otras enseñanzas. [64] : 125  Su autoridad sobre la cuestión de la coerción fue indiscutible durante más de un milenio en el cristianismo occidental y, según Brown, "proporcionó la base teológica para la justificación de la persecución medieval". [61] : 107–116 

Período heracliano

Calínico I , inicialmente sacerdote y esceúfilax en la Iglesia de la Theotokos de Blanquernas, se convirtió en patriarca de Constantinopla en 693 o 694. [68] : 58–59  Habiendo rehusado consentir la demolición de una capilla en el Gran Palacio , la Theotokos ton Metropolitou , y posiblemente habiendo estado involucrado en la deposición y exilio de Justiniano II ( r.  685–695, 705–711 ), una acusación negada por el Sinaxario de Constantinopla , él mismo fue exiliado a Roma cuando Justiniano regresó al poder en 705. [68] : 58–59  El emperador hizo emparedar a Calínico . [68] : 58–59  Se dice que sobrevivió cuarenta días cuando se abrió el muro para revisar su condición, aunque murió cuatro días después. [68] : 58–59 

Imperio Sasánida

Las violentas persecuciones de los cristianos comenzaron en serio en el largo reinado de Sapor II ( r.  309-379 ). [69] Se registra una persecución de cristianos en Kirkuk en la primera década de Sapor, aunque la mayor parte de la persecución ocurrió después de 341. [69] En guerra con el emperador romano Constancio II ( r.  337-361 ), Sapor impuso un impuesto para cubrir los gastos de guerra, y Shemon Bar Sabbae , el obispo de Seleucia-Ctesifonte , se negó a cobrarlo. [69] A menudo citando la colaboración con los romanos, los persas comenzaron a perseguir y ejecutar a los cristianos. [69] Las narraciones de Passio describen el destino de algunos cristianos venerados como mártires; son de variada confiabilidad histórica, algunos son registros contemporáneos de testigos oculares, otros dependían de la tradición popular a cierta distancia de los eventos. [69] Un apéndice del Martirologio siríaco de 411 enumera a los mártires cristianos de Persia , pero otros relatos de juicios de mártires contienen importantes detalles históricos sobre el funcionamiento de la geografía histórica del Imperio sasánida y las prácticas judiciales y administrativas. [69] Algunos fueron traducidos al sogdiano y descubiertos en Turfán . [69]

Bajo Yazdegerd I ( r.  399-420 ) hubo persecuciones ocasionales, incluyendo un caso de persecución en represalia por la quema de un templo de fuego zoroastriano por parte de un sacerdote cristiano, y ocurrieron más persecuciones en el reinado de Bahram V ( r.  420-438 ). [69] Bajo Yazdegerd II ( r.  438-457 ) un caso de persecución en 446 está registrado en el martirologio siríaco Actas de Ādur-hormizd y de Anāhīd . [69] Algunos martirios individuales están registrados del reinado de Khosrow I ( r.  531-579 ), pero probablemente no hubo persecuciones masivas. [69] Aunque según un tratado de paz de 562 entre Cosroes y su homólogo romano Justiniano I ( r.  527-565 ), a los cristianos de Persia se les concedió la libertad de religión; sin embargo, el proselitismo era un crimen capital. [69] En ese momento, la Iglesia de Oriente y su cabeza, la Catholicosis de Oriente , estaban integradas en la administración del imperio y la persecución masiva era rara. [69]

La política sasánida pasó de la tolerancia hacia otras religiones bajo Sapor I a la intolerancia bajo Bahram I y aparentemente a un retorno a la política de Sapor hasta el reinado de Sapor II . La persecución en ese momento fue iniciada por la conversión de Constantino al cristianismo que siguió a la del rey armenio Tiridates alrededor del año 301. Por lo tanto, los cristianos eran vistos con sospechas de ser partidarios secretos del Imperio romano. Esto no cambió hasta el siglo V, cuando la Iglesia de Oriente se separó de la Iglesia de Occidente . [70] Las élites zoroastrianas continuaron viendo a los cristianos con enemistad y desconfianza durante todo el siglo V, y la amenaza de persecución siguió siendo significativa, especialmente durante la guerra contra los romanos. [71]

El sumo sacerdote zoroástrico Kartir , en su inscripción fechada alrededor del año 280 en el monumento Ka'ba-ye Zartosht en la necrópolis de Naqsh-e Rostam cerca de Zangiabad, Fars , se refiere a la persecución ( zatan – "golpear, matar") de los cristianos ("nazareos n'zl'y y cristianos klstyd'n "). Kartir tomó al cristianismo como un serio oponente. El uso de la doble expresión puede ser indicativo de los cristianos de habla griega deportados por Shapur I de Antioquía y otras ciudades durante su guerra contra los romanos. [72] Los esfuerzos de Constantino por proteger a los cristianos persas los convirtieron en blanco de acusaciones de deslealtad a los sasánidas. Con la reanudación del conflicto romano-sasánida bajo Constancio II , la posición cristiana se volvió insostenible. Los sacerdotes zoroástricos apuntaron al clero y a los ascetas de los cristianos locales para eliminar a los líderes de la iglesia. Un manuscrito siríaco encontrado en Edesa en el año 411 documenta docenas de ejecuciones en diversas partes del Imperio sasánida occidental. [71]

En el año 341, Sapor II ordenó la persecución de todos los cristianos. [73] [74] En respuesta a su actitud subversiva y su apoyo a los romanos, Sapor II duplicó los impuestos a los cristianos. Shemon Bar Sabbae le informó que no podía pagar los impuestos que se le exigían a él y a su comunidad. Fue martirizado y comenzó un período de cuarenta años de persecución de los cristianos. El Concilio de Seleucia-Ctesifonte renunció a elegir obispos porque eso resultaría en la muerte. Los mobads locales –clérigos zoroastrianos– con la ayuda de los sátrapas organizaron matanzas de cristianos en Adiabene , Beth Garmae , Khuzistan y muchas otras provincias. [75]

Yazdegerd I mostró tolerancia hacia los judíos y los cristianos durante gran parte de su gobierno. Permitió a los cristianos practicar su religión libremente, demolió monasterios y reconstruyeron iglesias y se permitió a los misioneros operar libremente. Sin embargo, revirtió sus políticas durante la última parte de su reinado, suprimiendo las actividades misioneras. [76] Bahram V continuó e intensificó su persecución, lo que resultó en que muchos de ellos huyeran al imperio romano oriental . Bahram exigió su regreso, comenzando la guerra romano-sasánida de 421-422 . La guerra terminó con un acuerdo de libertad de religión para los cristianos en Irán con el del mazdeísmo en Roma. Mientras tanto, los cristianos sufrieron la destrucción de iglesias, renunciaron a la fe, vieron su propiedad privada confiscada y muchos fueron expulsados. [77]

Yazdegerd II había ordenado a todos sus súbditos que abrazaran el mazdeísmo en un intento de unificar ideológicamente su imperio. El Cáucaso se rebeló para defender el cristianismo que se había integrado en su cultura local, y los aristócratas armenios recurrieron a los romanos en busca de ayuda. Sin embargo, los rebeldes fueron derrotados en una batalla en la llanura de Avarayr . Yeghishe, en su Historia de Vardan y la guerra armenia , rinde homenaje a las batallas libradas para defender el cristianismo. [78] Se libró otra revuelta entre 481 y 483 que fue reprimida. Sin embargo, los armenios lograron obtener la libertad de religión, entre otras mejoras. [79]

Los relatos de ejecuciones por apostasía de zoroastrianos que se convirtieron al cristianismo durante el gobierno sasánida proliferaron desde el siglo V hasta principios del VII, y continuaron produciéndose incluso después del colapso de los sasánidas. El castigo de los apóstatas aumentó bajo Yazdegerd I y continuó bajo los reyes sucesivos. Era normativo que los apóstatas que eran llevados ante la atención de las autoridades fueran ejecutados, aunque el procesamiento de la apostasía dependía de las circunstancias políticas y la jurisprudencia zoroástrica. Según Richard E. Payne, las ejecuciones tenían como objetivo crear un límite mutuamente reconocido entre las interacciones de las personas de las dos religiones y evitar que una religión desafiara la viabilidad de otra. Aunque la violencia contra los cristianos era selectiva y se llevaba a cabo especialmente contra las élites, sirvió para mantener a las comunidades cristianas en una posición subordinada y, sin embargo, viable en relación con el zoroastrismo. A los cristianos se les permitió construir edificios religiosos y servir en el gobierno siempre que no expandieran sus instituciones y población a expensas del zoroastrismo. [80]

En general, se consideraba que Cosroes I era tolerante con los cristianos y se interesaba por las disputas filosóficas y teológicas durante su reinado. Sebeos afirmó que se había convertido al cristianismo en su lecho de muerte. Juan de Éfeso describe una revuelta armenia en la que afirma que Cosroes había intentado imponer el zoroastrismo en Armenia. El relato, sin embargo, es muy similar al de la revuelta armenia de 451. Además, Sebeos no menciona ninguna persecución religiosa en su relato de la revuelta de 571. [81] El historiador al-Tabari conserva una historia sobre la tolerancia de Hormizd IV . Cuando se le preguntó por qué toleraba a los cristianos, respondió: "Así como nuestro trono real no puede sostenerse sobre sus patas delanteras sin sus dos patas traseras, nuestro reino no puede mantenerse en pie o resistir con firmeza si hacemos que los cristianos y los seguidores de otras religiones, que difieren en creencia de las nuestras, se vuelvan hostiles hacia nosotros". [82]

Durante la guerra bizantino-sasánida de 602-628

Varios meses después de la conquista persa en el año 614 d. C., se produjo un motín en Jerusalén, y el gobernador judío de Jerusalén, Nehemías, fue asesinado por una banda de jóvenes cristianos junto con su "consejo de los justos" mientras estaba haciendo planes para la construcción del Tercer Templo . En ese momento, los cristianos se habían aliado con el Imperio Romano de Oriente . Poco después, los acontecimientos se intensificaron hasta convertirse en una rebelión cristiana a gran escala, lo que dio lugar a una batalla contra los judíos y los cristianos que vivían en Jerusalén. Después de la batalla, muchos judíos fueron asesinados y los sobrevivientes huyeron a Cesarea, que todavía estaba en manos del ejército persa.

La reacción judeo-persa fue despiadada: el general persa sasánida Xorheam reunió tropas judeo-persas y fue a acampar alrededor de Jerusalén y la sitió durante 19 días. [83] Finalmente, cavando debajo de los cimientos de Jerusalén, destruyeron el muro y el día 19 del asedio, las fuerzas judeo-persas tomaron Jerusalén. [83]

Según el relato del eclesiástico e historiador armenio Sebeos , el asedio resultó en un total de 17.000 muertos cristianos, la cifra más antigua y, por lo tanto, la más comúnmente aceptada. [84] : 207  Según Strategius , 4.518 prisioneros fueron masacrados solo cerca del embalse de Mamilla . [85] Una cueva que contiene cientos de esqueletos cerca de la Puerta de Jaffa , a 200 metros al este de la gran piscina de la era romana en Mamilla, se correlaciona con la masacre de cristianos a manos de los persas mencionada en los escritos de Strategius. Si bien refuerza la evidencia de la masacre de cristianos, la evidencia arqueológica parece menos concluyente sobre la destrucción de iglesias y monasterios cristianos en Jerusalén. [85] [86] [ verificación fallida ]

Según el relato posterior de Strategius, cuya perspectiva parece ser la de un griego bizantino y muestra una antipatía hacia los judíos, [87] miles de cristianos fueron masacrados durante la conquista de la ciudad. Las estimaciones basadas en diversas copias de los manuscritos de Strategos varían entre 4.518 y 66.509 muertos. [85] Strategos escribió que los judíos se ofrecieron a ayudarlos a escapar de la muerte si "se convertían en judíos y negaban a Cristo", y los cautivos cristianos se negaron. Enfadados, los judíos supuestamente compraron cristianos para matarlos. [88] En 1989, el arqueólogo israelí Ronny Reich descubrió una fosa común en la cueva de Mamilla , cerca del lugar donde Strategius registró la masacre. Los restos humanos estaban en malas condiciones y contenían un mínimo de 526 individuos. [89]

De las numerosas excavaciones realizadas en Galilea , se desprende claramente que todas las iglesias habían sido destruidas durante el período comprendido entre la invasión persa y la conquista árabe en 637. La iglesia de Shave Ziyyon fue destruida e incendiada en 614. Un destino similar corrió la iglesia de Evron , Nahariya , 'Arabe y el monasterio de Shelomi . El monasterio de Kursi resultó dañado durante la invasión. [90]

Arabia preislámica

En el año 516 d. C., estallaron disturbios tribales en Yemen y varias élites tribales lucharon por el poder. Una de esas élites fue Joseph Dhu Nuwas o "Yousef Asa'ar", un rey judío del reino himyarita que se menciona en antiguas inscripciones del sur de Arabia. Fuentes siríacas y griegas bizantinas afirman que luchó en su guerra porque los cristianos de Yemen se negaron a renunciar al cristianismo. En 2009, un documental emitido en la BBC defendió la afirmación de que a los aldeanos se les había ofrecido la opción de convertirse al judaísmo o la muerte y que luego fueron masacrados 20.000 cristianos, afirmando que "el equipo de producción habló con muchos historiadores durante un período de 18 meses, entre ellos Nigel Groom , que fue nuestro consultor, y el profesor Abdul Rahman Al-Ansary , ex profesor de arqueología en la Universidad Rey Saud en Riad". [91] Las inscripciones documentadas por el propio Yousef muestran el gran orgullo que expresó después de matar a más de 22.000 cristianos en Zafar y Najran . [92] El historiador Glen Bowersock describió esta masacre como un "salvaje pogromo que el rey judío de los árabes lanzó contra los cristianos en la ciudad de Najran. El propio rey informó con todo lujo de detalles a sus aliados árabes y persas sobre las masacres que había infligido a todos los cristianos que se negaron a convertirse al judaísmo". [93]

Alta Edad Media

Califato Rashidun

Como se los considera " Pueblo del Libro " en la religión islámica , los cristianos bajo el gobierno musulmán estaban sujetos al estatus de dhimmi (junto con los judíos, samaritanos , gnósticos , mandeos y zoroastrianos ), que era inferior al estatus de los musulmanes. [94] [95] Los cristianos y otras minorías religiosas se enfrentaron así a la discriminación y persecución religiosa , ya que se les prohibió hacer proselitismo (para los cristianos, estaba prohibido evangelizar o difundir el cristianismo ) en las tierras invadidas por los musulmanes árabes bajo pena de muerte, se les prohibió portar armas, ejercer ciertas profesiones y se les obligó a vestirse de manera diferente para distinguirse de los árabes. [94] Bajo la ley islámica ( sharīʿa ), los no musulmanes estaban obligados a pagar los impuestos jizya y kharaj , [94] [95] junto con fuertes rescates periódicos impuestos a las comunidades cristianas por los gobernantes musulmanes para financiar campañas militares, todo lo cual contribuía con una proporción significativa de ingresos a los estados islámicos mientras que, a la inversa, reducía a muchos cristianos a la pobreza, y estas dificultades financieras y sociales obligaron a muchos cristianos a convertirse al Islam . [94] Los cristianos que no podían pagar estos impuestos se vieron obligados a entregar a sus hijos a los gobernantes musulmanes como pago, quienes los venderían como esclavos a hogares musulmanes donde se vieron obligados a convertirse al Islam . [94]

Según la tradición de la Iglesia Ortodoxa Siria , la conquista musulmana del Levante fue un alivio para los cristianos oprimidos por el Imperio Romano de Occidente. [95] Miguel el Sirio , patriarca de Antioquía , escribió más tarde que el Dios cristiano había "levantado del sur a los hijos de Ismael para librarnos por ellos de las manos de los romanos". [95] Varias comunidades cristianas en las regiones de Palestina , Siria , Líbano y Armenia resentían el gobierno del Imperio Romano de Occidente o el del Imperio bizantino, y por lo tanto prefirieron vivir en condiciones económicas y políticas más favorables como dhimmi bajo los gobernantes musulmanes. [95] Sin embargo, los historiadores modernos también reconocen que las poblaciones cristianas que vivían en las tierras invadidas por los ejércitos musulmanes árabes entre los siglos VII y X d. C. sufrieron persecución religiosa , violencia religiosa y martirio varias veces a manos de funcionarios y gobernantes musulmanes árabes; [95] [96] [97] [98] Muchos fueron ejecutados bajo la pena de muerte islámica por defender su fe cristiana a través de actos dramáticos de resistencia como negarse a convertirse al Islam, repudio a la religión islámica y posterior reconversión al cristianismo , y blasfemia hacia las creencias musulmanas . [96] [97] [98]

Cuando Amr ibn al-As conquistó Trípoli en 643, obligó a los bereberes judíos y cristianos a entregar a sus esposas e hijos como esclavos al ejército árabe como parte de su yizya . [99] [100] [101]

Alrededor del año 666 d.C., Uqba ibn Nafi “conquistó las ciudades del sur de Túnez... masacrando a todos los cristianos que vivían allí”. [102] Fuentes musulmanas informan de que libró innumerables incursiones, que a menudo terminaban con el saqueo total y la esclavización masiva de las ciudades. [103]

La evidencia arqueológica del norte de África en la región de Cirenaica apunta a la destrucción de iglesias a lo largo de la ruta que siguieron los conquistadores islámicos a fines del siglo VII, y los notables tesoros artísticos enterrados a lo largo de las rutas que conducían al norte de España por los visigodos e hispanorromanos que huían durante principios del siglo VIII consisten en gran parte en parafernalia religiosa y dinástica que los habitantes cristianos obviamente querían proteger del saqueo y la profanación musulmanes. [104]

Califato Omeya

Roderick es venerado como uno de los Mártires de Córdoba.

Según la escuela Ḥanafī de la ley islámica ( sharīʿa ), el testimonio de un no musulmán (como un cristiano o un judío) no se consideraba válido contra el testimonio de un musulmán en asuntos legales o civiles. Históricamente, en la cultura islámica y la ley islámica tradicional, a las mujeres musulmanas se les ha prohibido casarse con hombres cristianos o judíos , mientras que a los hombres musulmanes se les ha permitido casarse con mujeres cristianas o judías [105] [106] ( véase : Matrimonio interreligioso en el Islam ). Los cristianos bajo el gobierno islámico tenían derecho a convertirse al Islam o a cualquier otra religión, mientras que, por el contrario, un murtad , o un apóstata del Islam , se enfrentaba a severas penas o incluso hadd , que podían incluir la pena de muerte islámica . [96] [97] [98]

En general, a los cristianos sometidos al gobierno islámico se les permitía practicar su religión con algunas limitaciones notables derivadas del Pacto apócrifo de Umar . Este tratado, supuestamente promulgado en el año 717 d. C., prohibía a los cristianos exhibir públicamente la cruz en los edificios de las iglesias, convocar a los feligreses a la oración con una campana, reconstruir o reparar iglesias y monasterios después de que hubieran sido destruidos o dañados, e impuso otras restricciones relacionadas con ocupaciones, vestimenta y armas. [107] El califato omeya persiguió a muchos cristianos bereberes en los siglos VII y VIII d. C., quienes lentamente se convirtieron al Islam. [108]

En el Al-Ándalus omeya (la península Ibérica ), la escuela Mālikī de la ley islámica era la más predominante. [97] Los martirios de cuarenta y ocho mártires cristianos que tuvieron lugar en el Emirato de Córdoba entre 850 y 859 d. C. [109] están registrados en el tratado hagiográfico escrito por el erudito cristiano ibérico y latinista Eulogio de Córdoba . [96] [97] [98] Los mártires de Córdoba fueron ejecutados bajo el gobierno de Abd al-Rahman II y Muhammad I , y la hagiografía de Eulogio describe en detalle las ejecuciones de los mártires por violaciones capitales de la ley islámica, incluida la apostasía y la blasfemia . [96] [97] [98]

Después de las conquistas árabes, varias tribus árabes cristianas sufrieron esclavitud y conversión forzada. [110]

A principios del siglo VIII, bajo el gobierno de los Omeyas, 63 de un grupo de 70 peregrinos cristianos de Iconio fueron capturados, torturados y ejecutados por orden del gobernador árabe de Cesarea por negarse a convertirse al Islam (siete fueron convertidos al Islam a la fuerza bajo tortura). Poco después, otros sesenta peregrinos cristianos de Amorium fueron crucificados en Jerusalén. [111]

Califato almorávide

Los almohades causaron una enorme destrucción a la población cristiana de Iberia. Decenas de miles de cristianos nativos de Iberia (Hispania) fueron deportados de sus tierras ancestrales a África por los almorávides y almohades. Sospechaban que los cristianos podían hacerse pasar por una quinta columna que podría ayudar potencialmente a sus correligionarios en el norte de Iberia. Muchos cristianos murieron en el camino hacia el norte de África durante estas expulsiones. [112] [113] Los cristianos bajo los almorávides sufrieron persecuciones y expulsiones masivas a África. En 1099 los almorávides saquearon la gran iglesia de la ciudad de Granada. En 1101 los cristianos huyeron de la ciudad de Valencia a los reinos católicos. En 1106 los almorávides deportaron a los cristianos de Málaga a África. En 1126, después de una rebelión cristiana fallida en Granada, los almorávides expulsaron a toda la población cristiana de la ciudad a África. Y en 1138, Ibn Tashufin se llevó por la fuerza a muchos miles de cristianos con él a África. [114]

Los mozárabes oprimidos enviaron emisarios al rey de Aragón, Alfonso I el Batalleur (1104-1134), para pedirle que acudiera en su ayuda y los liberara de los almorávides. Tras la incursión que el rey de Aragón lanzó en Andalucía en 1125-26 en respuesta a las súplicas de los mozárabes de Granada, estos fueron deportados en masa a Marruecos en el otoño de 1126. [115] Otra oleada de expulsiones a África tuvo lugar once años después y, como resultado, quedaron muy pocos cristianos en Andalucía. Lo que quedaba de la población católica cristiana en Granada fue exterminada tras una revuelta contra los almohades en 1164. El califa Abu Yaqub Yusuf se jactó de no haber dejado ninguna iglesia o sinagoga en pie en al-Andalus. [113]

Los clérigos musulmanes de Al Andalus consideraban a los cristianos y judíos como personas sucias e impuras y temían que un contacto excesivo con ellos pudiera contaminar a los musulmanes. En Sevilla, el faqih Ibn Abdun emitió estas normas que segregaban a las personas de ambas religiones: [116]

Un musulmán no debe dar masajes a un judío o a un cristiano, ni tirar sus desechos ni limpiar sus letrinas. El judío y el cristiano son más aptos para tales oficios, ya que son los oficios de los viles. Un musulmán no debe cuidar el animal de un judío o de un cristiano, ni servirle de arriero [ni los católicos ni los judíos podían montar a caballo; sólo los musulmanes podían hacerlo], ni sujetar su estribo. Si se sabe que algún musulmán hace esto, debe ser denunciado. […] A ningún judío o cristiano [inconverso] se le debe permitir vestirse con el traje de gente de posición, de jurista o de hombre digno [esta disposición hace eco del Pacto de Umar]. Por el contrario, deben ser aborrecidos y evitados y no deben ser recibidos con la fórmula: “La paz sea con vosotros”, porque el demonio ha ganado dominio sobre ellos y les ha hecho olvidar el nombre de Dios. Son el partido del diablo, “y en verdad, el partido del diablo son los perdedores” (Corán 57:22). Deben tener un signo distintivo por el cual se los reconozca para su vergüenza [énfasis añadido].

