El neoclasicismo , también escrito neoclasicismo , surgió como un movimiento cultural occidental en las artes decorativas y visuales , la literatura , el teatro , la música y la arquitectura que se inspiró en el arte y la cultura de la antigüedad clásica . El neoclasicismo nació en Roma , en gran parte debido a los escritos de Johann Joachim Winckelmann durante el redescubrimiento de Pompeya y Herculano . Su popularidad se expandió por toda Europa cuando una generación de estudiantes de arte europeos terminó su Grand Tour y regresó de Italia a sus países de origen con ideales grecorromanos recién redescubiertos. [1] [2] [3] [4] El principal movimiento neoclásico coincidió con la Ilustración del siglo XVIII y continuó hasta principios del siglo XIX, compitiendo finalmente con el Romanticismo . En arquitectura, el estilo perduró durante los siglos XIX, XX y XXI. [5] [6]
El neoclasicismo europeo en las artes visuales comenzó alrededor de 1760 en oposición al estilo rococó , entonces dominante . La arquitectura rococó enfatiza la gracia, la ornamentación y la asimetría; la arquitectura neoclásica se basa en los principios de simplicidad y simetría, que se consideraban virtudes de las artes de la Antigua Roma y la Antigua Grecia , y se extrajeron directamente del clasicismo renacentista del siglo XVI . Cada movimiento "neo" clasicista selecciona algunos modelos entre la gama de clásicos posibles que tiene a su disposición e ignora otros. Entre 1765 y 1830, los defensores del neoclasicismo (escritores, oradores, mecenas, coleccionistas, artistas y escultores) rindieron homenaje a una idea de la generación artística asociada con Fidias , pero los ejemplos de esculturas que realmente adoptaron eran más probablemente copias romanas de esculturas helenísticas . Ignoraron tanto el arte griego arcaico como las obras de la antigüedad tardía . El descubrimiento del arte rococó de la antigua Palmira a través de los grabados de Las ruinas de Palmira de Robert Wood fue una revelación. Con Grecia en gran parte inexplorada y considerada un territorio peligroso del Imperio Otomano , la apreciación de la arquitectura griega por parte de los neoclásicos estuvo mediada predominantemente por dibujos y grabados que suavizaban y regularizaban, "corrigían" y "restauraban" sutilmente monumentos de Grecia, no siempre de manera consciente.
El estilo Imperio , una segunda fase del neoclasicismo en la arquitectura y las artes decorativas , tuvo su centro cultural en París durante la era napoleónica . Especialmente en la arquitectura, pero también en otros campos, el neoclasicismo siguió siendo una fuerza mucho después de principios del siglo XIX, con oleadas periódicas de resurgimiento en los siglos XX e incluso XXI, especialmente en los Estados Unidos y Rusia. [ cita requerida ]
El neoclasicismo es un renacimiento de los muchos estilos y el espíritu de la antigüedad clásica inspirados directamente en el período clásico, [7] que coincidió y reflejó los desarrollos en filosofía y otras áreas de la Era de la Ilustración, y fue inicialmente una reacción contra los excesos del estilo rococó precedente . [8] Si bien el movimiento a menudo se describe como la contraparte opuesta del Romanticismo , esta es una gran simplificación excesiva que tiende a no ser sostenible cuando se consideran artistas u obras específicas. El caso del supuesto principal defensor del neoclasicismo tardío, Ingres , lo demuestra especialmente bien. [9] El renacimiento se puede rastrear hasta el establecimiento de la arqueología formal . [10] [11]
.jpg/1280px-Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann_(Anton_von_Maron_1768).jpg)
Los escritos de Johann Joachim Winckelmann fueron importantes para dar forma a este movimiento, tanto en la arquitectura como en las artes visuales. Sus libros Pensamientos sobre la imitación de obras griegas en pintura y escultura (1750) y Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("Historia del arte antiguo", 1764) fueron los primeros en distinguir claramente entre el arte griego antiguo y el romano, y definir períodos dentro del arte griego, trazando una trayectoria desde el crecimiento hasta la madurez y luego la imitación o decadencia que continúa teniendo influencia hasta el día de hoy. Winckelmann creía que el arte debería apuntar a la "noble simplicidad y la grandeza tranquila", [13] y elogió el idealismo del arte griego, en el que dijo que encontramos "no solo la naturaleza en su forma más hermosa, sino también algo más allá de la naturaleza, a saber, ciertas formas ideales de su belleza, que, como nos enseña un antiguo intérprete de Platón , provienen de imágenes creadas solo por la mente". La teoría estaba muy lejos de ser nueva en el arte occidental, pero su énfasis en copiar fielmente los modelos griegos era: "La única manera de que lleguemos a ser grandes o, si esto es posible, inimitables, es imitar a los antiguos". [14]
La Revolución Industrial vio una transición global de la economía humana hacia procesos de fabricación más eficientes y estables. [15] Hubo un tremendo avance material y una mayor prosperidad. [16] Con la llegada del Grand Tour , comenzó una moda de coleccionar antigüedades que sentó las bases de muchas grandes colecciones que difundieron un renacimiento neoclásico en toda Europa. [17] El "neoclasicismo" en cada arte implica un canon particular de un modelo "clásico".
En inglés, el término "neoclasicismo" se utiliza principalmente para las artes visuales; el movimiento similar en la literatura inglesa , que comenzó considerablemente antes, se llama literatura augusta . Este, que había sido dominante durante varias décadas, estaba comenzando a declinar cuando el neoclasicismo en las artes visuales se puso de moda. Aunque los términos difieren, la situación en la literatura francesa fue similar. En música, el período vio el auge de la música clásica , y "neoclasicismo" se utiliza para los desarrollos del siglo XX . Sin embargo, las óperas de Christoph Willibald Gluck representaron un enfoque específicamente neoclásico, explicado en su prefacio a la partitura publicada de Alceste (1769), que tenía como objetivo reformar la ópera eliminando la ornamentación , aumentando el papel del coro en línea con la tragedia griega y utilizando líneas melódicas más simples y sin adornos. [18]
.jpg/1280px-Anton_Raphael_Mengs_-_Das_Urteil_des_Paris_(ca._1757).jpg)
El término "neoclásico" no se inventó hasta mediados del siglo XIX, y en ese momento el estilo se describía con términos como "el estilo verdadero", "reformado" y "renacimiento"; lo que se consideraba como un renacimiento variaba considerablemente. Sin duda, los modelos antiguos estaban muy presentes, pero el estilo también podría considerarse un renacimiento del Renacimiento, y especialmente en Francia como un regreso al barroco más austero y noble de la época de Luis XIV , por el que se había desarrollado una considerable nostalgia a medida que la posición militar y política dominante de Francia comenzaba un serio declive. [19] El retrato de coronación de Napoleón de Ingres incluso tomó prestado de los dípticos consulares de la Antigüedad tardía y su renacimiento carolingio , para la desaprobación de los críticos.
El neoclasicismo fue más fuerte en la arquitectura , la escultura y las artes decorativas , donde los modelos clásicos en el mismo medio eran relativamente numerosos y accesibles; faltaban y faltan ejemplos de la pintura antigua que demostraran las cualidades que los escritos de Winckelmann encontraron en la escultura. Winckelmann participó en la difusión del conocimiento de las primeras pinturas romanas de gran tamaño que se descubrieron, en Pompeya y Herculano y, como la mayoría de los contemporáneos a excepción de Gavin Hamilton , no se impresionó por ellas, citando los comentarios de Plinio el Joven sobre el declive de la pintura en su período. [20]
En cuanto a la pintura, la griega se perdió por completo: los pintores neoclásicos la revivieron imaginativamente, en parte a través de frisos en bajorrelieve , mosaicos y pintura de cerámica, y en parte a través de los ejemplos de pintura y decoración del Alto Renacimiento de la generación de Rafael , los frescos de la Domus Aurea de Nerón , Pompeya y Herculano, y a través de la renovada admiración por Nicolas Poussin . Gran parte de la pintura "neoclásica" es más clasicista en la temática que en cualquier otra cosa. Durante décadas se produjo una disputa feroz, aunque a menudo muy mal informada, sobre los méritos relativos del arte griego y romano, con Winckelmann y sus compañeros helenistas generalmente estando del lado ganador. [21]