Imperio bizantino

Se supone que Jorge Limnaiotes, un monje del Monte Olimpo conocido solo por el Sinaxario de Constantinopla y otros sinaxarios , tenía 95 años cuando fue torturado por su iconodulismo . [68] : 43  En el reinado de León III el Isaurio ( r.  717–741 ), fue mutilado por rinotomía y le quemaron la cabeza. [68] : 43 

Germano I de Constantinopla , hijo del patricio Justiniano, cortesano del emperador Heraclio ( r.  610–641 ), habiendo sido castrado e inscrito en el clero de la catedral de Santa Sofía cuando su padre fue ejecutado en 669, fue más tarde obispo de Cícico y luego patriarca de Constantinopla desde 715. [68] : 45–46  En 730, durante el reinado de León III ( r.  717–741 ), Germano fue depuesto y desterrado, muriendo en el exilio en Plantanion ( Akçaabat ). [68] : 45–46  León III también exilió al monje Juan el Psichaites, un iconódulo, a Cherson , donde permaneció hasta después de la muerte del emperador. [68] : 57 

Según el Synaxarion de Constantinopla , los clérigos Hipatio y Andrés del thema tracesio fueron, durante la persecución de León III, llevados a la capital, encarcelados y torturados. [68] : 49  El Synaxarion afirma que les aplicaron las brasas de iconos quemados en la cabeza, los sometieron a otros tormentos y luego los arrastraron por las calles bizantinas hasta su ejecución pública en el área de la VII Colina de la ciudad , la llamada en griego medieval : ξηρόλοφος , romanizadoΧērólophos , lit.  'colina seca' cerca del Foro de Arcadio . [68] : 49 

Andrés de Creta fue golpeado y encarcelado en Constantinopla después de haber debatido con el emperador iconoclasta Constantino V ( r.  741–775 ), posiblemente en 767 o 768, y luego maltratado por los bizantinos mientras era arrastrado por la ciudad, muriendo de pérdida de sangre cuando un pescador le cortó el pie en el Foro del Buey . [68] : 19  La iglesia de San Andrés en Krisei recibió su nombre en su honor, aunque los eruditos dudan de su existencia. [68] : 19 

Después de haber derrotado y asesinado al emperador Nicéforo I ( r.  802-811 ) en la batalla de Pliska en 811, el kan del Primer Imperio Búlgaro , Krum , también ejecutó a varios soldados romanos que se negaron a renunciar al cristianismo, aunque estos martirios, conocidos solo por el Sinaxario de Constantinopla , pueden ser completamente legendarios. [68] : 66–67  En 813, los búlgaros invadieron el thema de Tracia , liderados por Krum, y la ciudad de Adrianópolis ( Edirne ) fue capturada. [68] : 66  El sucesor de Krum, Dukum, murió poco después que el propio Krum, siendo sucedido por Ditzevg, quien mató a Manuel, el arzobispo de Adrianópolis, en enero de 815. [68] : 66  Según el Sinaxario de Constantinopla y el Menologio de Basilio II , el propio sucesor de Ditzevg, Omurtag, mató a unos 380 cristianos más tarde ese mes. [68] : 66  Las víctimas incluyeron al arzobispo de Develtos , Jorge, y al obispo de Nicea tracia, León, así como dos estrategos llamados Juan y León. Colectivamente, estos son conocidos como los Mártires de Adrianópolis . [68] : 66 

El monje bizantino Makarios, del monasterio de Pelekete en Bitinia, habiendo rechazado ya una posición envidiable en la corte ofrecida por el emperador iconoclasta León IV el Jázaro ( r.  775-780 ) a cambio del repudio de su iconodulismo, fue expulsado del monasterio por León V el Armenio ( r.  813-820 ), quien también lo encarceló y lo exilió. [68] : 65 

El patriarca Nicéforo I de Constantinopla disintió del iconoclasta Concilio de Constantinopla de 815 y, como resultado, fue exiliado por León V. [68] : 74–75  Murió en el exilio en 828. [68] : 74–75 

En la primavera de 816, el monje constantinopolitano Atanasio de Paulopetrión fue torturado y exiliado por su iconofilismo por el emperador León V. [68] : 28  En 815, durante el reinado de León V, habiendo sido nombrado hegoumenos del monasterio de Kathara en Bitinia por el emperador Nicéforo I, Juan de Kathara fue exiliado y encarcelado primero en Pentadactylon, una fortaleza en Frigia , y luego en la fortaleza de Kriotauros en el thema bucelario . [68] : 55–56  En el reinado de Miguel II fue llamado de nuevo, pero exiliado de nuevo bajo Teófilo, siendo desterrado a Aphousia ( Avşa ) donde murió, probablemente en 835. [68] : 55–56 

Eustratios de Agauros, monje y hegumenos del monasterio de Agauros al pie del monte Trichalikos, cerca del monte Olimpo de Prusa en Bitinia, fue forzado al exilio por las persecuciones de León V y Teófilo ( r.  829-842 ). [68] : 37–38  León V y Teófilo también persiguieron y exiliaron a Hilarión de Dalmatos, hijo de Pedro el Capadocio, que había sido nombrado hegumenos del monasterio de Dalmatos por el patriarca Nicéforo I. [68] : 48–49  A Hilarión se le permitió regresar a su puesto solo en la regencia de Teodora . [68] : 48–49  Los mismos emperadores también persiguieron a Miguel Synkellos , un monje árabe del monasterio de Mar Saba en Palestina que, como syncellus del patriarca de Jerusalén, había viajado a Constantinopla en nombre del patriarca Tomás I. [ 68] : 70–71  Tras el triunfo de la ortodoxia, Miguel declinó el patriarcado ecuménico y se convirtió en su lugar en el hegumenos del monasterio de Chora . [68] :  70–71

Según Teófanes Continuatus , el monje e iconógrafo armenio de origen jázaro Lázaro Zógrafo se negó a dejar de pintar iconos en el segundo período iconoclasta oficial. [68] : 61–62  Teófilo lo hizo torturar y le quemaron las manos con hierros calientes, aunque fue liberado por intercesión de la emperatriz Teodora y escondido en el Monasterio de Juan el Bautista tou Phoberou , donde pudo pintar una imagen del santo patrón. [68] : 61–62  Después de la muerte de Teófilo y el triunfo de la ortodoxia, Lázaro volvió a pintar la representación de Cristo en la Puerta de Caliza del Gran Palacio de Constantinopla . [68] : 61–62 

Simeón el Estilita de Lesbos fue perseguido por su iconodulismo en el segundo período de la iconoclasia oficial. Fue encarcelado y exiliado, regresando a Lesbos solo después de que se restableciera la vernación de los iconos en 842. [68] : 32–33  El obispo Jorge de Mitilene, que pudo haber sido hermano de Simeón, fue exiliado de Constantinopla en 815 debido a su iconofilia. Pasó los últimos seis años de su vida en el exilio en una isla, probablemente una de las Islas Príncipe , muriendo en 820 o 821. [68] : 42–43  Las reliquias de Jorge fueron llevadas a Mitilene para ser veneradas después de la restauración de la iconodulidad a la ortodoxia bajo el patriarca Metodio I , durante la cual se escribió la hagiografía de Jorge. [68] : 42–43 

Miniatura que representa la ejecución del patriarca Eutimio de Sardes bajo el emperador bizantino Miguel II , de un manuscrito iluminado de los Skylitzes de Madrid (siglo XII).

El obispo Eutimio de Sardes fue víctima de varias persecuciones cristianas iconoclastas. Eutimio había sido exiliado previamente a Pantelaria por el emperador Nicéforo I ( r.  802-811 ), llamado de nuevo en 806, lideró la resistencia iconódula contra León V ( r.  813-820 ), y exiliado de nuevo a Tasos en 814. [68] : 38  Después de su llamado a Constantinopla en el reinado de Miguel II ( r.  820-829 ), fue nuevamente encarcelado y exiliado a la isla de San Andrés, frente al cabo Akritas ( Tuzla , Estambul). [68] : 38  Según la hagiografía del patriarca Metodio I de Constantinopla , que afirmó haber compartido el exilio de Eutimio y haber estado presente en su muerte, Teoctisto y otros dos funcionarios imperiales azotaron personalmente a Eutimio hasta la muerte a causa de su iconodulismo ; Teoctisto participó activamente en la persecución de los iconódulos bajo los emperadores iconoclastas, pero más tarde defendió la causa iconódula. [68] : 38, 68–69  [117] : 218  Teoctisto fue posteriormente venerado como santo en la Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental , y figura en el Sinaxario de Constantinopla . [117] : 217–218  El último de los emperadores iconoclastas, Teófilo ( r.  829–842 ), fue rehabilitado póstumamente por la Iglesia ortodoxa iconódula por intervención de su esposa Teodora , quien afirmó que había tenido una conversión al iconodulismo en su lecho de muerte en presencia de Teoctisto y había dado 60 libras bizantinas de oro a cada una de sus víctimas en su testamento. [117] : 219  La rehabilitación del emperador iconoclasta fue una condición previa de su viuda para convocar el Concilio de Constantinopla en marzo de 843, en el que se restableció la veneración de los iconos a la ortodoxia y que se celebró como el Triunfo de la Ortodoxia . [117] : 219 

Evaristos, pariente de Theoktistos Bryennios y monje del monasterio de Stoudios , fue exiliado al Quersoneso tracio ( península de Galípoli ) por su apoyo a su hegumenos Nicolás y a su patrón, el patriarca Ignacio de Constantinopla, cuando este último fue depuesto por Focio I en 858. [68] : 41, 72–73  Tanto Nicolás como Evaristos se exiliaron. [68] : 41, 72–73  Solo después de muchos años se le permitió a Evaristos regresar a Constantinopla para fundar un monasterio propio. [68] : 41, 72–73  El hegumenos Nicolás, que había acompañado a Evaristos al Quersoneso, fue restaurado en su puesto en el monasterio de Stoudios. [68] : 72–73  Partidario de Ignacio de Constantinopla y refugiado de la conquista musulmana de Sicilia , el monje José el Himnógrafo fue desterrado a Quersón desde Constantinopla tras la elevación de Focio, rival de Ignacio, en 858. Sólo después del fin del patriarcado de Focio se le permitió a José regresar a la capital y convertirse en el skeuophylax de la catedral de Santa Sofía. [68] : 57–58 

Eutimio, monje, senador y sinquello favorecido por León VI ( r.  870-912 ), fue nombrado primero hegúmeno y luego, en 907, patriarca de Constantinopla por el emperador. Cuando León VI murió y Nicolás Místico fue llamado de nuevo al trono patriarcal, Eutimio fue exiliado. [68] : 38–40 

Califato abasí

El califato abasí fue menos tolerante con el cristianismo que los califas omeyas . [95] No obstante, los funcionarios cristianos continuaron siendo empleados en el gobierno, y los cristianos de la Iglesia de Oriente a menudo se encargaron de la traducción de la filosofía griega antigua y las matemáticas griegas . [95] Los escritos de al-Jahiz atacaron a los cristianos por ser demasiado prósperos, e indican que eran capaces de ignorar incluso las restricciones que les imponía el estado. [95] A finales del siglo IX, el patriarca de Jerusalén , Teodosio , escribió a su colega, el patriarca de Constantinopla Ignacio, que "son justos y no nos hacen ningún mal ni nos muestran ninguna violencia". [95]

Elías de Heliópolis , habiéndose mudado a Damasco desde Heliópolis ( Ba'albek ), fue acusado de apostasía del cristianismo después de asistir a una fiesta celebrada por un árabe musulmán, y se vio obligado a huir de Damasco a su ciudad natal, regresando ocho años después, donde fue reconocido y encarcelado por el " eparca ", probablemente el jurista al-Layth ibn Sa'd . [68] : 34  Después de negarse a convertirse al Islam bajo tortura, fue llevado ante el emir damasceno y pariente del califa al-Mahdi ( r.  775-785 ), Muhammad ibn-Ibrahim, quien prometió un buen trato si Elías se convertía. [68] : 34  Ante su reiterada negativa, Elías fue torturado y decapitado y su cuerpo quemado, cortado en pedazos y arrojado al río Chrysorrhoes (el Barada ) en 779 d.C. [68] : 34 

El asalto al monasterio de Zobe y la muerte del hegumeno Miguel y sus 36 hermanos, representados en el Menologio de Basilio II .

Según el Sinaxario de Constantinopla , el hegumeno Miguel de Zobe y treinta y seis de sus monjes en el monasterio de Zobe cerca de Sebasteia ( Sivas ) fueron asesinados por una incursión en la comunidad. [68] : 70  El perpetrador fue el " emir de los agarenos ", "Alim", probablemente Ali ibn-Sulayman , un gobernador abasí que invadió el territorio romano en 785 d. C. [68] : 70  Baco el Joven fue decapitado en Jerusalén en 786-787 d. C. Baco era palestino, cuya familia, habiendo sido cristiana, había sido convertida al Islam por su padre. [68] : 29-30  Baco, sin embargo, permaneció criptocristiano y emprendió una peregrinación a Jerusalén, en la que fue bautizado y entró en el monasterio de Mar Saba . [68] : 29–30  La reunión con su familia provocó la reconversión de éstos al cristianismo y el juicio y ejecución de Baco por apostasía bajo el gobierno del emir Harthama ibn A'yan . [68] : 29–30 

Después del saqueo de Amorium en 838 , la ciudad natal del emperador Teófilo ( r.  829-842 ) y su dinastía amoria , el califa al-Mu'tasim ( r.  833-842 ) tomó más de cuarenta prisioneros romanos. [68] : 41–42  Estos fueron llevados a la capital, Samarra , donde después de siete años de debates teológicos y reiteradas negativas a convertirse al Islam, fueron ejecutados en marzo de 845 bajo el califa al-Wathiq ( r.  842-847 ). [68] : 41–42  En una generación fueron venerados como los 42 Mártires de Amorium . Según su hagiógrafo Euodius, probablemente escribiendo dentro de una generación de los eventos, la derrota en Amorium debía atribuirse a Teófilo y su iconoclasia. [68] : 41–42  Según algunas hagiografías posteriores, incluida una de uno de varios escritores bizantinos medios conocidos como Miguel el Sinquellos, entre los cuarenta y dos estaban Kallistos, el doux del thema de Koloneia , y el heroico mártir Teodoro Karteros. [68] : 41–42 

Durante la fase del siglo X de las guerras árabe-bizantinas , las victorias de los romanos sobre los árabes resultaron en ataques de la turba contra los cristianos, que se creía que simpatizaban con el estado romano. [95] Según Bar Hebraeus , el catholicus de la Iglesia de Oriente, Abraham III ( r.  906-937 ), escribió al gran visir que "nosotros, los nestorianos, somos amigos de los árabes y rezamos por sus victorias". [95] La actitud de los nestorianos "que no tienen otro rey que los árabes", la contrastó con la de la Iglesia Ortodoxa Griega, cuyos emperadores, dijo, "nunca habían dejado de hacer la guerra contra los árabes". [95] Entre 923 y 924, varias iglesias ortodoxas fueron destruidas por la violencia de las turbas en Ramla , Ascalón , Cesarea Marítima y Damasco . [95] En cada caso, según el cronista cristiano árabe melquita Eutiquio de Alejandría , el califa al-Muqtadir ( r.  908-932 ) contribuyó a la reconstrucción de la propiedad eclesiástica. [95]

A finales del siglo VIII, en el Imperio abasí, los musulmanes destruyeron dos iglesias y un monasterio cerca de Belén y masacraron a sus monjes. En el año 796, los musulmanes quemaron vivos a otros veinte monjes. En los años 809 y 813, varios monasterios, conventos e iglesias fueron atacados en Jerusalén y sus alrededores; cristianos, tanto hombres como mujeres, fueron violados en grupo y masacrados. En el año 929, el Domingo de Ramos, estalló otra ola de atrocidades; se destruyeron iglesias y se masacró a cristianos. Al-Maqrizi registra que en el año 936, “los musulmanes en Jerusalén se rebelaron y quemaron la Iglesia de la Resurrección [el Santo Sepulcro], que saquearon y destruyeron todo lo que pudieron de ella”. [118]

Según el Sinaxario de Constantinopla , Dounale-Esteban, tras haber viajado a Jerusalén, continuó su peregrinación a Egipto, donde fue arrestado por el emir local y, negándose a renunciar a sus creencias, murió en la cárcel alrededor del año 950.  [ 68] : 33–34 

Cuando Abd Allah ibn Tahir fue a sitiar Kaisum, la fortaleza de Nasr: «Había habido una gran opresión en todo el país porque los habitantes [los dhimmis cristianos] se vieron obligados a llevar provisiones al campamento; y en todos los lugares era tiempo de hambruna y escasez de todo tipo de cosas». Para protegerse de los cañones de sus atacantes, Nasr ibn Shabath y sus tropas árabes utilizaron una estratagema que ya se había probado en el sitio de Balis (utilizando a mujeres y niños cristianos como escudos humanos): obligaron a las mujeres cristianas y a sus niños a subir a las murallas para que quedaran expuestos como objetivos para los persas. Nasr utilizó la misma táctica en el segundo sitio de Kaisum. [119]

Alta Edad Media (1000-1200)

Califato fatimí

El califa Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ( r.  996-1021 ) persiguió a los cristianos. [120] Al-Hakim estaba "medio loco" y había perpetrado la única persecución general de cristianos por parte de musulmanes hasta las Cruzadas. [121] La madre de Al-Hakim era cristiana y él había sido criado principalmente por cristianos, e incluso durante la persecución, Al-Hakim empleó ministros cristianos en su gobierno. [122] Entre 1004 y 1014, el califa elaboró ​​una legislación para confiscar la propiedad eclesiástica y quemar cruces; más tarde, ordenó que se construyeran pequeñas mezquitas sobre los tejados de las iglesias y, más tarde, decretó que las iglesias debían ser quemadas. [122] Los súbditos judíos y musulmanes del califa fueron sometidos a un tratamiento arbitrario similar. [122] Como parte de la persecución de al-Hakim, se informó que treinta mil iglesias fueron destruidas, y en 1009 el califa ordenó la demolición de la Iglesia del Santo Sepulcro en Jerusalén, con el pretexto de que el milagro anual del Fuego Santo en Pascua era una falsificación. [122] La persecución de al-Hakim y la demolición de la Iglesia del Santo Sepulcro impulsaron al Papa Sergio IV a emitir un llamamiento a los soldados para expulsar a los musulmanes de Tierra Santa, mientras que los cristianos europeos se dedicaron a una persecución vengativa de los judíos, a quienes conjeturaban que eran de alguna manera responsables de las acciones de al-Hakim. [123] En la segunda mitad del siglo XI, los peregrinos trajeron a casa noticias de cómo el ascenso de los turcos y su conflicto con los egipcios aumentaron la persecución de los peregrinos cristianos. [123]

En 1013, por intervención del emperador Basilio II ( r.  960-1025 ), los cristianos recibieron permiso para abandonar el territorio fatimí. [122] Sin embargo, en 1016, el califa fue proclamado divino, alejando a sus súbditos musulmanes al prohibir el hajj y el ayuno del ramadán , y provocando que volviera a favorecer a los cristianos. [122] En 1017, al-Hakim emitió una orden de tolerancia con respecto a los cristianos y los judíos, mientras que al año siguiente la propiedad eclesiástica confiscada fue devuelta a la Iglesia, incluidos los materiales de construcción confiscados por las autoridades de los edificios demolidos. [122]

En 1027, el emperador Constantino VIII ( r.  962-1028 ) concluyó un tratado con Salih ibn Mirdas , el emir de Alepo , permitiendo al emperador reparar la Iglesia del Santo Sepulcro y permitir que los cristianos obligados a convertirse al Islam bajo al-Hakim regresaran al cristianismo. [122] Aunque el tratado fue reconfirmado en 1036, la construcción real del santuario comenzó solo a fines de la década de 1040, bajo el emperador Constantino IX Monómaco ( r.  1042-1055 ). [122] Según al-Maqdisi , los cristianos parecían tener en gran medida el control de Tierra Santa, y se rumoreaba que el propio emperador, según Nasir Khusraw , había estado entre los muchos peregrinos cristianos que acudieron al Santo Sepulcro. [122]

Imperio selyúcida

El sultán Alp Arslan prometió: “Consumiré con la espada a todas aquellas personas que veneran la cruz, y todas las tierras de los cristianos serán esclavizadas”. [124] Alp Arslan ordenó a los turcos: [125]

De ahora en adelante, todos ustedes serán como cachorros de león y crías de águila, corriendo por el campo día y noche, matando a los cristianos y sin tener piedad de la nación romana.