Es difícil recuperar la naturaleza radical y emocionante de la pintura neoclásica temprana para el público contemporáneo; ahora incluso a aquellos escritores que se inclinan favorablemente hacia ella les parece "insípida" y "casi completamente carente de interés para nosotros"; algunos de los comentarios de Kenneth Clark sobre el ambicioso Parnaso de Anton Raphael Mengs en la Villa Albani , [33] del artista a quien su amigo Winckelmann describió como "el artista más grande de su época, y quizás de épocas posteriores". [34] Los dibujos, posteriormente convertidos en grabados , de John Flaxman usaban dibujos lineales muy simples (considerados el medio clásico más puro [35] ) y figuras principalmente de perfil para representar La Odisea y otros temas, y una vez "encendieron a la juventud artística de Europa", pero ahora están "descuidados", [36] mientras que las pinturas históricas de Angelica Kauffman , principalmente retratista, son descritas por Fritz Novotny como de "una suavidad untuosa y tediosidad" . [37] La frivolidad rococó y el movimiento barroco habían sido eliminados, pero muchos artistas luchaban por poner algo en su lugar, y en ausencia de ejemplos antiguos para la pintura histórica, aparte de los jarrones griegos utilizados por Flaxman, Rafael tendió a ser utilizado como modelo sustituto, como recomendó Winckelmann.
La obra de otros artistas, que no se podría calificar fácilmente de insípida, combinaba aspectos del Romanticismo con un estilo generalmente neoclásico y forma parte de la historia de ambos movimientos. El pintor germano-danés Asmus Jacob Carstens terminó muy pocas de las grandes obras mitológicas que planeó, dejando en su mayoría dibujos y estudios de color que a menudo logran acercarse a la prescripción de Winckelmann de "noble simplicidad y serena grandeza". [38] A diferencia de los proyectos no realizados de Carstens, los grabados de Giovanni Battista Piranesi fueron numerosos y provechosos, y los llevaron de regreso quienes hicieron el Grand Tour por todas partes de Europa. Su tema principal fueron los edificios y ruinas de Roma, y se sintió más estimulado por lo antiguo que por lo moderno. La atmósfera algo inquietante de muchas de sus Vedute (vistas) se vuelve dominante en su serie de 16 grabados de Carceri d'invenzione ("Prisiones imaginarias") cuya "arquitectura ciclópea opresiva" transmite "sueños de miedo y frustración". [39] Henry Fuseli, nacido en Suiza , pasó la mayor parte de su carrera en Inglaterra, y aunque su estilo fundamental se basaba en principios neoclásicos, sus temas y tratamiento reflejaban más a menudo la corriente "gótica" del Romanticismo y buscaban evocar drama y emoción.
El neoclasicismo en la pintura adquirió un nuevo sentido de dirección con el éxito sensacional del Juramento de los Horacios de Jacques-Louis David en el Salón de París de 1785. A pesar de su evocación de virtudes republicanas, se trataba de un encargo del gobierno real, que David insistió en pintar en Roma. David logró combinar un estilo idealista con dramatismo y contundencia. La perspectiva central es perpendicular al plano del cuadro, que se hace más enfática por la arcada oscura detrás, contra la que se disponen las figuras heroicas como en un friso , con un toque de la iluminación artificial y la puesta en escena de la ópera , y el colorido clásico de Nicolas Poussin . David se convirtió rápidamente en el líder del arte francés y, después de la Revolución Francesa , se convirtió en un político con el control de gran parte del patrocinio gubernamental en el arte. Logró conservar su influencia en el período napoleónico , recurriendo a obras francamente propagandísticas, pero tuvo que abandonar Francia para exiliarse en Bruselas durante la Restauración borbónica . [40]
Entre los numerosos alumnos de David se encontraba Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres , que se consideraba un clasicista a lo largo de su dilatada carrera, a pesar de un estilo maduro que tiene una relación equívoca con la corriente principal del neoclasicismo, y muchas desviaciones posteriores hacia el orientalismo y el estilo trovador que son difíciles de distinguir de las de sus contemporáneos abiertamente románticos, excepto por la primacía que sus obras siempre dan al dibujo. Expuso en el Salón durante más de 60 años, desde 1802 hasta los inicios del impresionismo , pero su estilo, una vez formado, cambió poco. [41]
_-_Cephalus_and_Aurora_(1789-90)_front,_Lady_Lever_Art_Gallery,_Port_Sunlight,_Cheshire,_June_2013_(9103113142).png/1280px-John_Flaxman_(1755-1826)_-_Cephalus_and_Aurora_(1789-90)_front,_Lady_Lever_Art_Gallery,_Port_Sunlight,_Cheshire,_June_2013_(9103113142).png)
Si la pintura neoclásica adolecía de una falta de modelos antiguos, la escultura neoclásica tendía a adolecer de un exceso de ellos. Aunque los ejemplos de escultura griega real del " Período Clásico " que comenzó alrededor del 500 a. C. eran entonces muy pocos; las obras más apreciadas eran en su mayoría copias romanas. [47] Los principales escultores neoclásicos gozaron de una gran reputación en su época, pero ahora son menos apreciados, con la excepción de Jean-Antoine Houdon , cuyo trabajo era principalmente retratos, muy a menudo como bustos, que no sacrifican una fuerte impresión de la personalidad del retratado en aras del idealismo. Su estilo se volvió más clásico a medida que continuaba su larga carrera, y representa una progresión bastante suave del encanto rococó a la dignidad clásica. A diferencia de algunos escultores neoclásicos, no insistió en que sus modelos llevaran ropa romana o estuvieran desnudos. Retrató a la mayoría de las figuras notables de la Ilustración y viajó a Estados Unidos para producir una estatua de George Washington , así como bustos de Thomas Jefferson , Benjamin Franklin y otros fundadores de la nueva república. [48] [49]
Antonio Canova y el danés Bertel Thorvaldsen, ambos radicados en Roma, produjeron además de retratos muchas figuras y grupos ambiciosos de tamaño natural; ambos representaban la tendencia fuertemente idealizadora de la escultura neoclásica. Canova tiene una ligereza y gracia, donde Thorvaldsen es más severo; la diferencia se ejemplifica en sus respectivos grupos de las Tres Gracias . [50] Todos ellos, y Flaxman, todavía estaban activos en la década de 1820, y el Romanticismo tardó en impactar en la escultura, donde las versiones del Neoclasicismo siguieron siendo el estilo dominante durante la mayor parte del siglo XIX.
Un neoclasicista temprano en escultura fue el sueco Johan Tobias Sergel . [51] John Flaxman también fue, o principalmente, escultor, produciendo principalmente relieves severamente clásicos que son comparables en estilo a sus grabados; también diseñó y modeló cerámica neoclásica para Josiah Wedgwood durante varios años. Johann Gottfried Schadow y su hijo Rudolph , uno de los pocos escultores neoclásicos que murió joven, fueron los principales artistas alemanes, [52] con Franz Anton von Zauner en Austria. El escultor austriaco del barroco tardío Franz Xaver Messerschmidt se inclinó por el neoclasicismo a mitad de su carrera, poco antes de que aparentemente sufriera algún tipo de crisis mental, después de lo cual se retiró al campo y se dedicó a las muy distintivas "cabezas de personajes" de figuras calvas que hacen expresiones faciales extremas. [53] Al igual que los Carceri de Piranesi , estos disfrutaron de un gran resurgimiento del interés durante la era del psicoanálisis a principios del siglo XX. El escultor neoclásico holandés Mathieu Kessels estudió con Thorvaldsen y trabajó casi exclusivamente en Roma.
Dado que antes de la década de 1830 Estados Unidos no tenía una tradición escultórica propia, salvo en las áreas de lápidas, veletas y mascarones de proa de barcos, [54] se adoptó allí el estilo neoclásico europeo, que prevaleció durante décadas y se ejemplifica en las esculturas de Horatio Greenough , Harriet Hosmer , Hiram Powers , Randolph Rogers y William Henry Rinehart .