Se decía que “los emires se extendieron como langostas por la faz de la tierra”, [126] invadiendo cada rincón de Anatolia, saqueando algunas de las ciudades más importantes de la cristiandad antigua, incluyendo Éfeso, hogar de San Juan Evangelista; Nicea, donde se formuló el credo de la cristiandad en 325; y Antioquía, la sede original de San Pedro, y esclavizaron a muchos. [127] [128] [129] Según el historiador francés J. Laurent, se informó de que cientos de miles de cristianos nativos de Anatolia fueron masacrados o esclavizados durante las invasiones de Anatolia por los turcos seléucidas. [130] [131]

La destrucción y profanación de iglesias se generalizó durante las invasiones turcas de Anatolia, que causaron enormes daños a las fundaciones eclesiásticas en toda Asia Menor: [132]

Incluso antes de la batalla de Manzikert, las incursiones turcas dieron como resultado el saqueo de las famosas iglesias de San Basilio en Cesarea y del Arcángel Miguel en Chonae. En la década posterior a 1071, la destrucción de iglesias y la huida del clero se generalizaron. Las iglesias fueron saqueadas y destruidas con frecuencia. Las iglesias de San Focas en Sinope y Nicolás en Myra, ambos importantes centros de peregrinación, fueron destruidas. Los monasterios de Mt. Latrus, Strobilus y Elanoudium en la costa occidental fueron saqueados y los monjes expulsados ​​durante las primeras invasiones, de modo que las fundaciones monásticas en esta área fueron completamente abandonadas hasta la reconquista bizantina y el amplio apoyo de los sucesivos emperadores bizantinos una vez más las reconstituyó. Los griegos se vieron obligados a rodear la iglesia de San Juan en Éfeso con murallas para protegerla de los turcos. La interrupción de la vida religiosa activa en las comunidades monásticas rupestres de Capadocia también está indicada para el siglo XII.

Las noticias de la gran tribulación y persecución de los cristianos orientales llegaron a los cristianos europeos occidentales en los pocos años posteriores a la batalla de Manzikert. Un testigo ocular franco dice: "Por todas partes [los turcos musulmanes] devastaron ciudades y castillos junto con sus asentamientos. Las iglesias fueron arrasadas hasta los cimientos. De los clérigos y monjes que capturaron, algunos fueron asesinados mientras que otros fueron entregados con una maldad indescriptible, sacerdotes y todo, a su terrible dominio y las monjas -¡ay de lo triste que fue!- fueron sometidas a sus lujurias". [133] En una carta al conde Roberto de Flandes, el emperador bizantino Alejo I Comneno escribe: [134]

Los lugares sagrados son profanados y destruidos de innumerables maneras. Matronas nobles y sus hijas, despojadas de todo, son violadas una tras otra, como animales. Algunos [de sus atacantes] colocan descaradamente a vírgenes delante de sus propias madres y las obligan a cantar canciones malvadas y obscenas hasta que terminan de hacer lo que quieren con ellas... hombres de todas las edades y descripciones, niños, jóvenes, ancianos, nobles, campesinos y lo que es aún peor y aún más angustioso, clérigos y monjes y, ¡ay de los males sin precedentes!, incluso los obispos son contaminados con el pecado de sodomía y ahora se pregona en todas partes que un obispo ha sucumbido a este pecado abominable.

En un poema, Malik Danishmend se jacta: “Soy Al Ghazi Danishmend, el destructor de iglesias y torres”. La destrucción y el saqueo de iglesias ocupan un lugar destacado en su poema. Otra parte del poema habla de la conversión simultánea de 5.000 personas al Islam y del asesinato de otras 5.000. [135]

Michael the Syrian wrote: “As the Turks were ruling the lands of Syria and Palestine, they inflicted injuries on Christians who went to pray in Jerusalem, beat them, pillaged them, and levied the poll tax [jizya]. Every time they saw a caravan of Christians, particularly of those from Rome and the lands of Italy, they made every effort to cause their death in diverse ways".[136] Such was the fate German pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1064. According to one of the surviving pilgrims:[137]

Accompanying this journey was a noble abbess of graceful body and of a religious outlook. Setting aside the cares of the sisters committed to her and against the advice of the wise, she undertook this great and dangerous pilgrimage. The pagans captured her, and the sight of all, these shameless men raped her until she breathed her last, to the dishonor of all Christians. Christ's enemies performed such abuses and others like them on the christians.

Crusades

After the Seljuks invaded Anatolia and the levant, every Anatolian village they controlled along the route to Jerusalem began exacting tolls on Christian pilgrims. In principle the Seljuks allowed Christian pilgrims access to Jerusalem, but they often imposed huge ransoms and condoned local attacks against Christians. many pilgrims were seized and sold into slavery while others were tortured (seemingly for entertainment). Soon only very large, well-armed and wealthy groups would dare attempt a pilgrimage, and even so, many died and many more turned back.The pilgrims that survived these extremely dangerous journeys, “returned to the West weary and impoverished, with a dreadful tale to tell.”[138][139]

In the year 1064, 7,000 pilgrims lead by Bishop Gunther of Bamberg were ambushed by Muslims near Caesarea Maritima, and two-thirds of the pilgrims were slaughtered.[140]

In the Middle Ages, the crusades were promoted as defensive response of Christianity against persecution of Eastern Christianity in the Levant.[123] Western Catholic contemporaries believed the First Crusade was a movement against Muslim attacks on Eastern Christians and Christian sites in the Holy Land.[123] In the mid-11th century, relations between the Byzantine Empire and the Fatimid Caliphate and between Christians and Muslims were peaceful, and there had not been persecution of Christians since the death of al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.[120] As a result of the migration of Turkic peoples into the Levant and the Seljuk Empire's wars with the Fatimid Caliphate in the later 11th century, reports of Christian pilgrims increasingly mentioned persecution of Christians there.[123] Similarly, accounts sent to the West of the Byzantines' medieval wars with various Muslim states alleged persecutions of Christians and atrocities against holy places.[141] Western soldiers were encouraged to take up soldiering against the empire's Muslim enemies; a recruiting bureau was even established in London.[123] After the 1071 Battle of Manzikert, the sense of Byzantine distress increased and Pope Gregory VII suggested that he himself would ride to the rescue at the head of an army, claiming Christians were being "slaughtered like cattle".[141] In the 1090s, the emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) issued appeals for help against the Seljuks to western Europe.[141] In 1091 his ambassadors told the king of Croatia Muslims were destroying sacred sites, while his letter to Robert I, Count of Flanders, deliberately described emotively the rape and maltreatment of Christians and the sacrilege of the Jerusalem shrines.[141]

Pope Urban II, who convoked the First Crusade at the 1095 Council of Clermont, spoke of the defense of his co-religionists in the Levant and the protection of the Christian holy places, while ordinary crusaders are also known to have been motivated by the notion of persecution of Christians by Muslims.[123] According to Fulcher of Chartres, the pope described his holy wars as being contra barbaros, 'against the barbarians', while the pope's own letters indicate that the Muslims were barbarians fanatically persecuting Christians.[142] The same idea, expressed in similar language, was evident in the writings of the bishop Gerald of Cahors, the abbot Guibert of Nogent, the priest Peter Tudebode, and the monk Robert of Reims.[142] Outside the clergy, the Gesta Francorum's author likewise described the Crusaders' opponents as persecuting barbarians, language not used for non-Muslim non-Christians.[142] These authors, together with Albert of Aix and Baldric of Dol, all referred to the Arabs, Saracens, and Turks as barbarae nationes, 'barbarian races'.[142] Peter the Venerable, William of Tyre, and The Song of Roland all took the view that Muslims were barbarians, and in calling for the Third Crusade, Pope Gregory VIII expounded on the Muslim threat from Saladin, accusing the Muslims of being "barbarians thirsting for the blood of Christians".[142] In numerous instances Pope Innocent III called on the Catholics to defend the Holy Land in a holy war against the impugnes barbariem paganorum, 'attacks of the pagan barbarians'.[142] Crusaders believed that by fighting off the Muslims, the persecution of Christians would abate, in accordance to their god's will, and this ideology – much promoted by the Crusader-era propagandists – was shared at every level of literate medieval western European society.[142]

According to Guibert of Nogent, a Catholic writer, the persecution suffered by the Eastern Christians and the attacks on the empire by the Turks were caused by the Christians' own doctrinal errors. He claimed that "Since they deviate from faith in the Trinity, so that hitherto they who are in filth become filthier, gradually they have come to the final degradation of having taken paganism upon themselves as the punishment for the sin proceeding from this, they have lost the soil of their native land to invading foreigners ...".[143] Western Christians considered the Byzantine position in the filioque controversy to be heresy and akin to Arianism; Guibert claimed that heresy was an Eastern practice, almost unknown in the Latin West.[143] Further blame was attached to the Eastern Christians by the crusaders for the Crusade of 1101's defeats in Asia Minor; Alexios Komnenos was accused of having collaborated with the Turks to attack the crusaders.[143] The Norman prince Bohemond, citing the supposed transgressions of the emperor and the Eastern Church, which the pope had declared heretic and whose doctrinal errors Bohemond blamed on Alexios, seized the Muslim-held and formerly Byzantine city of Antioch (Antakya) for himself after the Siege of Antioch and subsequent Battle of Antioch left Kerbogha defeated, becoming Bohemond I of the Principality of Antioch.[143] This contravention of the agreement to return conquered lands to the emperor's control, was justified in the crusaders' letter to Pope Urban II by the statement that the Greek Christians were heretics.[143] Later, Bohemond took the opportunity of a crusade to attack Dyrrachium (Durrës), justifying his attack on the Christians in a letter to Pope Paschal II enumerating Alexios's faults and blaming him for the East–West Schism and for having taken the imperial throne by force.[143] Besides Guibert, other crusader writers to accuse Eastern Christians of sabotaging the crusade include Raymond of Aguilers, Albert of Aix, Baldric of Dol, and the author of the Gesta Francorum.[143] Alexios's departure from the crusade, followed by the departure of his envoy Tatikios, was seen as proof of the Eastern Christians' treachery.[143] Though Fulcher of Chartres displayed a positive assessment of Eastern Christianity, he too accused the emperor of attacking Christian pilgrims, and of being a "tyrant".[143]

When First Crusade's Siege of Jerusalem ended successfully for the crusaders, the patriarchate of Jerusalem was vacant, and the crusaders elevated a Latin patriarch without reference to either the Roman Catholic or the Eastern Orthodox churches.[144] An Orthodox candidate for the patriarchate was forced to flee to Constantinople.[144] Only when Saladin's Siege of Jerusalem was concluded and the city was returned to Muslim control were the Orthodox Christians allowed to practise in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[144]

Crusade scholars continue to debate crusading, its causes, and its effects, so scholarship in this field repeatedly undergoes revision and reconsideration.[145]: 96  Many early crusade scholars saw the source-histories as simple recitations of how events actually transpired, but by the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, scholarship was increasingly skeptical of that assumption. By 1935, Carl Erdmann published Die Entstehung des Kreuzzugsgedankens (The Origin of the Idea of Crusade), changing the direction of crusader studies more than any other single work by focusing on the ideology of crusade. This ideology indicated the crusades were essentially defensive, which meant that soldiers were there to provide protection for pilgrims and fellow Christians in the East and to reclaim formerly Christian lands lost to Islamic expansion and forced conversion. This ideology remained throughout the Middle Ages despite the failure to finalize these goals.[146]: 3 fn 10, 6, 10, 13  Constable adds that those "scholars who see the crusades as the beginning of European colonialism and expansionism would have surprised people at the time. Crusaders would not have denied some selfish aspects... but the predominant emphasis was on the defense and recovery of lands that had once been Christian and on the self-sacrifice rather than the self-seeking of the participants".[146]: 15 

Historian Robert Irwin points out that “Christians living under Muslim rule suffered during the crusading period. They were suspected of acting as spies or fifth columns for the Franks and later the Mongols as well.” According to Coptic chronicles, Saladin had many Christians in Egypt crucified in revenge against his Crusader enemies.[147]

In 1951, Steven Runciman, a Byzantinist who saw the crusades in terms of east–west relations, wrote in the conclusion of his crusade history, that the "Holy War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance".[146]: 3, 9–10  Giles Constable says it is this view of the crusades that is most common among the populace.[146]: 3  The problem with this view, according to political science professor Andrew R. Murphy,[148] is that such concepts as intolerance were not part of eleventh century thinking about relationships for any of the various groups involved in or affected by the crusades, neither the Latins, the Byzantines, the Turks, the Baybars, nor others.[149]: xii–xvii  Instead, concepts of tolerance began to grow during the crusades from efforts to define legal limits and the nature of co-existence, and these ideas grew among both Christians and Muslims.[149]: xii 

These wars produced multiple massacres perpetrated by both sides. According to Mary Jane Engh's definition of religious persecution, which identifies it as "the repressive action initiated or condoned by authorities against their own people on religious grounds," it is not possible to term these acts of war as religious persecution.[150]

After the collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Fall of Acre, the last of the Crusaders' possessions in Asia in 1291, one of the main Christian military orders was suppressed from 1307 on trumped-up charges by the papacy.[151] The Knights Templar were accused of sodomy, heresy, and corruption and the members were persecuted.[151] In the crusades waged against non-Muslims, including Christians described as heretics, Catholic participants were promised the same spiritual rewards as were believed to be received by those who fought against Muslims in the Holy Land.[152]

Albigensian Crusade

Pope Innocent III, with the king of France, Philip Augustus, began the military campaign known as the Albigensian Crusade between 1209 and 1226 against other Christians known as Cathars.[152][153]: 46, 47  Scholars disagree, using two distinct lines of reasoning, on whether the war that followed was religious persecution from the Pope or a land grab by King Philip.[154]: 50  Historian Laurence W. Marvin says the Pope exercised "little real control over events in Occitania".[155]: 258  Four years after the Massacre at Beziers in 1213, the Pope cancelled crusade indulgences and called for an end to the campaign.[156]: 58  The campaign continued anyway. The Pope was not reversed until the Fourth Lateran council re-instituted crusade status two years later in 1215; afterwards, the Pope removed it yet again.[157][155]: 229, 235  The campaign continued in what Marvin refers to as "an increasingly murky moral atmosphere" for the next 16 years: there was technically no longer any crusade, no indulgences or dispensational rewards for fighting it, the papal legates exceeded their orders from the Pope, and the army occupied lands of nobles who were in the good graces of the church.[155]: 216  The Treaty of Paris that ended the campaign left the Cathars still in existence, but awarded rule of Languedoc to Louis' descendants.[155]: 235 

Northern (Baltic) crusades

The Northern (or Baltic crusades), went on intermittently from 1147 to 1316, and the primary trigger for these wars was not religious persecution but instead was the noble's desire for territorial expansion and material wealth in the form of land, furs, amber, slaves, and tribute.[158]: 5, 6  The princes wanted to subdue these pagan peoples and stop their raiding by conquering and converting them, but ultimately, Iben Fonnesberg-Schmidt says, the princes were motivated by their desire to extend their power and prestige, and conversion was not always an element of their plans.[159]: 24  When it was, conversion by these princes was almost always as a result of conquest, either by the direct use of force or indirectly when a leader converted and required it of his followers as well.[159]: 23, 24  "While the theologians maintained that conversion should be voluntary, there was a widespread pragmatic acceptance of conversion obtained through political pressure or military coercion."[159]: 24  The Church's acceptance of this led some commentators of the time to endorse and approve it, something Christian thought had never done before.[160]: 157–158 [159]: 24 

Ilkhanate

During the Ilkhanate, massacres were perpetrated by Hulagu Khan against the Assyrians, particularly in and around the ancient Assyrian city of Arbela (modern Erbil).[citation needed]

Bar Hebraeus provided this contemporary assessment of the Mongols attitudes toward their Christian subjects after their conversion to Islam: “And having seen very much modesty and other habits of this kind among Christian people, certainly the Mongols loved them greatly at the beginning of their kingdom, a time ago somewhat short. But their love hath turned to such intense hatred that they cannot even see them with their eyes approvingly, because they have all alike become Muslims".[161] Things became worse when the khan, Mahmud Ghazan, (who converted to Islam in 1295) yielded to “popular pressure which compelled him to persecute Christians,” and culminated in the following ordinance: “The churches shall be uprooted, and the altars overturned, and the celebrations of the Eucharist shall cease, and the hymns of praise, and the sounds of calls to prayer shall be abolished; and the heads of the Christians, and the heads of the congregations of the Jews, and the great men among them, shall be killed"[162][163][164]

Empowered by this ordinance and believing “that everyone who did not abandon Christianity and deny his faith should be killed,” Muslim mobs ran amok, slaughtering and wreaking havoc among Christian populations. In Armenia, church services were banned and local authorities ordered to tattoo a black mark on the shoulder of every male Christian and to pluck out the beards and inflict other humiliations on every Christian man. “When few Christians defected [to Islam] in response to these measures, the Khan then ordered that all Christian men be castrated and have one eye put out which caused many deaths in this era before antibiotics, but did lead to many conversions” to Islam.[165][164]

The consideration which the Mongols bestowed on the Christians (particularly the Nestorians) singled them out for the hatred of the Muslims. In 1261, Muslims of Mosul pillaged and killed all those who did not convert to Islam. Several monks and community leaders and others from the common people recanted. The Kurds then descended from the mountains and attacked the Christians of the region, massacring many of them; they pillaged the convent of Mar Matai, only withdrawing after extorting a heavy ransom from the monks.[166]

Late Middle Ages

Western Europe

Advocates of lay piety called for church reform and met with persecution from the Popes.[167]: 248–250  John Wycliffe (1320–1384) urged the church to give up ownership of property, which produced much of the church's wealth, and to once again embrace poverty and simplicity. He urged the church to stop being subservient to the state and its politics. He denied papal authority. John Wycliff died of a stroke, but his followers, called Lollards, were declared heretics.[167]: 249  After the Oldcastle rebellion many were killed.[168]: 12, 13 

Jan Hus (1369–1415) accepted some of Wycliff's views and aligned with the Bohemian Reform movement which was also rooted in popular piety. In 1415, Hus was called to the Council of Constance where his ideas were condemned as heretical and he was handed over to the state and burned at the stake.[169]: 130, 135–139 [167]: 250 

The Fraticelli, who were also known as the "Little Brethren" or "Spiritual Franciscans", were dedicated followers of Saint Francis of Assisi. These Franciscans honored their vow of poverty and saw the wealth of the Church as a contributor to corruption and injustice when so many lived in poverty. They criticized the worldly behavior of many churchmen.[170]: 28, 50, 305  Thus, the Brethren were declared heretical by John XXII (1316–1334) who was called "the banker of Avignon".[171]: 131 

The leader of these brethren, Bernard Délicieux (c. 1260–1270 – 1320) was well known as he had spent much of his life battling the Dominican-run inquisitions. He confessed, after torture and threat of excommunication, to the charge of opposing the inquisitions, and was defrocked and sentenced to life in prison, in chains, in solitary confinement, and to receive nothing but bread and water. The judges attempted to ameliorate the harshness of this sentence due to his age and frailty, but Pope John XXII countermanded them and delivered the friar to Inquisitor Jean de Beaune. Délicieux died shortly thereafter in early 1320.[172]: 191, 196–198 

Mamluk Sultanate

when Sultan Baybars took Antioch from the Crusaders he wrote a letter to Christians boasting of the atrocities they would have seen his soldiers commit had they been there:[173]

You would have seen your knights prostrate beneath the horses’ hooves, your houses stormed by pillagers and ransacked by looters, your wealth weighed by the quintal, your women sold four at a time and bought for a dinar of your own money! You would have seen the crosses in your churches smashed, the pages of the false Testaments scattered, the Patriarchs’ tombs overturned. You would have seen your Muslim enemy trampling on the place where you celebrate the Mass, cutting the throats of monks, priests and deacons upon the altars, bringing sudden death to the Patriarchs and slavery to the royal princes. You would have seen fire running through your palaces, your dead burned in this world before going down to the fires of the next, your palace lying unrecognizable, the Church of St. Paul and that of the Cathedral of St. Peter pulled down and destroyed; then you would have said, “Would that I were dust, and that no letter had ever brought me such tidings!”

Timurid Empire

Timur (Tamerlane) instigated large scale massacres of Christians in Mesopotamia, Persia, Asia Minor and Syria in the 14th century AD. Most of the victims were indigenous Assyrians and Armenians, members of the Assyrian Church of the East and Orthodox Churches, which led to the decimation of the hitherto majority Assyrian population in northern Mesopotamia and the abandonment of the ancient Assyrian city of Assur.[174] Tamerlane virtually exterminated the Church of the East, which had previously been a major branch of Christianity but afterwards became largely confined to a small area now known as the Assyrian Triangle.[175]

Early modern period

Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Persecution of the Servants of Christ by Maerten de Vos and engraved by Hieronymus Wierix (Wellcome Library). An illustration of the prophecy of persecution made during the Sermon on the Mount according to the Gospel of Luke.
"But before all these, they shall lay their hands on you, and persecute you, delivering you up to the synagogues, and into prisons, being brought before kings and rulers for my name's sake."[176][note 2]

The Protestant Reformation and the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation provoked a number of persecutions of Christians by other Christians and the European wars of religion, including the Eighty Years' War, the French Wars of Religion, the Thirty Years' War, the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, the Savoyard–Waldensian wars, and the Toggenburg War. There were false allegations of witchcraft and numerous witch trials in the early modern period.

China

An 1858 illustration from the French newspaper, Le Monde Illustré, of the torture and execution of Father Auguste Chapdelaine, a French missionary in China, by slow slicing (lingchi).

Beginning in the late 17th century and for at least a century, Christianity was banned in China by the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty after Pope Clement XI forbade Chinese Catholics from venerating their relatives, Confucius, the Buddha or Guanyin.[177][178]

The Boxer rebellion targeted foreign and Chinese Christians. Beginning in 1899, Boxers spread violence across Shandong and the North China Plain, attacking or murdering Christian missionaries and Chinese Christians. They decided the "primary devils" were the Christian missionaries, and the "secondary devils" were the Chinese converts to Christianity. Both had to recant or be driven out or killed.[179][180] Boxers burned Christian churches, killed Chinese Christians and intimidated Chinese officials who stood in their way. Orthodox, Protestant, and Catholic missionaries and their Chinese parishioners were massacred throughout northern China, some by Boxers and others by government troops and authorities. Yuxian implemented a brutal anti-foreign and anti-Christian policy. The Baptist Missionary Society, based in England, opened its mission in Shanxi in 1877. In 1900 all its missionaries there were killed, along with all 120 converts.[181] By the summer's end, more foreigners and as many as 2,000 Chinese Christians had been put to death in the province. Journalist and historical writer Nat Brandt has called the massacre of Christians in Shanxi "the greatest single tragedy in the history of Christian evangelicalism."[182] During the Boxer Rebellion as a whole, a total of 136 Protestant missionaries and 53 children were killed, and 47 Catholic priests and nuns, 30,000 Chinese Catholics, 2,000 Chinese Protestants, and 200 to 400 of the 700 Russian Orthodox Christians in Beijing were estimated to have been killed. Collectively, the Protestant dead were called the China Martyrs of 1900.[183]

The Muslim unit Kansu Braves which was serving in the Chinese army attacked Christians.[184][185][186]

During the Northern Expedition, the Kuomintang incited anti-foreign, anti-Western sentiment. Portraits of Sun Yat-sen replaced the crucifix in several churches, KMT posters proclaimed that "Jesus Christ is dead. Why not worship something alive such as Nationalism?" Foreign missionaries were attacked and anti-foreign riots broke out.[187] In 1926, Muslim General Bai Chongxi attempted to drive out foreigners in Guangxi, attacking American, European, and other foreigners and missionaries, and generally making the province unsafe for foreigners. Westerners fled from the province, and some Chinese Christians were also attacked as imperialist agents.[188]

From 1894 to 1938, many Uighur Muslims converted to Christianity. They were killed, tortured and jailed.[189][190][191] Christian missionaries were expelled.[192]

French Revolution

September massacres, 1792

The Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution is a conventional description of a campaign, conducted by various Robespierre-era governments of France beginning with the start of the French Revolution in 1789, to eliminate any symbol that might be associated with the past, especially the monarchy.

The program included the following policies:[193][194][195]: 1 

Mass shootings at Nantes, 1793

The climax was reached with the celebration of the Goddess "Reason" in Notre-Dame de Paris, the Parisian cathedral, on 10 November.

Under threat of death, imprisonment, military conscription or loss of income, about 20,000 constitutional priests were forced to abdicate or hand over their letters of ordination and 6,000 – 9,000 were coerced to marry, many ceasing their ministerial duties.[195]: 10  Some of those who abdicated covertly ministered to the people.[195]: 10  By the end of the decade, approximately 30,000 priests were forced to leave France, and thousands who did not leave were executed.[196] Most of France was left without the services of a priest, deprived of the sacraments and any nonjuring priest faced the guillotine or deportation to French Guiana.[195]: 11 

The March 1793 conscription requiring Vendeans to fill their district's quota of 300,000 enraged the populace, who took up arms as "The Catholic Army", "Royal" being added later, and fought for "above all the reopening of their parish churches with their former priests."[197]

With these massacres came formal orders for forced evacuation; also, a 'scorched earth' policy was initiated: farms were destroyed, crops and forests burned and villages razed. There were many reported atrocities and a campaign of mass killing universally targeted at residents of the Vendée regardless of combatant status, political affiliation, age or gender.[198] By July 1796, the estimated Vendean dead numbered between 117,000 and 500,000, out of a population of around 800,000.[199][200][201]

Japan

The Christian martyrs of the 1622 Great Genna Martyrdom. 17th-century Japanese painting.

Tokugawa Ieyasu assumed control over Japan in 1600. Like Toyotomi Hideyoshi, he disliked Christian activities in Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate finally decided to ban Catholicism in 1614, and in the mid-17th century it demanded the expulsion of all European missionaries and the execution of all converts. This marked the end of open Christianity in Japan.[202] The Shimabara Rebellion, led by a young Japanese Christian boy named Amakusa Shirō Tokisada, took place in 1637. After the Hara Castle fell, the shogunate's forces beheaded an estimated 37,000 rebels and sympathizers. Amakusa Shirō's severed head was taken to Nagasaki for public display, and the entire complex at Hara Castle was burned to the ground and buried together with the bodies of all the dead.[203][full citation needed]

Many of the Christians in Japan continued for two centuries to maintain their religion as Kakure Kirishitan, or hidden Christians, without any priests or pastors. Some of those who were killed for their Faith are venerated as the Martyrs of Japan.

Christianity was later allowed during the Meiji era. The Meiji Constitution of 1890 introduced separation of church and state and permitted freedom of religion.

Kingdom of Mysore

The Jamalabad fort route. Mangalorean Catholics had traveled through this route on their way to Seringapatam.

Muslim Tipu Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, took action against the Mangalorean Catholic community from Mangalore and the South Canara district on the southwestern coast of India. Tipu was widely reputed to be anti-Christian. He took Mangalorean Catholics into captivity at Seringapatam on 24 February 1784 and released them on 4 May 1799.[204]

Soon after the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784, Tipu gained control of Canara.[205] He issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara, confiscate their estates,[206] and deport them to Seringapatam, the capital of his empire, through the Jamalabad fort route.[207] There were no priests among the captives. Together with Fr. Miranda, all the 21 arrested priests were issued orders of expulsion to Goa, fined Rs 2 lakhs, and threatened death by hanging if they ever returned.[citation needed] Tipu ordered the destruction of 27 Catholic churches.

According to Thomas Munro, a Scottish soldier and the first collector of Canara, around 60,000 of them,[208] nearly 92 percent of the entire Mangalorean Catholic community, were captured. 7,000 escaped. Observer Francis Buchanan reports that 70,000 were captured, from a population of 80,000, with 10,000 escaping. They were forced to climb nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) through the jungles of the Western Ghat mountain ranges. It was 210 miles (340 km) from Mangalore to Seringapatam, and the journey took six weeks. According to British Government records, 20,000  of them died on the march to Seringapatam. According to James Scurry, a British officer, who was held captive along with Mangalorean Catholics, 30,000 of them were forcibly converted to Islam. The young women and girls were forcibly made wives of the Muslims living there and later distributed and sold in prostitution.[209] The young men who offered resistance were disfigured by cutting their noses, upper lips, and ears.[210]

The British officer James Scurry, who was detained a prisoner for 10 years by Tipu Sultan along with the Mangalorean Catholics

Tipu Sultan's invasion of the Malabar Coast had an adverse impact on the Saint Thomas Christian community of the Malabar coast. Many churches in Malabar and Cochin were damaged. The old Syrian Nasrani seminary at Angamaly which had been the center of Catholic religious education for several centuries was razed to the ground by Tipu's soldiers. Many centuries-old religious manuscripts were lost forever. The church was later relocated to Kottayam where it still exists to this date. The Mor Sabor church at Akaparambu and the Martha Mariam Church attached to the seminary were destroyed as well. Tipu's army set fire to the church at Palayoor and attacked the Ollur Church in 1790. Furthernmore, the Arthat church and the Ambazhakkad seminary was also destroyed. Over the course of this invasion, many Saint Thomas Christians were killed or forcibly converted to Islam. Most of the coconut, arecanut, pepper and cashew plantations held by the Saint Thomas Christian farmers were also indiscriminately destroyed by the invading army. As a result, when Tipu's army invaded Guruvayur and adjacent areas, the Syrian Christian community fled Calicut and small towns like Arthat to new centres like Kunnamkulam, Chalakudi, Ennakadu, Cheppadu, Kannankode, Mavelikkara, etc. where there were already Christians. They were given refuge by Sakthan Tamburan, the ruler of Cochin and Karthika Thirunal, the ruler of Travancore, who gave them lands, plantations and encouraged their businesses. Colonel Macqulay, the British resident of Travancore also helped them.[211]

Tipu's persecution of Christians also extended to captured British soldiers. For instance, there were a significant amount of forced conversions of British captives between 1780 and 1784. Following their disastrous defeat at the battle of Pollilur, 7,000 British men along with an unknown number of women were held captive by Tipu in the fortress of Seringapatnam. Of these, over 300 were circumcised and given Muslim names and clothes, and several British regimental drummer boys were made to wear ghagra cholis and entertain the court as nautch girls or dancing girls. After the 10-year-long captivity ended, James Scurry, one of those prisoners, recounted that he had forgotten how to sit in a chair and use a knife and fork. His English was broken and stilted, having lost all his vernacular idiom. His skin had darkened to the swarthy complexion of negroes, and moreover, he had developed an aversion to wearing European clothes.[212]

Ottoman Empire

Historian Warren Treadgold gives a summary on the historical background highlighting the cumulative effects of the relentless Turkish Muslim depredations against the Byzantine Empire in its Anatolian heartland by the late 14th century:[213]

As the Turks raided and conquered, they enslaved many Christians, selling some in other Muslim regions and hindering the rest from practicing their faith. Conversions [to islam], Turkish migration, and Greek outmigration increasingly endangered the Greek minority in central Asia Minor. When the Turks overran Western Anatolia, they occupied the countryside first, driving the Greeks into the cities, or away to Europe, or the islands. By the time the Anatolian cities fell, the land around them was already largely Turkish [and Islamic].

In accordance with the traditional custom which was practiced at the time, Sultan Mehmed II allowed his troops and his entourage to engage in unbridled pillaging and looting in the city of Constantinople for three full days shortly after it was captured. Once the three days passed, he claimed its remaining contents for himself.[141][214] However, at the end of the first day, he proclaimed that the looting should cease because he felt profound sadness when he toured the looted and enslaved city.[215][141] Hagia Sophia was not exempted from the pillage and looting and specifically became its focal point as the invaders believed it to contain the greatest treasures and valuables of the city.[216] Shortly after the defence of the Walls of Constantinople collapsed and the Ottoman troops entered the city victoriously, the pillagers and looters made their way to the Hagia Sophia and battered down its doors before storming in.[141]

Throughout the period of the siege of Constantinople, the worshippers who were trapped in the city participated in the Divine Liturgy and they also recited the Prayer of the Hours at the Hagia Sophia and the church formed a safe-haven and a refuge for many of those worshippers who were unable to contribute to the city's defence, which comprised women, children, elderly, the sick and the wounded.[217][218] Being trapped in the church, the many congregants and yet more refugees inside became spoils-of-war to be divided amongst the triumphant invaders. The building was desecrated and looted, with the helpless occupants who sought shelter within the church being enslaved.[216] While most of the elderly and the infirm/wounded and sick were killed, and the remainder (mainly teenage males and young boys) were chained up and sold into slavery.[141]

The women of Constantinople also suffered from rape at the hands of Ottoman forces.[219] According to Barbaro, "all through the day the Turks made a great slaughter of Christians through the city". According to historian Philip Mansel, widespread persecution of the city's civilian inhabitants took place, resulting in thousands of murders and rapes, and 30,000 civilians being enslaved or forcibly deported.[220][221][222][223] George Sphrantzes says that people of both genders were raped inside Hagia Sophia.[224]

Since the time of the Austro-Turkish war (1683–1699), relations between Muslims and Christians who lived in the European provinces of the Ottoman Empire gradually deteriorated [vague] and this deterioration in interfaith relations occasionally resulted in calls for the expulsion or extermination of local Christian communities by some Muslim religious leaders. As a result of Ottoman oppression, the destruction of Churches and Monasteries, and violence against the non-Muslim civilian population, Serbian Christians and their church leaders, headed by Serbian Patriarch Arsenije III, sided with the Austrians in 1689 and again in 1737 under Serbian Patriarch Arsenije IV. In the following punitive campaigns, Ottoman forces conducted systematic atrocities against the Christian population in the Serbian regions, resulted in the Great Migrations of the Serbs.[225]

Ottoman Albania and Kosovo

Before the late 16th century, Albania's population remained overwhelmingly Christian, despite the fact that it was under Ottoman rule, unlike the more diverse populations of other regions of the Ottoman Empire, such as Bosnia, Bulgaria and Northern Greece,[226] the mountainous Albania was a frequent site of revolts against Ottoman rule, often at an enormous human cost, such as the destruction of entire villages.[227] In response, the Ottomans abandoned their usual policy of tolerating Christians in favor of a policy which was aimed at reducing the size of Albania's Christian population through Islamization, beginning in the restive Christian regions of Reka and Elbasan in 1570.[228]

The pressures which resulted from this campaign included particularly harsh economic conditions which were imposed on Albania's Christian population; while earlier taxes on the Christians were around 45 akçes a year, by the middle of the 17th century the rate had been multiplied by 27 to 780 akçes a year. Albanian elders often opted to save their clans and villages from hunger and economic ruin by advocating village-wide and region-wide conversions to Islam, with many individuals frequently continuing to practice Christianity in private.[229]

A failed Catholic rebellion in 1596 and the Albanian population's support of Austro-Hungary during the Great Turkish War,[230] and its support of the Venetians in the 1644 Venetian-Ottoman War[231] as well as the Orlov Revolt[232][233][234][235][236] were all factors which led to punitive measures in which outright force was accompanied by economic incentives depending on the region, and ended up forcing the conversion of large Christian populations to Islam in Albania. In the aftermath of the Great Turkish War, massive punitive measures were imposed on Kosovo's Catholic Albanian population and as a result of them, most members of it fled to Hungary and settled around Buda, where most of them died of disease and starvation.[230][237]

After the Orthodox Serbian population's subsequent flight from Kosovo, the pasha of Ipek (Peja/Pec) forced Albanian Catholic mountaineers to repopulate Kosovo by deporting them to Kosovo, and also forced them adopt Islam.[230][236] In the 17th and 18th centuries, South Albania also saw numerous instances of violence which was directed against those who remained Christian by local newly converted Muslims, ultimately resulting in many more conversions out of fear as well as flight to faraway lands by the Christian population.[238][239][232][240][241]

Modern era (1815 to 1989)

Communist Albania

Religion in Albania was subordinated to the interests of Marxism during the rule of the country's communist party when all religions were suppressed. This policy was justified by the communist stance of state atheism from 1967 to 1991.[242] The Agrarian Reform Law of August 1945 nationalized most of the property which belonged to religious institutions, including the estates of mosques, monasteries, religious orders, and dioceses. Many clergy and believers were tried and some of them were executed. All foreign Roman Catholic priests, monks, and nuns were expelled from Albania in 1946.[243][244] The military seized churches, cathedrals and mosques and converted them into basketball courts, movie theaters, dance halls, and the like; and members of the clergy were stripped of their titles and imprisoned.[245][246] Around 6,000 Albanians were disappeared and murdered by agents of the Communist government, and their bodies were never found or identified. Albanians continued to be imprisoned, tortured and killed for their religious practices well into 1991.[247]

Religious communities or branches of them which had their headquarters outside the country, such as the Jesuit and Franciscan orders, were henceforth ordered to terminate their activities in Albania. Religious institutions were forbidden to have anything to do with the education of the young, because that activity had been made the exclusive province of the state. All religious communities were prohibited from owning real estate and they were also prohibited from operating philanthropic and welfare institutions and hospitals. Enver Hoxha's overarching goal was the eventual destruction of all organized religions in Albania, despite some variance in his approach to it.[243][244]

Iraq

The Assyrians were subjected to another series of persecutions during the Simele massacre of 1933, with the death of approximately 3,000 Assyrian civilians in the Kingdom of Iraq at the hands of the Royal Iraqi Army.[citation needed]

In 1987, the last Iraqi census counted 1.4 million Christians.[248] They were tolerated under the secular regime of Saddam Hussein, who even made one of them, Tariq Aziz his deputy. However, Saddam Hussein's government continued to persecute the Christians on an ethnic, cultural and racial basis, because the vast majority are Mesopotamian Eastern Aramaic-speaking ethnic Assyrians (aka Chaldo-Assyrians). The Assyro-Aramaic language and script was repressed, the giving of Hebraic/Aramaic Christian names or Akkadian/Assyro-Babylonian names was forbidden (for example Tariq Aziz's real name was Michael Youhanna), and Saddam exploited religious differences between Assyrian denominations such as Chaldean Catholics, the Assyrian Church of the East, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Assyrian Pentecostal Church and the Ancient Church of the East, in an attempt to divide them. Many Assyrians and Armenians were ethnically cleansed from their towns and villages during the al Anfal Campaign in 1988, despite the fact that this campaign was primarily directed against the Kurds.[citation needed]

Madagascar

Christian martyrs burned at the stake by Ranavalona I in Madagascar

Queen Ranavalona I (reigned 1828–1861) issued a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar, expelled British missionaries from the island, and sought to stem the growth of conversion to Christianity within her realm. Far more, however, were punished in other ways: many were required to undergo the tangena ordeal, while others were condemned to hard labor or the confiscation of their land and property, and many of these consequently died. The tangena ordeal was commonly administered to determine the guilt or innocence of an accused person for any crime, including the practice of Christianity, and involved ingestion of the poison contained within the nut of the tangena tree (Cerbera odollam). Survivors were deemed innocent, while those who perished were assumed guilty.

In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20% of the population.[249] contributing to a strongly unfavorable view of Ranavalona's rule in historical accounts.[250] Malagasy Christians would remember this period as ny tany maizina, or "the time when the land was dark". Persecution of Christians intensified in 1840, 1849 and 1857; in 1849, deemed the worst of these years by British missionary to Madagascar W.E. Cummins (1878), 1,900 people were fined, jailed or otherwise punished in relation to their Christian faith, including 18 executions.[251]

Nazi Germany

Hitler and the Nazis received some support from certain Christian fundamentalist communities, mainly due to their common cause against the anti-religious Communists, as well as their mutual Judeophobia and antisemitism. Once in power, the Nazis moved to consolidate their power over the German churches and bring them in line with Nazi ideals. Some historians say that Hitler had a general covert plan, which some of them say existed even before the Nazis' rise to power, to destroy Christianity within the Reich, which was to be accomplished through Nazi control and subversion of the churches and it would be completed after the war.[252] The Third Reich founded its own version of Christianity which was called Positive Christianity, a Nazi version of Christianity which made major changes in the interpretation of the Bible by arguing that Jesus Christ was the son of God, but he was not a Jew, arguing that Jesus despised Jews and Judaism, and arguing that the Jews were the ones who were solely responsible for Jesus's death.[citation needed]

Outside mainstream Christianity, the Jehovah's Witnesses were targets of Nazi Persecution, for their refusal to swear allegiance to the Nazi government. In Nazi Germany in the 1930s and early 1940s, Jehovah's Witnesses refused to renounce their political neutrality and as a result, they were imprisoned in concentration camps. The Nazi government gave detained Jehovah's Witnesses the option of release if they signed a document which indicated their renunciation of their faith, their submission to state authority, and their support of the German military.[253] Historian Hans Hesse said, "Some five thousand Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps where they alone were 'voluntary prisoners', so termed because the moment they recanted their views, they could be freed. Some lost their lives in the camps, but few renounced their faith."[254][255]

Ottoman Empire

During the modern era, relations between Muslims and Christians in the Ottoman Empire were largely shaped by broader dynamics which were related to European colonial and neo-imperialist activities in the region, dynamics which frequently (though by no means always) generated tensions between the two communities. Too often, growing European influence in the region during the nineteenth century seemed to disproportionately benefit Christians, thus, it triggered resentment on the part of many Muslims, likewise, many Muslims suspected that Christians and the European powers were plotting to weaken the Islamic world. Further exacerbating relations was the fact that Christians seemed to disproportionately benefit from efforts at reform (one aspect of which generally sought to elevate the political status of non-Muslims), likewise, the various Christian nationalist uprisings in the Empire's European territories, which often had the support of the European powers.[256]

Corpses of massacred Armenian Christians in Erzurum in 1895

Persecutions and forced migrations of Christian populations were induced by Ottoman forces during the 19th century in the European and Asian provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The Massacres of Badr Khan were conducted by Kurdish and Ottoman forces against the Assyrian Christian population of the Ottoman Empire between 1843 and 1847, resulting in the slaughter of more than 10,000 indigenous Assyrian civilians of the Hakkari region, with many thousands more being sold into slavery.[257][258]

Adana massacre of 1909

On 17 October 1850 the Muslim majority began rioting against the Uniate Catholics – a minority that lived in the communities of Judayda, in the city of Aleppo.[259]

During the Bulgarian Uprising (1876) against Ottoman rule, and the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), the persecution of the Bulgarian Christian population was conducted by Ottoman soldiers. The principal locations were Panagurishte, Perushtitza, and Bratzigovo.[260] Over 15,000 non-combatant Bulgarian civilians were killed by the Ottoman army between 1876 and 1878, with the worst single instance being the Batak massacre.[260][261]: 228 During the war, whole cities including the largest Bulgarian one (Stara Zagora) were destroyed and most of their inhabitants were killed, the rest being expelled or enslaved. The atrocities included impaling and grilling people alive.[262] Similar attacks were undertaken by Ottoman troops against Serbian Christians during the Serbian-Turkish War (1876–1878).

Greek-Orthodox metropolises in Asia Minor, ca. 1880. Since 1923 only the Metropolis of Chalcedon retains a small community.
The Assyrian genocide was a mass slaughter of the Assyrian population.[263]

The abolition of jizya and emancipation of formerly dhimmi subjects was one of the most embittering stipulations the Ottoman Empire had to accept to end the Crimean War in 1856. Then, "for the first time since 1453, church bells were permitted to ring... in Constantinople," writes M. J. Akbar. "Many Muslims declared it a day of mourning." Indeed, because superior social standing was from the start one of the advantages of conversion to Islam, resentful Muslim mobs rioted and hounded Christians all over the empire. In 1860 up to 30,000 Christians were massacred in the Levant alone.[264]Mark Twain recounts what took place in the levant:[265]

Men, women and children were butchered indiscriminately and left to rot by hundreds all through the Christian quarter... the stench was dreadful. All the Christians who could get away fled from the city, and the Mohammedans would not defile their hands by burying the 'infidel dogs.' The thirst for blood extended to the high lands of Hermon and Anti-Lebanon, and in a short time twenty-five thousand more Christians were massacred.

Between 1894 and 1896 a series of ethno-religiously motivated Anti-Christian pogroms known as the Hamidian massacres were conducted against the ancient Armenian and Assyrian Christian populations by the forces of the Ottoman Empire.[266] The motives for these massacres were an attempt to reassert Pan-Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, resentment of the comparative wealth of the ancient indigenous Christian communities, and a fear that they would attempt to secede from the tottering Ottoman Empire.[267] The massacres mainly took place in what is today southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria and northern Iraq. Assyrians and Armenians were massacred in Diyarbakir, Hasankeyef, Sivas and other parts of Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia, by Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The death toll is estimated to have been as high as 325,000 people,[268][269] with a further 546,000 Armenians and Assyrians made destitute by forced deportations of survivors from cities, and the destruction or theft of almost 2500 of their farmsteads towns and villages. Hundreds of churches and monasteries were also destroyed or forcibly converted into mosques.[270] These attacks caused the death of over thousands of Assyrians and the forced "Ottomanisation" of the inhabitants of 245 villages. The Ottoman troops looted the remains of the Assyrian settlements and these were later stolen and occupied by south-east Anatolian tribes. Unarmed Assyrian women and children were raped, tortured and murdered.[271] According to H. Aboona, the independence of the Assyrians was destroyed not directly by the Turks but by their neighbours under Ottoman auspices.[272]

The Adana massacre occurred in the Adana Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire in April 1909. A massacre of Armenian and Assyrian Christians in the city of Adana and its surrounds amidst the 31 March Incident led to a series of anti-Christian pogroms throughout the province.[273] Reports estimated that the Adana Province massacres resulted in the death of as many as 30,000 Armenians and 1,500 Assyrians.[274][275][276]

Between 1915 and 1921 the Young Turks government of the collapsing Ottoman Empire persecuted Eastern Christian populations in Anatolia, Persia, Northern Mesopotamia and The Levant. The onslaught by the Ottoman army, which included Kurdish, Arab and Circassian irregulars resulted in an estimated 3.4 million deaths, divided between roughly 1.5 million Armenian Christians,[277][278] 0.75 million Assyrian Christians, 0.90 million Greek Orthodox Christians and 0.25 million Maronite Christians (see Great Famine of Mount Lebanon);[279] groups of Georgian Christians were also killed. The massive ethnoreligious cleansing expelled from the empire or killed the Armenians and the Bulgarians who had not converted to Islam, and it came to be known as the Armenian genocide,[280][281] Assyrian genocide,[282] Greek genocide.[154] and Great Famine of Mount Lebanon.[283][284] which accounted for the deaths of Armenian, Assyrian, Greek and Maronite Christians, and the deportation and destitution of many more. The Genocide led to the devastation of ancient indigenous Christian populations who had existed in the region for thousands of years.[285][286][287][288]

Benny Morris and Dror Ze'evi argue that the Armenian genocide and other contemporaneous persecution of Christians in the Ottoman Empire (Greek genocide, and Assyrian genocide) constitute an extermination campaign, or genocide, carried out by the Ottoman Empire against its Christian subjects.[289][290][2]

In the aftermath of the Sheikh Said rebellion, the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Assyrian Church of the East were subjected to harassment by Turkish authorities, on the grounds that some Assyrians allegedly collaborated with the rebelling Kurds.[291] Consequently, mass deportations took place and Assyrian Patriarch Mar Ignatius Elias III was expelled from the Mor Hananyo Monastery which was turned into a Turkish barrack. The patriarchal seat was then temporarily transferred to Homs.

Soviet Union

Demolition of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour on 5 December 1931: The USSR's official state atheism resulted in the 1921–1928 anti-religious campaign, during which many "church institution[s] at [the] local, diocesan or national level were systematically destroyed."[292]

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Bolsheviks undertook a massive program to remove the influence of the Russian Orthodox Church from the government, outlawed antisemitism in society, and promoted atheism. Tens of thousands of churches were destroyed or they were converted to buildings which were used for other purposes, and many members of the clergy were murdered, publicly executed and imprisoned for what the government termed "anti-government activities". An extensive educational and propaganda campaign was launched to convince people, especially children and youths, to abandon their religious beliefs. This persecution resulted in the intentional murder of 500,000 Orthodox followers by the government of the Soviet Union during the 20th century.[293] In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.[294]

The state established atheism as the only scientific truth.[295][296][297][298] Soviet authorities forbade the criticism of atheism and agnosticism until 1936 or of the state's anti-religious policies; such criticism could lead to forced retirement.[299][300][301] Militant atheism became central to the ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and a high priority policy of all Soviet leaders.[302] Christopher Marsh, a professor at the Baylor University writes that "Tracing the social nature of religion from Schleiermacher and Feurbach to Marx, Engles, and Lenin...the idea of religion as a social product evolved to the point of policies aimed at the forced conversion of believers to atheism."[303]

Under the doctrine of state atheism in the Soviet Union, a "government-sponsored program of forced conversion to atheism" was conducted by the Communists.[304][305][306] The Communist Party destroyed churches, mosques and temples, ridiculed, harassed, incarcerated and executed religious leaders, flooded the schools and media with anti-religious teachings, and it introduced a belief system called "scientific atheism", with its own rituals, promises and proselytizers.[307][308] Many priests were killed and imprisoned; thousands of churches were closed. In 1925 the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the persecution.[309] The League of Militant Atheists was also a "nominally independent organization established by the Communist Party to promote atheism".[310]

The Communist regime confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and propagated atheism in the schools. Actions against particular religions, however, were determined by State interests, and most organized religions were never outlawed. It is estimated that 500,000 Russian Orthodox Christians were martyred in the gulags by the Soviet government, excluding the members of other Christian denominations who were also tortured or killed.[293]

The main target of the anti-religious campaign in the 1920s and 1930s was the Russian Orthodox Church, which had the largest number of faithful worshippers. A very large segment of its clergy, and many of its believers, were shot or sent to labor camps. Theological schools were closed, and church publications were prohibited. In the period between 1927 and 1940, the number of Orthodox Churches in the Russian Republic fell from 29,584 to less than 500. Between 1917 and 1940, 130,000 Orthodox priests were arrested. The widespread persecution and internecine disputes within the church hierarchy lead to the seat of Patriarch of Moscow being vacant from 1925 to 1943.

After Operation Barbarossa, Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church in order to intensify the Soviet population's patriotic support of the war effort. By 1957, about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959, Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced about 12,000 churches to close. By 1985, fewer than 7,000 churches remained active.[294]

In the Soviet Union, in addition to the methodical closure and destruction of churches, the charitable and social work which was formerly done by ecclesiastical authorities was taken over by the state. As with all private property, Church owned property was confiscated and converted to public use by the state. The few places of worship which were left to the Church were legally viewed as state property which the government permitted the church to use. After the advent of state funded universal education, the Church was not permitted to carry on educational, instructional activity for children. For adults, only training for church-related occupations was allowed. With the exception of sermons which could be delivered during the celebration of the divine liturgy, it could not instruct the faithful nor could it evangelize the youth. Catechism classes, religious schools, study groups, Sunday schools and religious publications were all declared illegal and banned. This caused many religious tracts to be circulated as illegal literature or samizdat.[195] Even after the death of Stalin in 1953, the persecution continued, and it did not end until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the Russian Orthodox Church has recognized a number of New Martyrs as saints, some of whom were executed during the Mass operations of the NKVD under directives like NKVD Order No. 00447.

Both before and after the October Revolution of 7 November 1917 (25 October Old Calendar), there was a movement within the Soviet Union which sought to unite all of the people of the world under Communist rule (see Communist International). This movement spread to the Eastern European bloc countries as well as the Balkan States. Since the populations of some of these Slavic countries tied their ethnic heritages to their ethnic churches, the people and their churches were both targeted for ethnic and political genocide by the Soviets and their form of State atheism.[311][312] The Soviets' official religious stance was one of "religious freedom or tolerance", though the state established atheism as the only scientific truth (see also the Soviet or committee of the All-Union Society for the Dissemination of Scientific and Political Knowledge or Znanie which was until 1947 called The League of the Militant Godless and various Intelligentsia groups).[297][298][313] Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes, it resulted in imprisonment.[314][315][316][317] Some of the more high-profile individuals who were executed include Metropolitan Benjamin of Petrograd, priest and scientist Pavel Florensky.

According to James M. Nelson a psychology professor at East Carolina University, the total number of Christian victims under the Soviet regime may have been around 12 million,[318] while Todd Johnson and Gina Zurlo of Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary at Boston University estimate a figure of 15–20 million.[319][unreliable source?]

Spain

The Second Spanish Republic, proclaimed in 1931, attempted to establish a regime with a separation between State and Church as it had happened in France (1905). When established, the Republic passed legislation which prevented the Church from conducting educational activities. A process of political polarisation had characterised the Spanish Second Republic, party divisions became increasingly embittered and questions of religious identity came to assume major political significance. The existence of different Church institutions was an illustration of the situation which resulted from the proclamation which denounced the 2nd Republic as an anti-Catholic, Masonic, Jewish, and Communist internationalist conspiracy which heralded a clash between God and atheism, chaos and harmony, Good and Evil.[320]: 201–202  The Church's high-ranking officials like Isidro Goma, bishop of Tudela, reminded their Christian subjects of their obligation to vote "for the righteous", and their priests of their obligation to "educate the consciences."[320]: 220  In the Asturian miners' strike of 1934, part of the Revolution of 1934, 34 Catholic priests were massacred and churches were systematically burned.[321] Anticlerical opinion accused the Catholic priesthood and religious orders of hypocrisy: clerics were guilty of taking up arms against the people, of exploiting others for the sake of wealth, and of sexual immorality all while claiming the moral authority of peacefulness, poverty, and chastity.[321]

Since the early stages of the Second Republic, far-right forces which were imbued with an ultra-Catholic spirit attempted to overthrow the Republic. Carlists, Africanistas, and Catholic theologians fostered an atmosphere of social and racial hatred in their speeches and writings.[322]: 44–45  The Catholic Church endorsed the rebellion which was led by the fascist Francisco Franco, and Pope Pius XI expressed sympathy for the Nationalist side during the Spanish Civil War.[321] The Catholic authorities described Franco's war as a "crusade" against the Second Republic, and later the Collective Letter of the Spanish Bishops, 1937 appeared, justifying Franco's attack on the Republic.[321] A similar approach is attested in 1912, when the bishop of Almería José Ignacio de Urbina [es] (founder of the National Anti-Masonic and Anti-Semitic League [es]) announced "a decisive battle that must be unleashed" between the "light" and "darkness".[322]: 4  Though the official declaration of the "crusade" followed the Republican persecution of Catholic clerics, the Catholic Church was already predisposed towards Franco's position, because it was seen as the "perfect ally of fascism" while it opposed the anticlerical policies of the Second Republic.[321] The 1936 anticlerical persecution has been seen as "final phase of a long war between clericalism and anticlericalism"[323] and "fully consistent with a Spanish history of popular anticlericalism and anticlerical populism".[321]

Stanley Payne suggested that the persecution of right-wingers and people who were associated with the Catholic church both before and at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War involved the murder of priests and other clergy, as well as thousands of lay people, by sections of nearly all leftist groups, while a killing spree was also unleashed across the Nationalist zone.[324] During the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939, and especially during the early months of the conflict, individual clergymen and entire religious communities were executed by leftists, some of whom were communists and anarchists. The death toll of the clergy alone included 13 bishops, 4,172 diocesan priests and seminarians, 2,364 monks and friars and 283 nuns, reaching a total of 6,832 clerical victims.[321] The main perpetrators of the Red Terror were members of the anarchist Federación Anarquista Ibérica, the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo, and the Trotskyist Workers' Party of Marxist Unification.[321] These organizations distanced themselves from the violence, condemned those who were responsible for it or characterized the killings as mob reprisals for acts of violence which had been perpetrated by the clerics themselves, an explanation which was readily accepted by the public.[321]

In addition to the murder of both the clergy and the faithful, the destruction of churches and the desecration of sacred sites and objects was also widespread. On the night of 19 July 1936 alone, some fifty churches were burned.[325]: 45  In Barcelona, out of the 58 churches, only the cathedral was spared, and similar desecrations occurred almost everywhere in Republican Spain.[325]: 46 

Two exceptions were Biscay and Gipuzkoa where the Christian Democratic Basque Nationalist Party, after some hesitation, supported the Republic and halted the persecution of Catholics in areas which were held by the Basque Government. All other Catholic churches which were located in the Republican zone were closed. The desecration was not limited to Catholic churches, because synagogues and Protestant churches were also pillaged and closed, but some small Protestant churches were spared. The rising Franco's regime would keep Protestant churches and synagogues closed, as he only permitted the Catholic Church.[326]: 215 

Payne called the terror the "most extensive and violent persecution of Catholicism in Western History, in some way even more intense than that of the French Revolution."[326]: 13 The persecution drove Catholics to the side of the Nationalists, even more of them sided with the Nationalists than would have been expected, because they defended their religious interests and survival.[326]: 13 

The Roman Catholic priests who were killed during the Red Terror are considered "Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War", though the priests who were executed by the fascists are not counted among them. A group known as the "498 Spanish Martyrs" were beatified by the Roman Catholic Church's Pope Benedict XVI in 2007. The history of the Red Terror has been obscured by scholarly inattention and the "embarrassing partiality" of ecclesiastical historians.[321]Some of the numerous non-fascists who were persecuted during Franco's White Terror were Protestants, because the fascists accused them of being associated with Freemasonry, and the persecution which they were subjected to during Franco's White Terror was much more intense than the persecution which they were subjected to during the Red Terror.[327][328]

United States

The Latter Day Saints, (Mormons) have been persecuted since their founding in the 1830s. The persecution of the Mormons drove them from New York and Ohio to Missouri, where they continued to be subjected to violent attacks. In 1838, Missouri Gov. Lilburn Boggs declared that Mormons had made war on the state of Missouri, so they "must be treated as enemies, and must be exterminated or driven from the state"[329] At least 10,000 were expelled from the State. In the most violent altercation which occurred at that time, the Haun's Mill massacre, 17 Mormons were murdered by an anti-Mormon mob and 13 other Mormons were wounded.[330] The Extermination Order which was signed by Governor Boggs was not formally invalidated until 25 June 1976, 137 years after being signed.

The Mormons subsequently fled to Nauvoo, Illinois, where hostilities again escalated. In Carthage, Ill., where Joseph Smith was being held on the charge of treason, a mob stormed the jail and killed him. Smith's brother, Hyrum, was also killed. After a succession crisis, most united under Brigham Young, who organized an evacuation from the United States after the federal government refused to protect them.[331] 70,000 Mormon pioneers crossed the Great Plains to settle in the Salt Lake Valley and surrounding areas. After the Mexican–American War, the area became the US territory of Utah. Over the next 63 years, several actions by the federal government were directed against Mormons in the Mormon Corridor, including the Utah War, the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, the Poland Act, Reynolds v. United States, the Edmunds Act, the Edmunds–Tucker Act, and the Reed Smoot hearings.

In this 1926 cartoon, the Ku Klux Klan chases the Roman Catholic Church, personified by St Patrick, from the shores of America.

The second iteration of the Ku Klux Klan, founded in 1915 and launched in the 1920s, persecuted Catholics in both the United States and Canada. As stated in its official rhetoric which focused on the threat of the Catholic Church, the Klan was motivated by anti-Catholicism and American nativism.[332] Its appeal was exclusively directed towards white Anglo-Saxon Protestants; it opposed Jews, blacks, Catholics, and newly arriving Southern and Eastern European immigrants such as Italians, Russians, and Lithuanians, many of whom were either Jewish or Catholic.[333]

Warsaw Pact

St. Teodora de la Sihla Church in Central Chișinău was one of the churches that were "converted into museums of atheism", under the doctrine of Marxist–Leninist atheism.[334]

Across Eastern Europe following World War II, the parts of the Nazi Empire which were conquered by the Soviet Red Army and Yugoslavia became one-party Communist states and the project of coercive conversion to atheism continued.[335][336] The Soviet Union ended its war time truce with the Russian Orthodox Church, and extended its persecutions to the newly Communist Eastern bloc: "In Poland, Hungary, Lithuania and other Eastern European countries, Catholic leaders who were unwilling to be silent were denounced, publicly humiliated or imprisoned by the Communists. Leaders of the national Orthodox Churches in Romania and Bulgaria had to be cautious and submissive", wrote Geoffrey Blainey.[337] While the churches were generally not persecuted as harshly as they had been in the USSR, nearly all of their schools and many of their churches were closed, and they lost their formally prominent roles in public life. Children were taught atheism, and clergy were imprisoned by the thousands.[338] In the Eastern Bloc, Christian churches, along with Jewish synagogues and Islamic mosques were forcibly "converted into museums of atheism."[315][316]

Along with executions, some other actions which were taken against Orthodox priests and believers included torture, being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals.[195][339][340]

Current situation (1989 to the present)

In 2010, Pope Benedict XVI claimed that Christians were the most persecuted religious group in the contemporary world.[341] In a speech to the United Nations Human Rights Council's 23rd session in May 2013, then-Permanent Observer of the Holy See to the United Nations in Geneva, Silvano Maria Tomasi claimed that "an estimate of more than 100,000 Christians are violently killed because of some relation to their faith every year".[342] This number was supported by the Center for the Study of Global Christianity at the evangelical Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary in Massachusetts, which published a statement in December 2016 stating that "between 2005 and 2015 there were 900,000 Christian martyrs worldwide – an average of 90,000 per year."[343] Tomasi's radio address to the council called the figures both a "shocking conclusion" and "credible research".[342] The accuracy of this number, based on population estimates in a 1982 edition of the World Christian Encyclopedia, is disputed.[344][345] Almost all died in wars in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where all sides of the Second Congo War and subsequent conflicts are majority-Christian, and previous years included victims of the Rwandan genocide, an ethnic conflict and a part of the First Congo War where again most belligerents were Christian.[344] As a result, the BBC News Magazine cautioned that "when you hear that 100,000 Christians are dying for their faith, you need to keep in mind that the vast majority – 90,000 – are people who were killed in DR Congo."[344]

Klaus Wetzel, an internationally recognized expert on religious persecution, states that this discrepancy in numbers is due to the contradiction between the definition used by Gordon-Conwell defining Christian martyrdom in the widest possible sense, and the more sociological and political definition Wetzel and Open Doors and others such as The International Institute for Religious Freedom use, which is: 'those who are killed, who would not have been killed, if they had not been Christians.'[345]

Numbers are affected by several important factors, for example, population distribution is a factor. The United States submits an annual report on religious freedom and persecution to the Congress which recognizes restrictions on religious freedom, ranging from low to very high, in three-quarters of the world's countries including the United States. In approximatrly one quarter of the world's countries, there are high and very high restrictions and oppression, and some of those countries, such as China and India, Indonesia and Pakistan are among those with the highest populations.[346] About three-quarters of the world's population live in the most oppressive countries in the world.[345]

Numbers of martyrs are especially difficult to accurately identify, because religious persecution often occurs in conjunction with wider conflicts. This fact complicates the identification of acts of persecution because they may be politically rather than religiously motivated.[347]: xii  For example, the U.S. Department of State identified 1.4 million Christians in Iraq in 1991 when the Gulf War began. By 2010, the number of Christians dropped to 700,000 and by 2011 it was estimated that there were between 450,000 and 200,000 Christians left in Iraq.[347]: 135  During that period, actions against Christians included the burning and bombing of churches, the bombing of Christian owned businesses and homes, kidnapping, murder, demands for protection money, and anti-Christian rhetoric in the media with those responsible saying that they wanted to rid the country of its Christians.[347]: 135–138 

A report which was released by the UK's Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and prepared by Philip Mounstephen, the Bishop of Truro, in July 2019, and a report on worldwide restrictions on religious freedom by the PEW organization, both stated that the number of countries where Christians were suffering as a result of religious persecution was increasing, rising from 125 in 2015 to 144 as of 2018.[348][349][350][note 3] PEW has published a caution concerning the interpretation of its numbers: "The Center's recent report ... does not attempt to estimate the number of victims in each country... it does not speak to the intensity of harassment..."[351]

The Internationale Gesellschaft für Menschenrechte[352] – the International Society for Human Rights – in Frankfurt, Germany, is a non-governmental organization with 30,000 members from 38 countries who monitor human rights. In September 2009, then chairman Martin Lessenthin,[353] issued a report estimating that 80% of acts of religious persecution around the world were aimed at Christians at that time.[354][355]

W. J. Blumenfeld says that Christianity enjoys dominant group privilege in the US and some other Western societies.[356] Christianity is, numerically, the largest religion in the U.S. according to PEW, with 43% of Americans identifying themselves as Protestants and one in five (20%) of Americans identifying themselves as Catholics.[357] It remains the largest religion in the world.[358] Roughly two-thirds of the world's countries have Christian majorities.[359] Due to the large number of Christian majority countries, differing groups of Christians are harassed and persecuted in Christian countries such as Eritrea[360] and Mexico[361] more often than in most Muslim countries, though not in greater numbers.[359]

According to PEW, the Middle East and North Africa have experienced the highest rates of restrictions on non-favorite religions for the last decade, being higher than any other region, each year, from 2007 to 2017.[362] But it's the gap between this region and other regions where government favoritism is concerned that is particularly large: "the average country in this region scores nearly twice as high on measures of government favoritism of one religion as the average country in any other region".[362]

The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, a bipartisan independent federal agency which was created by the United States Congress in 1998, published a study of the predominantly Muslim countries which are located in the Middle Eastern/North African region. It concludes that, of the world's 1.3 billion Muslims, "28 percent live in ten countries that declare themselves to be Islamic states. In addition, there are 12 predominantly Muslim countries that have chosen to declare that Islam is the official state religion ... Taken together, the 22 states that declare that Islam is the official religion account for 58 percent – or just over 600 million – of the 1 billion Muslims living in 44 predominantly Muslim countries.[363]: 6 

"Several countries with constitutions establishing Islam as the state religion either do not contain guarantees of the right to freedom of religion or belief, or they contain guarantees that, on their face, do not compare favorably with all aspects of international [human rights] standards."[363]: 16  All of these countries defer to religious authorities or doctrines on legal issues in some way.[362] For example, "when one spouse is Muslim and the other has a different religion (such as Coptic Christianity), or if spouses are members of different Christian denominations, courts still defer to Islamic family law."[362] Grim and Finke say their studies indicate that: "When religious freedoms are denied through the regulation of religious profession or practice, violent religious persecution and conflict increase."[364]: 6 

In its annual report, the USCIRF lists 14 "Countries of Particular Concern" with regard to religious rights and it also lists 15 additional countries which it has recommended be placed on the U.S. Department of State's Special Watch List (SWL), a lesser category than the CPC designation.[11] Of these 29 countries, 17 of them are predominantly Muslim countries, mostly located in the Middle East and North Africa, representing less than half of the 44 predominantly Muslim countries in the world, the rest of which are either secular or have not declared any state religion. Of the remaining countries, two of them have populations which are almost equally Christian and Muslim, both of them have official state versions of Christianity and Islam, four other countries are predominantly Christian countries where adherents of non-official or non-favored varieties of Christianity and adherents of other religions are persecuted, one country is predominantly Buddhist, and one country is predominantly Hindu. Eight of these countries are either current or former communist states such as China, Cuba, Russia and Vietnam. Twenty four of the USCIRF's twenty nine countries are also included on Open Doors Worldwide Watch list because they are especially dangerous for Christians.[365]

Eleven predominantly Muslim countries are ruled by governments which proclaim that their states are secular. "These countries account for nearly 140 million Muslims, or 13.5 percent of the 1 billion Muslims living in predominantly Muslim countries. The 11 remaining predominantly Muslim countries have not made any constitutional declaration concerning the Islamic or secular nature of the state, and have not made Islam the official state religion. This group of countries, which includes Indonesia, the world's largest Muslim country, accounts for over 250 million Muslims".[363]: 6  This demonstrates that the majority of the world's Muslim population live in countries that either proclaim the state to be secular, or that make no pronouncements concerning Islam as the official state religion.[363]: 2 

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Augustine, Civitate dei, XVIII.50: Latin: Proinde ne illud quidem temere puto esse dicendum siue credendum, quod nonnullis uisum est uel uidetur, non-amplius ecclesiam passuram persecutiones usque ad tempus Antichristi, quam quot iam passa est, id est decem, ut undecima eademque nouissima sit ab Antichristo. Primam quippe computant a Nerone quae facta est, secundam a Domitiano, a Traiano tertiam, quartam ab Antonino, a Seuero quintam, sextam a Maximino, a Decio septimam, octauam a Valeriano, ab Aureliano nonam, decimam a Diocletiano et Maximiano. Plagas enim Aegyptiorum, quoniam decem fuerunt, antequam exire inde inciperet populus Dei, putant ad hunc intellectum esse referendas, ut nouissima Antichristi persecutio similis uideatur undecimae plagae, qua Aegyptii, dum hostiliter sequerentur Hebraeos, in mari Rubro populo Dei per siccum transeunte perierunt.
  2. ^ (Koinē Greek: πρὸ δὲ τούτων πάντων ἐπιβαλοῦσιν ἐφ’ ὑμᾶς τὰς χεῖρας αὐτῶν καὶ διώξουσιν, παραδιδόντες εἰς τὰς συναγωγὰς καὶ φυλακάς, ἀπαγομένους ἐπὶ βασιλεῖς καὶ ἡγεμόνας ἕνεκεν τοῦ ὀνόματός μου·)
  3. ^ PEW measured government restrictions and social hostilities: laws and policies restricting religious freedom (such as requiring religious groups to register in order to operate) and government favoritism of religious groups (through the funding of religious education, property and clergy, for example); government limits on religious activities and government harassment of religious groups. One category of social hostilities has substantially increased – hostilities which are related to religious norms (for example, the harassment of women for violating religious dress codes). Two other types of social hostility, harassment by individuals and social groups (ranging from small gangs to mob violence) and religious violence by organized groups (including neo-Nazi groups such as the Nordic Resistance Movement and Islamist groups like Boko Haram), have risen more modestly. A fourth category of social hostility is interreligious tension and violence (for instance, sectarian or communal clashes between Hindus and Muslims in India).
  1. ^ French archaeology has shown the north African landscape of this time period became "covered with a white robe of churches" with Catholics and Donatists building multiple churches with granaries to feed the poor as they competed for the loyalty of the people.[61]

References

  1. ^ Bulut, Uzay (30 August 2024). "Turkey: Ongoing Violations against Greek Christians". The European Conservative. Budapest, Brussels, Rome, Vienna: Center for European Renewal. ISSN 2590-2008. Archived from the original on 30 August 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
  2. ^ a b Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (4 November 2021). "Then Came the Chance the Turks Have Been Waiting For: To Get Rid of Christians Once and for All". Haaretz. Tel Aviv. Archived from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 5 November 2021.
  3. ^ Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-0-674-24008-7.
  4. ^ Gutman, David (2019). "The thirty year genocide: Turkey's destruction of its Christian minorities, 1894–1924". Turkish Studies. 21 (1). London and New York: Routledge on behalf of the Global Research in International Affairs Center: 1–3. doi:10.1080/14683849.2019.1644170. eISSN 1743-9663. ISSN 1468-3849. S2CID 201424062.
  5. ^ Smith, Roger W. (Spring 2015). "Introduction: The Ottoman Genocides of Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks". Genocide Studies International. 9 (1). Toronto: University of Toronto Press: 1–9. doi:10.3138/GSI.9.1.01. ISSN 2291-1855. JSTOR 26986011. S2CID 154145301.
  6. ^ Roshwald, Aviel (2013). "Part II. The Emergence of Nationalism: Politics and Power – Nationalism in the Middle East, 1876–1945". In Breuilly, John (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 220–241. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199209194.013.0011. ISBN 9780191750304.
  7. ^ Üngör, Uğur Ümit (June 2008). "Seeing like a nation-state: Young Turk social engineering in Eastern Turkey, 1913–50". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1). London and New York: Routledge: 15–39. doi:10.1080/14623520701850278. ISSN 1469-9494. OCLC 260038904. S2CID 71551858.
  8. ^ İçduygu, Ahmet; Toktaş, Şule; Ali Soner, B. (February 2008). "The politics of population in a nation-building process: Emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 31 (2). London and New York: Routledge: 358–389. doi:10.1080/01419870701491937. ISSN 1466-4356. OCLC 40348219. S2CID 143541451. Archived from the original on 25 March 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2020 – via Academia.edu.
  9. ^ [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]
  10. ^ PEW (19 December 2011). "Living as Majorities and Minorities". Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population. Pew Research Center Religion and Public Life. p. 3. Retrieved 2 April 2021. If all these Christians were in a single country, it would have the second-largest Christian population in the world, after the United States.
  11. ^ a b c d "Annual Report 2020" (PDF). United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. pp. 1, 11.
  12. ^ a b c d Wand 1990, p. 13.
  13. ^ Burke, John J. (1993) [1899]. Characteristics of the Early Church. M.H. Wiltzius. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-4086-5991-5.
  14. ^ Lim, Kar Yong (2009). The Sufferings of Christ Are Abundant In Us': A Narrative Dynamics Investigation of Paul's Sufferings in 2 Corinthians. A&C Black. pp. 214–227. ISBN 9780567635143.
  15. ^ Setzer, Claudia (1994). Jewish Responses to Early Christians: History and Polemics, 30–150 C.E. Minneapolis: Fortress.
  16. ^ Lieu, Judith (2003). "The Synagogue and the Separation of the Christians" (PDF). Coniectanea Biblica. New Testament series 39: 189–207.
  17. ^ Schäfer, Peter (2014). The Jewish Jesus: How Judaism and Christianity Shaped Each Other (illustrated, reprint ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780691160955.
  18. ^ von Harnack, Adolf (1908). Moffatt, James (ed.). The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries (2 ed.). Williams and Norgate. pp. 103–104.
  19. ^ a b Katz, Steven T. (1984). "Issues in the Separation of Judaism and Christianity after 70 C.E.: A Reconsideration". Journal of Biblical Literature. 103 (1): 43–44. doi:10.2307/3260313. JSTOR 3260313.
  20. ^ Shaw, Brent (14 August 2015). "The Myth of the Neronian Persecution". The Journal of Roman Studies. 105: 73–100. doi:10.1017/S0075435815000982. S2CID 162564651.
  21. ^ a b Carrier, Richard (2 July 2014). "The prospect of a Christian interpolation in Tacitus, Annals 15.44". Vigiliae Christianae. 68 (3). Brill Academic Publishers: 264–283. doi:10.1163/15700720-12341171.
  22. ^ Ben Witherington III, Revelation, Cambridge 2003, p177
  23. ^ Tertullian, Adversus Gnosticos Scorpiace, Book 15, Chapters 2-5
  24. ^ Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum, Book 2, Chapters 4-6
  25. ^ Sulpicius Severus, Chronicorum, Book 3, Chapter 29.
  26. ^ Orosius, Historiarum, Book 7, Chapters 7-10
  27. ^ Stark, Rodney (1997). The Rise of Christianity How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement Became the Dominant Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries. HarperCollins. p. 7. ISBN 9780060677015.
  28. ^ Guy, Laurie (28 October 2011). Introducing Early Christianity: A Topical Survey of Its Life, Beliefs Practices. InterVarsity Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-8308-3942-1.
  29. ^ Green, Bernard (2010). Christianity in Ancient Rome The First Three Centuries. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 120. ISBN 9780567032508.
  30. ^ González 2010, p. 97.
  31. ^ Papandrea, James L. (2011). The Wedding of the Lamb A Historical Approach to the Book of Revelation. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 38. ISBN 9781498273428.
  32. ^ a b c Scarre 1995, p. 170
  33. ^ "IRENAEUS – The mass slaughter of Lyon's Christians". Christian History Project.
  34. ^ Christopher Reyes (2010). In His Name. California: AuthorHouse. p.33
  35. ^ Eusebius. "Church History". Book 6, Chapter 28. New Advent. Retrieved 25 April 2014.
  36. ^ Papandrea, James L. (23 January 2012). Reading the Early Church Fathers: From the Didache to Nicaea. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0809147519.
  37. ^ Graeme Clark (2005). "Third-Century Christianity". In Alan K. Bowman; Peter Garnsey; Averil Cameron (eds.). Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 12: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–337 (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 623.
  38. ^ Justin, I Apology 31, 6; Eusebius, Chronicle, seventeenth year of the Emperor Hadrian. See: Bourgel, Jonathan, ″The Jewish-Christians in the storm of the Bar Kokhba Revolt″, in: From One Identity to Another: The Mother Church of Jerusalem Between the Two Jewish Revolts Against Rome (66-135/6 EC). Paris: Éditions du Cerf, collection Judaïsme ancien et Christianisme primitif, (French), pp. 127–175.
  39. ^ Ide, Arthur Frederick; Smith, John Paul (1985). Martyrdom of Women: A Study of Death Psychology in the Early Christian Church to 301 CE. Garland: Tangelwuld. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-930383-49-7. apud deMause, Lloyd (2002). "Ch. 9. The Evolution of Psyche and Society. Part III.". The Emotional Life of Nations. New York: Karnac. ISBN 1-892746-98-0. Both Christians and Jews "engaged in a contest and reflection about the new-fangled practice of martyrdom,"191 even unto suicide...and Augustine spoke of "the mania for self-destruction" of early Christians.192 But the Christians, following Tertullian's dicta that "martyrdom is required by God," forced their own martyrdom so they could die in an ecstatic trance: "Although their tortures were gruesome, the martyrs did not suffer, enjoying their analgesic state."195
    192. Arthur J. Droge and James D. Tabor, A Noble Death: Suicide and Martyrdom Among Christians and Jews in Antiquity. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1992, p. 5.
    193. Arthur F. Ide, Martyrdom of Women: A Study of Death Psychology in the Early Christian Church to 301 CE. Garland: Tangelwuld, 1985, p. 21.
    194. Ibid., p. 136.
    195. Ibid., pp. 146, 138.
  40. ^ Boyarin, Daniel. Dying for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 40.
  41. ^ Droge, Arthur J.; Tabor, James D. (November 1992). A Noble Death: Suicide and Martyrdom Among Christians and Jews in Antiquity. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-06-062095-0. Misquoted as Groge and Tabor (1992:136) by C. Douzinas in Closs Stephens, Angharad; Vaughan-Williams, Nick; Douzinas, C. (2009). Terrorism and the Politics of Response. Oxon and New York: Routledge. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-415-45506-0.
  42. ^ a b c d e f Moss, Candida R. (2012). Ancient Christian Martyrdom Diverse Practices, Theologies, and Traditions. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300154658.
  43. ^ Moss, Candida R. "The Discourse of Voluntary Martyrdom: Ancient and Modern.” Church History, vol. 81, no. 3, 2012, pp. 531–551., www.jstor.org/stable/23252340. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
  44. ^ Boyarin, Daniel (1999). Dying for God Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism. Stanford University Press. p. 121. ISBN 9780804737043.
  45. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab Nicholson, Oliver (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Christians, persecution of", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity (online ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 7 October 2020
  46. ^ Shaw, Brent D. (2011). Sacred Violence: African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine. Cambridge University Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-521-19605-5.
  47. ^ Howells, Kristina (2008). Making Sense of Bible Prophecy. Lulu. p. 91. ISBN 978-1409207832.
  48. ^ W. H. C. Frend (1984). The Rise of Christianity. Fortress Press, Philadelphia. p. 319. ISBN 978-0-8006-1931-2.
  49. ^ Brown, Peter. "Christianization and religious conflict". The Cambridge Ancient History 13 (1998): 337–425.
  50. ^ a b c Shaw, Brent D. (2011). Sacred Violence: African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine. Cambridge University Press. pp. 598–599. ISBN 978-0-521-19605-5.
  51. ^ MacMullen, Ramsay (1997) Christianity & Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Yale University Press, p.4 quote: "non Christian writings came in for this same treatment, that is destruction in great bonfires at the center of the town square. Copyists were discouraged from replacing them by the threat of having their hands cut off
  52. ^ a b c d Leithart, Peter J. (2010). Defending Constantine The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830827220.
  53. ^ a b c d e Tilley, Maureen A., ed. (1996). Donatist Martyr Stories The Church in Conflict in Roman North Africa. Liverpool University Press. pp. ix, xiv. ISBN 9780853239314.
  54. ^ a b c Shean, John F. (2010). Soldiering for God Christianity and the Roman Army. Brill. ISBN 9789004187337.
  55. ^ Cairns, Earle E. (1996). "Chapter 7:Christ or Caesar". Christianity Through the Centuries: A History of the Christian Church (Third ed.). Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. ISBN 978-0-310-20812-9.
  56. ^ Olson, Roger E. (1999). The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition and Reform. Downer's Grove, In.: InterVarsity Press. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-8308-1505-0.
  57. ^ a b c d e f g Shaw, Brent D. (2011). Sacred Violence: African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine. Cambridge University Press. pp. 458–460. ISBN 978-0-521-19605-5.
  58. ^ Shaw, Brent D. (2011). Sacred Violence: African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine. Cambridge University Press. pp. 460–466. ISBN 978-0-521-19605-5.
  59. ^ Peter Heather & John Matthews, Goths in the Fourth Century, pp. 96ff
  60. ^ MacMullen, Ramsay (2019). Changes in the Roman Empire: Essays in the Ordinary. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691655246.
  61. ^ a b c d e Brown, P. (1964). "St. Augustine's Attitude to Religious Coercion". Journal of Roman Studies. 54 (1–2): 107–116. doi:10.2307/298656. JSTOR 298656. S2CID 162757247.
  62. ^ Frend, W.H.C. (2020). The Donatist Church. Wipf and Stock. ISBN 9781532697555.
  63. ^ a b R. A. Markus, Saeculum: History and Society in the Theology of St.Augustine (Cambridge, 1970), pp. 149–153
  64. ^ a b c Russell, Frederick H. (1999). "Persuading the Donatists: Augustine's Coercion by Words". The Limits of Ancient Christianity: Essays on Late Antique Thought and Culture in Honor of R.A. Markus. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-10997-9.
  65. ^ Pollmann, Karla (2005). "Poetische Paraphrasen der Actio Acaunensium Martyrum des Eucherius von Lyon". In Wermelinger, Otto; Bruggisser, Philippe; Näf, Beat; Roessli, Jean-Michel (eds.). Mauritius und die Thebäische Legion: Akten des internationalen Kolloquiums: Freiburg, Saint-Maurice, Martigny, 17.-20. September 2003 [Mauritius and the Thebaic Legion: files of the international colloquium: Freiburg, Saint-Maurice, Martigny, 17–20 September 2003]. Academic Press Fribourg. pp. 227–254. ISBN 3-7278-1527-2. OCLC 62901044.
  66. ^ Marcos, Mar. "The Debate on Religious Coercion in Ancient Christianity." Chaos e Kosmos 14 (2013): 1–16.
  67. ^ Herbermann, Charles George, ed. (1912). "Toleration, History of". The Catholic Encyclopedia An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church. University of Michigan. pp. 761–772.
  68. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be Kazhdan, Alexander P.; Talbot, Alice-Mary, eds. (1998). "Dumbarton Oaks Hagiography Database" (PDF). doaks.org. Dumbarton Oaks: Harvard University. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
  69. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Skjærvø, Oktor (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Christians, persecution of, Persian Empire", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 7 October 2020
  70. ^ Bowman, Alan; Peter Garnsey; Averil Cameron, eds. (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337. Cambridge University Press. p. 474. ISBN 9780521301992.
  71. ^ a b Joel Thomas Walker (2006). The Legend of Mar Qardagh: Narrative and Christian Heroism in Late Antique Iraq. University of California Press. p. 111. ISBN 9780520932197.
  72. ^ Ehsan Yarshater (1983). The Cambridge History of Iran: Seleucid Parthian. Cambridge University Press. p. 929. ISBN 9780521246934.
  73. ^ Sebastian P. Brock, Fire from Heaven: Studies in Syriac Theology and Liturgy, (Ashgate, 2006), 72.
  74. ^ D. T. Potts, The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State, (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 422.
  75. ^ Jacob Neusner (1997). History of the Jews in Babylonia. Brill. pp. 24, 25. ISBN 9004021469.
  76. ^ Mehrdad Kia (2016). The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 280. ISBN 9781610693912.
  77. ^ Jacob Neusner (1965). A History of the Jews in Babylonia, Part V: Later Sasanian Times. Brill. p. 44.
  78. ^ Krzysztof Stopka (2016). Armenia Christiana: Armenian Religious Identity and the Churches of Constantinople and Rome (4th–15th Century). Wydawnictwo UJ. p. 61. ISBN 9788323395553.
  79. ^ Elton L. Daniel (2012). The History of Iran. ABC-CLIO. p. 59. ISBN 9780313375095.
  80. ^ Richard E. Payne (2015). A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture in Late Antiquity. University of California Press. pp. 49, 55–56. ISBN 9780520961531.
  81. ^ Philip Wood (2013). History and Identity in the Late Antique Near East. Oxford University Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 9780199915408.
  82. ^ Joel Thomas Walker (2006). The Legend of Mar Qardagh: Narrative and Christian Heroism in Late Antique Iraq. University of California Press. p. 112. ISBN 9780520245785.
  83. ^ a b Abrahamson; Katz; et al. (2004). "The Persian conquest of Jerusalem in 614 compared with Islamic conquest of 638" (PDF). alsadiqin.org.
  84. ^ R. W. Thomson (1999). The Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos. Historical commentary by James Howard-Johnston. Assistance from Tim Greenwood. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 9780853235644.
  85. ^ a b c Gideon Avi (2010). "The Persian Conquest of Jerusalem (614 CE) ––An Archaeological Assessment". The Bible and Interpretation. University of Arizona.
  86. ^ Edward Lipiński (2004). Itineraria Phoenicia. Peeters Publishers. pp. 542–543. ISBN 9789042913448.
  87. ^ Kohen, Elli (2007). History of the Byzantine Jews: A Microcosmos in the Thousand Year Empire. University Press of America. p. 36. ISBN 978-0761836230.
  88. ^ Conybeare, F. C. (1910). "Antiochus Strategos, The Capture of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614 AD". English Historical Review. 25: 502–517. doi:10.1093/ehr/xxv.xcix.502.
  89. ^ "Human Skeletal Remains from the Mamilla cave, Jerusalem". Yossi Nagar. Retrieved 8 January 2014.
  90. ^ Mordechai Aviam (2004). Jews, Pagans and Christians in the Galilee: 25 Years of Archaeological Excavations and Surveys : Hellenistic to Byzantine Periods. Harvard University Press. p. 239. ISBN 9781580461719.
  91. ^ "Historians back BBC over Jewish massacre claim". The Jewish Chronicle. Archived from the original on 5 April 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
  92. ^ Jacques Ryckmans, La persécution des chrétiens himyarites au sixième siècle Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Inst. in het Nabije Oosten, 1956 pp. 1–24
  93. ^ Bowesock, Glen (2013). The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0199739325.
  94. ^ a b c d e Stillman, Norman A. (1998) [1979]. "Under the New Order". The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society. pp. 22–28. ISBN 978-0-8276-0198-7.
  95. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Runciman, Steven (1987) [1951]. "The Reign of Antichrist". A History of the Crusades, Volume 1: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–37. ISBN 978-0-521-34770-9.
  96. ^ a b c d e Sahner, Christian C. (2020) [2018]. "Introduction: Christian Martyrs under Islam". Christian Martyrs under Islam: Religious Violence and the Making of the Muslim World. Princeton, New Jersey and Woodstock, Oxfordshire: Princeton University Press. pp. 1–28. ISBN 978-0-691-17910-0. LCCN 2017956010.
  97. ^ a b c d e f Fierro, Maribel (January 2008). "Decapitation of Christians and Muslims in the Medieval Iberian Peninsula: Narratives, Images, Contemporary Perceptions". Comparative Literature Studies. 45 (2: Al-Andalus and Its Legacies). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Penn State University Press: 137–164. doi:10.2307/complitstudies.45.2.0137. ISSN 1528-4212. JSTOR 25659647. S2CID 161217907.
  98. ^ a b c d e Trombley, Frank R. (Winter 1996). "The Martyrs of Córdoba: Community and Family Conflict in an Age of Mass Conversion (review)". Journal of Early Christian Studies. 4 (4). Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press: 581–582. doi:10.1353/earl.1996.0079. ISSN 1086-3184. S2CID 170001371.
  99. ^ Pipes, Daniel (1981). Slave Soldiers and Islam: The Genesis of a Military System. Daniel Pipes. pp. 142–43. ISBN 9780300024470.
  100. ^ Kennedy, Hugh (2007). The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In. Da Capo Press. p. 206. ISBN 9780306815850.
  101. ^ The History of the Conquest of Egypt, North Africa and Spain: Known as the Futuh. Cosimo. January 2010. p. 170. ISBN 9781616404352.
  102. ^ Barbarians, Marauders, And Infidels. Basic Books. 26 May 2004. p. 144. ISBN 9780813391533.
  103. ^ Ibn Abd-el-Hakem's History of the conquest of Spain, ed. [with text and] tr. by J.H. Jones. 1858. p. 205.
  104. ^ The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise. Open Road Media. 9 February 2016. p. 12. ISBN 9781504034692.
  105. ^ Elmali-Karakaya, Ayse (2020). "Being Married to a Non-Muslim Husband: Religious Identity in Muslim Women's Interfaith Marriages". In Hood, Ralph W.; Cheruvallil-Contractor, Sariya (eds.). Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion: A Diversity of Paradigms. Vol. 31. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 388–410. doi:10.1163/9789004443969_020. ISBN 978-90-04-44348-8. ISSN 1046-8064. S2CID 234539750.
  106. ^ Leeman, A. B. (Spring 2009). "Interfaith Marriage in Islam: An Examination of the Legal Theory Behind the Traditional and Reformist Positions" (PDF). Indiana Law Journal. 84 (2). Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Maurer School of Law: 743–772. ISSN 0019-6665. S2CID 52224503. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2018. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  107. ^ "The Pact of Umar". Christian History. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
  108. ^ The Disappearance of Christianity from North Africa in the Wake of the Rise of Islam C. J. Speel, II Church History, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Dec. 1960), pp. 379–397
  109. ^ Graves, Coburn V. (November 1964). "The Martyrs of Cordoba, 850–859. A Study of the Sources (review)". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 44 (4). Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press on behalf of the Conference on Latin American History: 644. doi:10.1215/00182168-44.4.644. ISSN 1527-1900. S2CID 227325750.
  110. ^ Nau, François (13 November 2013). Le'Expansion Nestorienne en Asie. Gorgias Press, LLC. pp. 106–13. ISBN 9781611438321.
  111. ^ Gil, Moshe (27 February 1997). A History of Palestine, 634-1099. Cambridge University Press. p. 473. ISBN 9780521599849.
  112. ^ Ladjal, Tarek (2017). "The Christian presence in North Africa under Almoravids Rule (1040–1147 CE): Coexistence or eradication?". Cogent Arts & Humanities. 4. doi:10.1080/23311983.2017.1334374. S2CID 159473596.
  113. ^ a b The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise: Muslims, Christians, and Jews Under Islamic Rule in Medieval Spain. ISI Books. 2016. ISBN 9781610170956.
  114. ^ Historia de los mozárabes de España: Bajo el gobierno de los virreyes (Años 711 a 756). Ediciones Turner. 1983. ISBN 9788475060859.
  115. ^ Reinhart Dozy (12 January 2017). Spanish Islam: A History of the Moslems in Spain. Routledge. ISBN 9781315304694.
  116. ^ Lewis, Bernard (1987). Islam from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople, Volume 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 158–65. ISBN 978-0-19-505088-2.
  117. ^ a b c d Prieto Dominguez, Oscar (2019). "The iconoclast saint: Emperor Theophilos in Byzantine hagiography". In Tougher, Shaun (ed.). The Emperor in the Byzantine World: Papers from the Forty-Seventh Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies. London: Routledge. pp. 216–234. doi:10.4324/9780429060984. ISBN 978-0-429-06098-4. S2CID 194332235.
  118. ^ Maqrīzī, Aḥmad ibn ʻalī (1873). A Short History of the Copts and Their Church. p. 86.
  119. ^ Wood, Philip (20 April 2021). The Imam of the Christians: The World of Dionysius of Tel-Mahre, C. 750–850. Princeton University Press. p. 169. ISBN 9780691219950.
  120. ^ a b Runciman, Steven (1999) [1951]. A History of the Crusades: Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-521-34770-9.
  121. ^ Baldwin, Marshall W. (1969) [1955]. Setton, Kenneth Meyer (ed.). A History of the Crusades, Volume 1: the First Hundred Years (2nd ed.). University of Wisconsin Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-299-04834-1.
  122. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Runciman, Steven (1999) [1951]. A History of the Crusades: Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–36. ISBN 978-0-521-34770-9.
  123. ^ a b c d e f g Holt, Andrew (2019). ""Defensive wars," crusades as". The World of the Crusades: A Daily Life Encyclopedia: Volume 2. ABC-CLIO. pp. 444–446. ISBN 978-1-4408-5462-0.
  124. ^ Hillenbrand, Carole (21 November 2007). Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The battle of Mazikert. p. 244. ISBN 9780748631155.
  125. ^ Nicolle, David (20 August 2013). Manzikert 1071: The Breaking of Byzantium. Bloomsbury. p. 92. ISBN 9781780965055.
  126. ^ Vryonis, Speros (26 March 1975). "Nomadization and Islamization in Asia Minor". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 29: 50. doi:10.2307/1291369. JSTOR 1291369.
  127. ^ Vryonis, Speros (2008). The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh Through the Fifteenth Century. American Council of Learned Societies. ISBN 9781597404761.
  128. ^ Miszczak, Izabela (2020). The Secrets of Ephesus. ASLAN Publishing House. ISBN 9788395654039.
  129. ^ Miszczak, Izabela (2016). Around Ephesus and Kuşadası. ASLAN Publishing House. ISBN 9788394426903.
  130. ^ Fuller, J. F. C. (22 August 1987). A Military History of the Western World: From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Lepanto. Hachette Books. p. 404. ISBN 9780306803048.
  131. ^ Laurent, Joseph (1913). Byzance et les Turcs Seldjoucides dans l'Asie occidentale jusqu'en 1081. pp. 106–109.
  132. ^ Vryonis, Speros (1971). The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century. University of California Press. pp. 194–95. ISBN 9780520015975.
  133. ^ Frankopan, Peter (2013). The First Crusade: The Call from the East. Vintage. pp. 59–60. ISBN 9780099555032.
  134. ^ Frankopan, Peter (2013). The First Crusade: The Call from the East. Vintage. p. 61. ISBN 9780099555032.
  135. ^ Ellenblum, Ronnie (2 August 2012). The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East, 950-1072. Cambridge University Press. p. 245. ISBN 9781139560986.
  136. ^ Der Islam: Zeitschrift für geschichte und Kultur des islamischen Orients, Volume 83, Issues 1-2. 2006. p. 101.
  137. ^ Rubenstein, Jay Carter (26 December 2014). The First Crusade: A Brief History with Documents. Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 56. ISBN 9781457629105.
  138. ^ A History of the Crusades. Cambridge University Press. 3 December 1987. p. 1:79. ISBN 978-0-521-34770-9.
  139. ^ A History of the Crusades. Vol. 1. The First Hundred Years. Univ of Wisconsin Press. 1969. pp. 68–78. ISBN 978-0-299-04834-1.
  140. ^ The First Crusaders, 1095-1131. Cambridge University Press. 1997. p. 37-38. ISBN 978-0-521-64603-1.
  141. ^ a b c d e f g h Runciman, Steven (1965). The Fall of Constantinople 1453. Cambridge University Press. pp. 145–148. ISBN 978-0-521-39832-9.
  142. ^ a b c d e f g Holt, Andrew (2013). "Crusading against Barbarians: Muslims as Barbarians in Crusades Era Sources". East Meets West in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times: Transcultural Experiences in the Premodern World. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 443–456. doi:10.1515/9783110321517.443. ISBN 978-3-11-032151-7.
  143. ^ a b c d e f g h i Ní Chléirigh, Léan (2010). "The Impact of the First Crusade on Western Opinion Toward the Byzantine Empire: The Gesta Dei per Francos of Guibert of Nogent and the Historia Hierosolymitana of Fulcher of Chartres". In Kostick, Conor (ed.). The Crusades and the Near East: Cultural Histories. Abingdon: Routledge. pp. 161–188. ISBN 9781136902475.
  144. ^ a b c Angold, Michael (2016). "The fall of Jerusalem (1187) as viewed from Byzantium". In Boas, Adrian (ed.). The Crusader World. Routledge Worlds. Oxford and New York: Routledge. pp. 289–308. doi:10.4324/9781315684154. ISBN 978-1-315-68415-4.
  145. ^ Darius von Güttner-Sporzyński (2017). "chapter 6". In Cassidy-Welch, Megan (ed.). Remembering the Crusades and Crusading. Routledge. ISBN 9781138811140.
  146. ^ a b c d Giles Constable (2001). "The Historiography of the crusades". In Laiou, Angeliki E.; Mottahedeh, Roy P. (eds.). The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World. Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 9780884022770.
  147. ^ The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. Oxford University Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-19-285428-5.
  148. ^ "Andrew R Murphy". academia.edu. Virginia Commonwealth University, Political Science, Faculty Member Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Political Science, Faculty Member
  149. ^ a b Murphy, Andrew R. (1997). "Tolerance, Toleration, and the Liberal Tradition". Polity. 29 (4). The University of Chicago Press Journals: 593–623. doi:10.2307/3235269. JSTOR 3235269. S2CID 155764374.
  150. ^ Engh, Mary Jane (2010). In the Name of Heaven 3000 Years of Religious Persecution. Prometheus. p. 8. ISBN 9781615925490.
  151. ^ a b Tyerman, Christopher (2005). The Crusades: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-19-157811-3.
  152. ^ a b Nicholson, Helen J. (2004). The Crusades. Westport, CN and London: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 53–76. ISBN 978-0-313-32685-1.
  153. ^ Kienzle, Beverly Mayne (2001). Cistercians, Heresy, and Crusade in Occitania, 1145–1229: Preaching in the Lord's Vineyard. U.K.: Boydell Press. ISBN 9781903153000.
  154. ^ a b Rummel, Rudolph (1994), Death by Government
  155. ^ a b c d Marvin, Laurence W.. The Occitan War: A Military and Political History of the Albigensian Crusade, 1209–1218. N.p., Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  156. ^ Graham-Leigh, Elaine (2005). The Southern French Nobility and the Albigensian Crusade. Rochester, NY: The Boydell Press. ISBN 1-84383-129-5.
  157. ^ Jones, Chris (1 March 2009). "09.03.20, Marvin, The Occitan War". The Medieval Review. Indiana University: no page #s available. ISSN 1096-746X. baj9928.0903.020.
  158. ^ Dragnea, Mihai (2020). The Wendish Crusade, 1147: The Development of Crusading Ideology in the Twelfth Century. NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-36696-4.
  159. ^ a b c d Fonnesberg-Schmidt, Iben (2007). The popes and the Baltic crusades, 1147–1254. Brill. ISBN 9789004155022.
  160. ^ Haverkamp, Alfred. Medieval Germany: 1056–1273. Trans. Helga Braun and Richard Mortimer. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988. p.g. 157–158
  161. ^ "The Laws of Chingiz Khân". The Chronography of Bar Hebraeus. Gorgias Press. 2003. pp. 354–355. doi:10.31826/9781463209179-020. ISBN 9781463209179.
  162. ^ Browne, Laurence E. (September 1967). The Eclipse of Chrostianity in Asia. p. 163.
  163. ^ Christian Van Gorder, A. (2010). Christianity in Persia and the Status of Non-Muslims in Modern Iran. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 82. ISBN 9780739136096.
  164. ^ a b Stark, Rodney (25 October 2011). The Triumph of Christianity: How the Jesus Movement Became the World's Largest Religion. Harper Collins. p. 210. ISBN 9780062098702.
  165. ^ Browne, Laurence E. (September 1967). The Eclipse of Chrostianity in Asia. p. 167.
  166. ^ Masters, Bruce (25 March 2004). Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World: The Roots of Sectarianism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–47. ISBN 9780521005821.
  167. ^ a b c Roy T. Matthews; F. DeWitt Platt (1992). The Western Humanities. Mountain View, California: MayfieldPublishing. ISBN 0-87484-785-0.
  168. ^ Crompton, James. "Leicestershire Lollards" (PDF).
  169. ^ Kuhns, Oscar, and Dickie, Robert. Jan Hus: Reformation in Bohemia. United Kingdom, Reformation Press, 2017.
  170. ^ Wakefield, Walter; Evans, Austin, eds. (1991). Heresies of The High Middle Ages. Columbia. ISBN 9780231096324.
  171. ^ Chamberlin, Eric Russell. The bad Popes. United States, Dorset Press, 1986.
  172. ^ Burr, David. The Spiritual Franciscans: From Protest to Persecution in the Century After Saint Francis. United States, Penn State University Press, 2001.
  173. ^ Madden, Thomas F. (2005). The New Concise History of the Crusades. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 181–182. ISBN 9780742538221.
  174. ^ Khanbaghi, Aptin (2006). The fire, the star and the cross: minority religions in medieval and early modern Iran. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9781845110567.
  175. ^ "Nestorianism | Definition, History, & Churches | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2 June 2023.
  176. ^ Luke 21:12
  177. ^ Ye Xiaowen (19 February 2001). "China's Religions Retrospect and Prospect". Hong Kong: China Internet Information Center. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
  178. ^ Hsia, R. Po-Chia (14 May 2018). "Christianity and Empire: The Catholic Mission in Late Imperial China". Studies in Church History. 54: 208–224. doi:10.1017/stc.2018.1. S2CID 165314911.Retrieved 2023-02-14.
  179. ^ Victor Purcell (2010). The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study. Cambridge University Press. p. 125. ISBN 9780521148122.
  180. ^ Diana Preston (2000). The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic Story of China's War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900. Walker. p. 25. ISBN 9780802713612.
  181. ^ R. G. Tiedemann (2009). Reference Guide to Christian Missionary Societies in China: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century. M.E. Sharpe. p. 125. ISBN 9780765640017.
  182. ^ Brandt, Nat (1994). Massacre in Shansi. Syracuse University Press. p. xiii. ISBN 978-0-8156-0282-8.
  183. ^ Thompson, Larry Clinton (2009). William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the "Ideal Missionary". Jefferson, NC: McFarland. p. 184. ISBN 9780786453382.
  184. ^ Stephen G. Haw (2003). A traveller's history of China. Interlink Books. p. 172. ISBN 1-56656-486-7.
  185. ^ Henry McAleavy (1967). The modern history of China. Praeger. p. 165. ISBN 9780297176619.
  186. ^ Sterling Making of America Project (1914). The Atlantic monthly, Volume 113 By Making of America Project. Atlantic Monthly Co. p. 80.
  187. ^ Jonathan Fenby (2005). Chiang Kai Shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost. Carroll & Graf Publishers. p. 126. ISBN 0-7867-1484-0.
  188. ^ Diana Lary (1974). Region and nation: the Kwangsi clique in Chinese politics, 1925–1937. Cambridge University Press. p. 99. ISBN 0-521-20204-3.
  189. ^ Missionary Review of the World; 1878-1939. Princeton Press. 1939. p. 130. vol.62.
  190. ^ Claydon, David (2005). A New Vision, a New Heart, a Renewed Call. William Carey Library. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-87808-363-3.
  191. ^ Uhalley, Stephen; Wu, Xiaoxin (2015). China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. Routledge. p. 274. ISBN 978-1-317-47501-9.
  192. ^ Forbes, Andrew D. W. (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949. Cambridge University Press. pp. 84, 87. ISBN 978-0-521-25514-1.
  193. ^ Latreille, A. FRENCH REVOLUTION, New Catholic Encyclopedia v. 5, pp. 972–973 (Second Ed. 2002 Thompson/Gale) ISBN 0-7876-4004-2
  194. ^ Spielvogel, Jackson Western Civilization: Combined Volume p. 549, 2005 Thomson Wadsworth
  195. ^ a b c d e f Tallett, Frank (1991). "Dechristianizing France: The year II and the revolutionary experience". In Tallett, Frank; Atkin, Nicholas (eds.). Religion, Society and Politics in France Since 1789. A&C Black. pp. 1–28. ISBN 978-1-85285-057-9.
  196. ^ Lewis, Gwynne (1993). The French Revolution: Rethinking the Debate. Routledge. p. 96. ISBN 0-415-05466-4.
  197. ^ Joes, Anthony James (2006). Resisting Rebellion. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 52–53. ISBN 9780813191706.
  198. ^ "Jones, Adam Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction" (PDF). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Publishers Forthcoming. 2006. p. 7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2008.
  199. ^ "Three State and Counterrevolution in France by Charles Tilly". cdlib.org. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
  200. ^ Furlaud, Alice (9 July 1989). "Vive la Contre-Revolution!". The New York Times.
  201. ^ McPhee, Peter (March 2004). "Review of Reynald Secher, A French Genocide: The Vendée". H-France Review. Vol. 4, no. 26. Archived from the original on 20 April 2012.
  202. ^ Mullins, Mark R. (1990). "Japanese Pentecostalism and the World of the Dead: a Study of Cultural Adaptation in Iesu no Mitama Kyokai". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 17 (4): 353–374. doi:10.18874/jjrs.17.4.1990.353-374.
  203. ^ Naramoto, p. 401.
  204. ^ Jerald Sequeira. "Deportation & The Konkani Christian Captivity at Srirangapatna (1784 Feb. 24th Ash Wednesday)". Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore. Archived from the original on 29 January 2008.
  205. ^ Forrest 1887, pp. 314–316
  206. ^ The Gentleman's Magazine 1833, p. 388
  207. ^ "Christianity in Mangalore". Diocese of Mangalore. Archived from the original on 22 June 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  208. ^ Bowring 1997, p. 126
  209. ^ Scurry & Whiteway 1824, p. 103.
  210. ^ Scurry & Whiteway 1824, p. 104.
  211. ^ K.L. Bernard, Kerala History , p. 79
  212. ^ William Dalrymple White Mughals (2006) p. 28
  213. ^ Treadgold, Warren T. (October 1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. pp. 813–814. ISBN 9780804726306.
  214. ^ Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (1979). The End of the Byzantine Empire. London: Edward Arnold. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-7131-6250-9.
  215. ^ Inalcik, Halil (1969). "The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 23/24: 229–249. doi:10.2307/1291293. ISSN 0070-7546. JSTOR 1291293.
  216. ^ a b Nicol. The End of the Byzantine Empire, p. 90.
  217. ^ Runciman. The Fall of Constantinople, pp. 133–34.
  218. ^ Nicol, Donald M. (1972). The Last Centuries of Byzantium 1261–1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 389. ISBN 9780521439916.
  219. ^ Smith, Cyril J. (1974). "History of Rape and Rape Laws". Women Law Journal. No. 60. p. 188. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2020.
  220. ^ Mansel, Philip (1995). "One: The Conqueror". Constantinople: City of the World's Desire 1453–1924. St. Martin's Press. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 7 August 2020 – via The Washington Post.
  221. ^ Roger Crowley (6 August 2009). Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453. Faber & Faber. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-571-25079-0. The vast majority of the ordinary citizens - about 30,000 - were marched off to the slave markets of Edirne, Bursa and Ankara.
  222. ^ M.J Akbar (3 May 2002). The Shade of Swords: Jihad and the Conflict Between Islam and Christianity. Routledge. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-134-45259-0. Some 30,000 Christians were either enslaved or sold.
  223. ^ Jim Bradbury (1992). The Medieval Siege. Boydell & Brewer. p. 322. ISBN 978-0-85115-312-4.
  224. ^ Preface to the Chronicle; translated by Marios Philippides, The Fall of the Byzantine Empire: A Chronicle by George Sphrantzes, 1401–1477 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts, 1980), p. 21
  225. ^ Pavlowitch 2002, pp. 19–20.
  226. ^ Anton Minkov (2004). Conversion to Islam in the Balkans: Kisve Bahası Petitions and Ottoman Social Life, 1670–1730. The Ottoman Empire and its Heritage, Volume: 30. Brill. pp. 41–42. doi:10.1163/9789047402770_008. ISBN 978-90-47-40277-0. S2CID 243354675.
  227. ^ Zhelyazkova, Antonina. ‘'Albanian Identities'’. pp. 15–16, 19.
  228. ^ Zhelyazkova, Antonina. ‘'Albanian Identities'’. Sofia, 2000: International Center for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relations. pp. 15–16
  229. ^ Zhelyazkova, Antonina (2000). "Albanian Identities" (PDF). International Centre for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relation. If the tax levied on the Christians in the Albanian communities in the 16th century amounted to about 45 akçes, in the middle of the 17th century it ran up to 780 akçes a year. In order to save the clans from hunger and ruin, the Albanian elders advised the people in the villages to adopt Islam...Nevertheless, the willingness of the Gegs to support the campaigns of the Catholic West against the Empire, did not abate.... men in Albania, Christians, but also Muslims, were ready to take up arms, given the smallest help from the Catholic West.... the complex dual religious identity of the Albanians become clear. Emblematic is the case of the Crypto-Christians inhabiting the inaccessible geographical area...
  230. ^ a b c Pahumi, Nevila (2007). The Consolidation of Albanian Nationalism. Department of History (Bachelor of Arts thesis). University of Michigan. p. 18. hdl:2027.42/55462. The pasha of Ipek forcibly moved the Catholic inhabitants of northern Albania into the plains of southern Serbia after a failed Serb revolt forced many Serbs to flee to the Habsburg Empire in 1689. The transferred villagers were forced to convert to Islam.
  231. ^ Ramet 1998, p. 210: "Then, in 1644, war broke out between Venice and the Ottoman empire. At the urging of the clergy, many Albanian Catholics sided with Venice. The Ottomans responded to this by severely repressing them, which in turn drove many Catholics to embrace Islam (although a few of them elected to join the Orthodox Church)... Within the span of twenty-two years (1649–71) the number of Catholics in the diocese of Alessio fell by more than 50 percent, while in the diocese of Pulati (1634–71) the number of Catholics declined from more than 20,000 to just 4,045. In general, Albanian insurrections which occurred during the Ottoman-Venetian wars of 1644–69 resulted in stiff Ottoman reprisals against Catholics in northern Albania and significant acceleration of Islamization... In general, a pattern emerged. When the Ottoman empire was attacked by Catholic powers, local Catholics were pressured to convert, and when Orthodox Russia attacked the Ottoman empire, local Orthodox Christians were also pressured to change their faith. In some cases however, their Islamization was only superficial and as a result, many villages and some districts were still "crypto-Catholic" in the nineteenth century, despite their adoption of the externals of Islamic culture."
  232. ^ a b Ramet 1998, p. 203: "The Ottoman conquest between the end of the fourteenth century and the mid-fifteenth century introduced a third religion – Islam – but at first the Turks did not use force during their expansion, and it was only in the 1600s that large-scale conversion to Islam began – at first, it chiefly occurred among Albanian Catholics."; p.204. "The Orthodox community enjoyed broad toleration at the hands of the Sublime Porte until the late eighteenth century."; p. 204. "In the late eighteenth century Russian agents began stirring the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman empire against the Sublime Porte. In the Russo-Turkish wars of 1768–74 and 1787–91, Orthodox Albanians rose up against the Turks. In the course of the second revolt, the "New Academy" in Voskopoje was destroyed (1789), and at the end of the second Russo-Turkish war, more than a thousand Orthodox fled to Russia on Russian warships. In the aftermath of these revolts, the Porte now applied pressure in order to Islamize the Albanian Orthodox population, adding economic incentives in order to stimulate this process. In 1798, Ali Pasha of Janina led Ottoman forces against Christian believers who were assembled in their churches in order to celebrate Easter in the villages of Shen Vasil and Nivica e Bubarit. The bloodbath which was unleashed against these believers frightened Albanian Christians who lived in other districts and inspired a new wave of mass conversions to Islam."
  233. ^ Skendi 1967a, pp. 10–13.
  234. ^ Skendi 1956, pp. 321–323.
  235. ^ Vickers 2011, p. 16.
  236. ^ a b Koti 2010, pp. 16–17.
  237. ^ Malcolm, Noel (1998). Kosovo: a short history. Macmillan. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-333-66612-8.
  238. ^ Kallivretakis 2003, p. 233.
  239. ^ Hammond 1967, p. 30.
  240. ^ Hammond 1976, p. 62.
  241. ^ Koukoudis 2003, pp. 321–322. "Particularly interesting is the case of Vithkuq, south of Moschopolis... It may well have had Vlach inhabitants before 1769, though the Arvanites were certainly far more numerous, if not the largest population group. This is further supported by the linguistic identity of the refugees who fled Vithkuq and accompanied the waves of departing Vlachs..." p. 339. "As the same time as, or possibly shortly before or after, these events in Moschopolis, unruly Arnauts also attacked the smaller Vlach and Arvanitic communities round about. The Vlach inhabitants of Llengë, Niçë, Grabovë, Shipckë, and the Vlach villages on Grammos, such as Nikolicë, Linotopi, and Grammousta, and the inhabitants of Vithkuq and even the last Albanian speaking Christian villages on Opar found themselves at the mercy of the predatory Arnauts, whom no-one could withstand. For them too, the only solution was to flee... During this period, Vlach and Arvanite families from the surrounding ruined market towns and villages settled alongside the few Moscopolitans who had returned. Refugee families came from Dushar and other villages in Opar, from Vithkuq, Grabovë, Nikolicë, Niçë, and Llengë and from Kolonjë..."
  242. ^ Hall, Derek R. (1999). "Representations of Place: Albania". The Geographical Journal. 165 (2): 161–172. Bibcode:1999GeogJ.165..161H. doi:10.2307/3060414. ISSN 0016-7398. JSTOR 3060414.
  243. ^ a b Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress (April 1992). "Albania – Hoxha's Antireligious Campaign". country-data.com.
  244. ^ a b Zickel, Raymond; Iwaskiw, Walter R., eds. (1994). Albania : a country study (Area Handbook for Albania) (2nd ed.). Library of Congress; Federal Research Division; Department of the Army. ISBN 0-8444-0792-5.
  245. ^ Jordan, Mary (18 April 2007). "Albania finds religion after decades of atheism". The Chicago Tribune.
  246. ^ Hargitai, Quinn (3 November 2016). "The country that's famous for tolerance". (BBC Travel) bbc.com. BBC.
  247. ^ Brunwasser, Matthew (26 February 2017). "As Albania Reckons With Its Communist Past, Critics Say It's Too Late". The New York Times.
  248. ^ "Christians live in fear of death squads". IRIN. 19 October 2006.
  249. ^ Campbell, Gwyn (October 1991). "The state and pre-colonial demographic history: the case of nineteenth century Madagascar". Journal of African History. 23 (3): 415–445. doi:10.1017/S0021853700031534.
  250. ^ Laidler (2005)
  251. ^ Cousins, W.E. "Since 1800 in Madagascar; 1877–1878". The Sunday Magazine for Family Reading. Vol. 1. London: Daldy, Isbister & Co. pp. 405–410.
  252. ^ Griffin, Roger (2006). Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul (eds.). World Fascism: A-K. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 10. ISBN 9781576079409. There is no doubt that in the long run Nazi leaders such as Hitler and Himmler intended to eradicate Christianity just as ruthlessly as they intended to eradicate any other rival ideology, even if in the short term they had to be content to make compromises with it.
    Mosse, George Lachmann (2003). Nazi Culture: Intellectual, Cultural and Social Life in the Third Reich. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-299-19304-1. Had the Nazis won the war, their ecclesiastical policies would have gone beyond those of the German Christians, to the utter destruction of both the Protestant and Catholic Churches.
    Bendersky, Joseph W. (2007). A Concise History of Nazi Germany. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-7425-5363-7. Consequently, it was Hitler's long range goal to eliminate the churches once he had consolidated his control over his European empire.
    Fischel, Jack R. (2010). Historical Dictionary of the Holocaust. Scarecrow Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-8108-7485-5. The objective was to either destroy Christianity and restore the German gods of antiquity or turn Jesus into an Aryan.
    Dill, Marshall (1970). Germany: A Modern History. University of Michigan Press. p. 365. ISBN 0472071017. It seems no exaggeration to insist that the greatest challenge the Nazis had to face was their effort to eradicate Christianity in Germany or at least subjugate it to their general world outlook.
  253. ^ Michael Berenbaum (October 2000). "Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi-Regime 1938–1945". Holocaust Teacher Resource Center.
  254. ^ Hesse, Hans (2001). Persecution and resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses during the Nazi regime, 1933–1945. Berghahn Books. p. 10. ISBN 978-3-86108-750-2.
  255. ^ "Jehovah's Witnesses in Germany: From the 1890s to 1945". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  256. ^ Erik Freas (2016). Muslim-Christian Relations in Late-Ottoman Palestine: Where Nationalism and Religion Intersect. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1137570413.
  257. ^ Aboona, H (2008). Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: intercommunal relations on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire. Cambria Press. ISBN 978-1-60497-583-3.
  258. ^ Gaunt & Beṯ-Şawoce 2006, p. 32.
  259. ^ Masters, Bruce. "The 1850 Events in Aleppo: An Aftershock of Syria's Incorporation into the Capitalist World System". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 22.
  260. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bulgaria § Political History" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 871.
  261. ^ Kelbecheva, Evelina (2011). "The Short History of Bulgaria for Export". In Jørgen S. Nielsen (ed.). Religion, Ethnicity and Contested Nationhood in the Former Ottoman Space. Brill. pp. 223–247. doi:10.1163/9789004216570_013. ISBN 978-9004211339.
  262. ^ Miller, William (1896). "Chapter 5: Bulgaria under the Turks". The Balkans. Archived from the original on 16 October 2019.
  263. ^ Bruinessen, Martin van (1992). Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 25, 271. ISBN 9781856490184.
  264. ^ Akbar, M.J. (2003). The Shade of Swords: Jihad and the Conflict Between Islam and Christianity. Lotus Collection. ISBN 9788174362919.
  265. ^ Mark Twain (1869). The Innocents Abroad. Collins Clear-Type Press. ISBN 9781495902291.
  266. ^ Adalian, Rouben Paul (2010) [2002]. Historical Dictionary of Armenia (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-8108-6096-4.
  267. ^ Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019), The Thirty-Year Genocide, Harvard University Press, p. 672, ISBN 9780674916456
  268. ^ Akçam, Taner (2006) A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility p. 42, Metropolitan Books, New York ISBN 978-0-8050-7932-6
  269. ^ Angold, Michael (2006), O'Mahony, Anthony, ed., Cambridge History of Christianity, 5. Eastern Christianity, Cambridge University Press, p. 512, ISBN 978-0-521-81113-2.
  270. ^ Cleveland, William L. (2000). A History of the Modern Middle East (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview. p. 119. ISBN 0-8133-3489-6.
  271. ^ de Courtois, S (2004). The forgotten genocide: eastern Christians, the last Arameans. Gorgias Press LLC. pp. 105–107. ISBN 978-1-59333-077-4.
  272. ^ Aboona, H (2008). Assyrians and Ottomans: intercommunal relations on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire. Cambria Press. ISBN 978-1-60497-583-3. p.284
  273. ^ Raymond H. Kévorkian, "The Cilician Massacres, April 1909" in Armenian Cilicia, eds. Richard G. Hovannisian and Simon Payaslian. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 7. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2008, pp. 339–69.
  274. ^ Adalian, Rouben Paul (2012). "The Armenian genocide". In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (eds.). Century of Genocide. Routledge. pp. 117–56. ISBN 9780415871914.
  275. ^ Adalian, Rouben Paul (2010). "Adana Massacre". Historical Dictionary of Armenia. Scarecrow Press. pp. 70–71. ISBN 9780810874503.
  276. ^ Gaunt, David (18 April 2009). "The Assyrian Genocide of 1915". Assyrian Genocide Research Center. Archived from the original on 18 October 2013.
  277. ^ "Tsitsernakaberd Memorial Complex". Armenian genocide Museum-Institute.
  278. ^ Kifner, John (7 December 2007). "Armenian Genocide of 1915: An Overview". The New York Times.
  279. ^ Hatzidimitriou, Constantine G., American Accounts Documenting the Destruction of Smyrna by the Kemalist Turkish Forces: September 1922, New Rochelle, NY: Caratzas, 2005, p. 2.
  280. ^ Kieser, Hans-Lukas; Schaller, Dominik J (2002), Der Völkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah [The Armenian Genocide and the Shoah] (in German), Chronos, p. 114, ISBN 3-0340-0561-X
  281. ^ Christopher J. Walker (1980). Armenia, the Survival of a Nation. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-04944-7. * Akçam, Taner (2007). A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. p. 327. – Profile at Google Books
  282. ^ Aprim, Frederick A. (January 2005). Assyrians: the continuous saga. F.A. Aprim. p. 40. ISBN 9781413438574.
  283. ^ Ghazal, Rym (14 April 2015). "Lebanon's dark days of hunger: The Great Famine of 1915–18". The National. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
  284. ^ Harris 2012, p. 174
  285. ^ The Plight of Religious Minorities: Can Religious Pluralism Survive? – p. 51 by United States Congress
  286. ^ The Armenian Genocide: Wartime Radicalization Or Premeditated Continuum – p. 272 edited by Richard Hovannisian
  287. ^ Not Even My Name: A True Story – p. 131 by Thea Halo
  288. ^ The Political Dictionary of Modern Middle East by Agnes G. Korbani
  289. ^ Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-0-674-24008-7.
  290. ^ Gutman, David (2019). "The thirty year genocide: Turkey's destruction of its Christian minorities, 1894–1924". Turkish Studies. 21. Routledge: 1–3. doi:10.1080/14683849.2019.1644170. S2CID 201424062.
  291. ^ J. Joseph, Muslim-Christian relations and Inter-Christian rivalries in the Middle East, Albany, 1983, p. 102.
  292. ^ Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia. Taylor & Francis. 2002. p. 46. ISBN 1857431375.
  293. ^ a b World Christian trends, AD 30-AD 2200, pp. 230–246 Tables 4–5 & 4–10 By David B. Barrett, Todd M. Johnson, Christopher R. Guidry, Peter F. Crossing NOTE: They define 'martyr' on p235 as only including Christians killed for faith and excluding other Christians killed
  294. ^ a b Ostling, Richard (24 June 2001). "Cross meets Kremlin". Time. Archived from the original on 13 August 2007.
  295. ^ Daniel Peris Storming the Heavens: The Soviet League of the Militant Godless Cornell University Press 1998 ISBN 978-0-8014-3485-3
  296. ^ Antireligioznik (The Antireligious, 1926–41), Derevenskii Bezbozhnik (The Godless Peasant, 1928–1932), and Yunye Bezbozhniki (The Young Godless, 1931–1933).
  297. ^ a b History of the Orthodox Church in the History of Russian Dimitry Pospielovsky 1998 St Vladimir's Press ISBN 0-88141-179-5 pg 291
  298. ^ a b A History of Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Antireligious Policies, Dimitry Pospielovsky Palgrave Macmillan (December 1987) ISBN 0-312-38132-8
  299. ^ John Anderson, Religion, State and Politics in the Soviet Union and Successor States, Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp 9
  300. ^ Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987). pg 84.
  301. ^ Prot. Dimitri Konstantinov, Gonimaia Tserkov' (New York:Vseslavianskoe izdatel'stvo, 1967) pp. 286–7, and (London:Macmillan, 1969) chs 4 and 5
  302. ^ Froese, Paul. "'I am an atheist and a Muslim': Islam, communism, and ideological competition." Journal of Church and State 47.3 (2005)
  303. ^ Marsh, Christopher (2011). Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-4411-0284-3.
  304. ^ Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival, by Christopher Marsh, p. 47. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011.
  305. ^ Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History, by Dilip Hiro. Penguin, 2009.
  306. ^ Adappur, Abraham (2000). Religion and the Cultural Crisis in India and the West. Intercultural Publications. ISBN 9788185574479. Forced Conversion under Atheistic Regimes: It might be added that the most modern example of forced "conversions" came not from any theocratic state, but from a professedly atheist government – that of the Soviet Union under the Communists.
  307. ^ Paul Froese. Forced Secularization in Soviet Russia: Why an Atheistic Monopoly Failed. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 43, No. 1 (Mar. 2004), pp. 35–50
  308. ^ Haskins, Ekaterina V. "Russia's postcommunist past: the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and the reimagining of national identity." History and Memory: Studies in Representation of the Past 21.1 (2009)
  309. ^ Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; p. 494"
  310. ^ Peris, Daniel (1998). Storming the Heavens: The Soviet League of the Militant Godless. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780801434853. Created in 1925, the League of the Militant Godless was the nominally independent organization established by the Communist Party to promote atheism.
  311. ^ President of Lithuania: Prisoner of the Gulag a Biography of Aleksandras Stulginskis by Afonsas Eidintas Genocide and Research Center of Lithuania ISBN 9986-757-41-X / 9789986757412, pg 23 "As early as August 1920 Lenin wrote to E. M. Sklyansky, President of the Revolutionary War Soviet: "We are surrounded by the greens (we pack it to them), we will move only about 10–20 versty and we will choke by hand the bourgeoisie, the clergy and the landowners. There will be an award of 100,000 rubles for each one hanged." He was speaking about the future actions in the countries neighboring Russia.
  312. ^ Christ Is Calling You: A Course in Catacomb Pastorship by Father George Calciu Published by Saint Hermans Press April 1997 ISBN 978-1-887904-52-0
  313. ^ Daniel Peris Storming the Heavens: The Soviet League of the Militant Godless Cornell University Press 1998 ISBN 978-0-8014-3485-3
  314. ^ Froese, Paul (6 August 2008). The Plot to Kill God: Findings from the Soviet Experiment in Secularization. University of California Press. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-520-94273-8. Before 1937, the Soviet regime had closed thousands of churches and removed tens of thousands of religious leaders from positions of influence. By the midthirties, Soviet elites set out to conduct a mass liquidation of all religious organizations and leaders... officers in the League of Militant Atheists found themselves in a bind to explain the widespread persistence of religious belief in 1937.... The latest estimates indicate that thousands of individuals were executed for religious crimes and hundreds of thousands of religious believers were imprisoned in labor camps or psychiatric hospitals.
  315. ^ a b Franklin, Simon; Widdis, Emma (2 February 2006). National Identity in Russian Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-521-02429-7. Churches, when not destroyed, might find themselves converted into museums of atheism.
  316. ^ a b Bevan, Robert (15 February 2016). The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. Reaktion Books. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-78023-608-7. Churches, synagogues, mosques and monasteries were shut down in the immediate wake of the Revolution. Many were converted to secular uses or converted into Museums of Atheism (antichurches), whitewashed and their fittings were removed.
  317. ^ Ramet, Sabrina P. (1990). Catholicism and Politics in Communist Societies. Duke University Press. pp. 232–33. ISBN 978-0822310471. From kindergarten onward children are indoctrinated with an aggressive form of atheism and trained to hate and distrust foreigners and to denounce parents who follow religious practices at home.
  318. ^ Nelson, James M. (2009). Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality. Springer. p. 427. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-87573-6_12. ISBN 978-0-387-87572-9. Estimates of the total number of Christian martyrs in the former Soviet Union are about 12 million.
  319. ^ Johnson, Todd; Zurlo, Gina (2018). "Martyrdom (Country-by-country statistics)". World Christian Database. Brill Academic Publishers.
  320. ^ a b Dronda, Javier (2013). Con Cristo o contra Cristo: Religión y movilización antirrepublicana en Navarra (1931–1936) (in Spanish). Tafalla: Txalaparta. pp. 201–202, 220. ISBN 978-84-15313-31-1.
  321. ^ a b c d e f g h i j de la Cueva, Julio (1998). "Religious Persecution, Anticlerical Tradition and Revolution: On Atrocities against the Clergy during the Spanish Civil War". Journal of Contemporary History. 33 (3): 355–369. ISSN 0022-0094. JSTOR 261121.
  322. ^ a b Paul Preston (2013). The Spanish Holocaust: Inquisition and Extermination in Twentieth-Century Spain. London, UK: HarperCollins. pp. 4, 44–45. ISBN 978-0-00-638695-7.
  323. ^ Ranzato, Gabriele (1988). "Dies irae. La persecuzione religiosa nella zona repubblicana durante la guerra civile spagnola (1936–1939)". Movimento Operaio e Socialista (in Spanish). 11: 195–220.
  324. ^ Payne, Stanley G. "Chapter 26: The Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939". A History of Spain and Portugal vol. 2. Retrieved 2 January 2023 – via The Library of Iberian Resources Online.
  325. ^ a b Mitchell, David (1983). The Spanish Civil War. New York: Franklin Watts. pp. 45–46.
  326. ^ a b c Payne, Stanley G. (2008). Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany, and World War II. Yale University Press. pp. 13, 215. ISBN 978-0-300-12282-4.
  327. ^ Vincent, Mary (18 December 2014). "Ungodly Subjects: Protestants in National-Catholic Spain, 1939–53" (PDF). European History Quarterly. 45 (1). Sage: 108–131. doi:10.1177/0265691414552782. ISSN 0265-6914. S2CID 145265537.
  328. ^ Beevor, Antony (2006). The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936-1939. Penguin. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-1-101-20120-6.
  329. ^ Feldman, Noah (6 January 2008). "What Is It About Mormonism?". The New York Times.
  330. ^ "Chapter Sixteen: Missouri Persecutions and Expulsion", Church History in the Fulness of Times, Student manual (Religion 341, 342, and 343), Institute of Religion, Church Educational System, LDS Church, 2003, archived from the original on 22 October 2011
  331. ^ Smith, Joseph Fielding (1946–1949), Church History and Modern Revelation, vol. 4, Deseret Book, pp. 167–173
  332. ^ Thomas R. Pegram, One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (2011), pp. 47–88.
  333. ^ Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915–1930 (2011), p. 248.
  334. ^ Brezianu, Andrei (26 May 2010). The A to Z of Moldova. Scarecrow Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-8108-7211-0. Communist Atheism. Official doctrine of the Soviet regime, also called "scientific atheism". It was aggressively applied to Moldova, immediately after the 1940 annexation, when churches were profaned, clergy were assaulted, and signs and public symbols of religion were prohibited, and it was again applied throughout the subsequent decades of the Soviet regime, after 1944. … The St. Theodora Church in downtown Chişinău was converted into the city's Museum of Scientific Atheism,
  335. ^ Peter Hebblethwaite; Paul VI, the First Modern Pope; HarperCollins Religious; 1993; p. 211
  336. ^ Norman Davies; Rising '44: the Battle for Warsaw; Viking; 2003; p.566 & 568
  337. ^ Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; p.494
  338. ^ Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; p.508
  339. ^ Sullivan, Patricia (26 November 2006). "Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa". The Washington Post.
  340. ^ The Washington Post Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa by Patricia Sullivan Washington Post Staff Writer Sunday, 26 November 2006; p. C09
  341. ^ Frances D'Emillo (16 December 2010). "Pope calls Christians the most persecuted". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 19 December 2010.
  342. ^ a b "Archbishop Silvano Tomasi's Address to the UN Human Rights Council Interactive Dialogue". Zenit. 29 May 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2020.
    "Vatican to UN: 100 thousand Christians killed for the faith each year". Vatican Radio. Archived from the original on 8 June 2013.
  343. ^ "Persecution of Christians in 2016". Center for the Study of Global Christianity. 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
    "Status of Global Christianity, 2017, in the Context of 1900–2050" (PDF). Center for the Study of Global Christianity. 2017.
  344. ^ a b c Ruth Alexander (12 November 2013). "Are there really 100,000 new Christian martyrs every year?". BBC News.
  345. ^ a b c "Christenverfolgung auf einen Blick". Internationale Gesellschaft für Menschenrechte (International Society for Human rights) (in German). 14 August 2019.
  346. ^ Robert W. Boehme; et al. (eds.). "2018 Report on International Religious Freedom". Office of International Religious Freedom. United States Department of State. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  347. ^ a b c Grim, Brian J.; Finke, Roger (2011). The Price of Freedom Denied: Religious Persecution and Conflict in the Twenty-First Century. UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19705-2.
  348. ^ Hunt, Jeremy (8 July 2019). "Persecution of Christians review: Foreign Secretary's speech following the final report". Foreign & Commonwealth Office. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  349. ^ "How Religious Restrictions Have Risen Around the World". Pew Research Center. 15 July 2019.
  350. ^ Mitchell, Travis (15 July 2019). "A Closer Look at How Religious Restrictions Have Risen Around the World". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  351. ^ "Quotes from experts on the future of democracy". 21 February 2020.
  352. ^ "About Us". International Society for Human Rights at a Glance. International Society for Human Rights.
  353. ^ Lessenthin, Martin. "Martin Lessenthin Executive and press spokesman for the ISHR". International Society for Human Rights (ISHR). Archived from the original on 8 October 2020. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
  354. ^ Vallely, Paul (28 July 2014). "Christians: The world's most persecuted people". Independent. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022.
  355. ^ Sherwood, Harriet (13 October 2015). "Christianity under global threat due to persecution, says report". The Guardian.
  356. ^ Blumenfeld, W. J. (2006). "Christian privilege and the promotion of "secular" and not-so "secular" mainline Christianity in public schooling and in the larger society". Equity and Excellence in Education. 39 (3): 195–210. doi:10.1080/10665680600788024. S2CID 144270138.
  357. ^ "In U.S., Decline of Christianity Continues at Rapid Pace". Pew Research Center Religion & Public Life. Pew Research Center. 17 October 2019. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
  358. ^ "Christians remain world's largest religious group, but they are declining in Europe". Factank News in the Numbers. Pew Research Center. 5 April 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
  359. ^ a b KISHI, KATAYOUN (9 June 2017). "Christians faced widespread harassment in 2015, but mostly in Christian-majority countries". PEW Research Center Facttank News in the numbers. Pew. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  360. ^ "2019 Report on International Religious Freedom: Eritrea". OFFICE OF INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM 2019 Report. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  361. ^ "2019 Report on International Religious Freedom: Mexico". U.S. Department of State OFFICE OF INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM Report. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  362. ^ a b c d "A Closer Look at How Religious Restrictions Have Risen Around the World". PEW Research Center Religion & Public Life. PEW research center. 15 July 2019.
  363. ^ a b c d Stahnke, Tad; Blitt, Robert C. "The Religion-State Relationship and the Right to Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Comparative Textual Analysis of the Constitutions of Predominantly Muslim Countries" (PDF). The Religion-State Relationship and the Right to Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Comparative Textual Analysis of the Constitutions of Predominantly Muslim Countries. UNITED STATES COMMISSION ON INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM.
  364. ^ Grim, Brian J.; Finke, Roger (2010). The Price of Freedom Denied: Religious Persecution and Conflict in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139492416.
  365. ^ "WORLD WATCH LIST 2020" (PDF). Open Doors. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 November 2020. Retrieved 7 October 2020.

Sources

External links