El arte neoclásico era tradicional y nuevo, histórico y moderno, conservador y progresista, todo al mismo tiempo. [56]
El neoclasicismo ganó influencia en Gran Bretaña y Francia, a través de una generación de estudiantes de arte franceses formados en Roma e influidos por los escritos de Winckelmann, y fue rápidamente adoptado por círculos progresistas en otros países como Suecia , Polonia y Rusia . Al principio, la decoración clasicista se injertó en formas europeas familiares, como en los interiores del amante de Catalina la Grande , el conde Grigory Orlov , diseñado por un arquitecto italiano con un equipo de estucadores italianos : solo los medallones ovalados aislados como camafeos y los bajorrelieves sobre las puertas insinúan el neoclasicismo; el mobiliario es completamente rococó italiano.
Una segunda ola neoclásica, más severa, más estudiada (a través de grabados ) y más conscientemente arqueológica, está asociada con el apogeo del Imperio napoleónico . En Francia, la primera fase del neoclasicismo se expresó en el " estilo Luis XVI ", y la segunda en los estilos llamados " Directorio " e Imperio . El estilo rococó siguió siendo popular en Italia hasta que los regímenes napoleónicos trajeron el nuevo clasicismo arqueológico, que fue adoptado como una declaración política por los jóvenes italianos progresistas, urbanos y con inclinaciones republicanas. [ ¿según quién? ]
En las artes decorativas, el neoclasicismo se ejemplifica en los muebles estilo Imperio fabricados en París, Londres, Nueva York y Berlín; en los muebles Biedermeier fabricados en Austria; en los museos de Karl Friedrich Schinkel en Berlín, el Banco de Inglaterra de Sir John Soane en Londres y el recién construido " Capitolio de los Estados Unidos " en Washington, DC; y en los bajorrelieves y jarrones de "basaltos negros" de Josiah Wedgwood . El estilo era internacional; el arquitecto escocés Charles Cameron creó interiores palaciegos de estilo italiano para la alemana Catalina la Grande, en San Petersburgo, Rusia.
En el interior, el neoclasicismo hizo un descubrimiento del interior clásico genuino, inspirado en los redescubrimientos de Pompeya y Herculano . Estos habían comenzado a fines de la década de 1740, pero solo alcanzaron una amplia audiencia en la década de 1760, [57] con los primeros volúmenes lujosos de distribución estrictamente controlada de Le Antichità di Ercolano ( Las antigüedades de Herculano ). Las antigüedades de Herculano mostraron que incluso los interiores más clasicistas del Barroco , o las habitaciones más "romanas" de William Kent, se basaban en la arquitectura exterior de la basílica y el templo convertida de afuera hacia adentro, de ahí su apariencia a menudo grandilocuente a los ojos modernos: marcos de ventanas con frontones convertidos en espejos dorados , chimeneas rematadas con frentes de templo. Los nuevos interiores buscaban recrear un vocabulario auténticamente romano y genuinamente interior.
Las técnicas empleadas en el estilo incluían motivos más planos y ligeros, esculpidos en relieves bajos tipo friso o pintados en monótonos en camaïeu ("como camafeos"), medallones aislados o jarrones o bustos o bucranias u otros motivos, suspendidos en guirnaldas de laurel o cintas, con esbeltos arabescos contra fondos, tal vez, de "rojo pompeyano" o tintes pálidos, o colores piedra. El estilo en Francia fue inicialmente un estilo parisino, el Goût grec ("estilo griego"), no un estilo de la corte; cuando Luis XVI accedió al trono en 1774, María Antonieta , su reina amante de la moda, llevó el estilo Luis XVI a la corte. Sin embargo, no hubo ningún intento real de emplear las formas básicas del mobiliario romano hasta alrededor del cambio de siglo, y los fabricantes de muebles eran más propensos a tomar prestado de la arquitectura antigua, al igual que los plateros eran más propensos a tomar de la cerámica antigua y la talla de piedra que de la metalistería: "Los diseñadores y artesanos... parecen haber encontrado un placer casi perverso en transferir motivos de un medio a otro". [58]
A partir de 1800, una nueva afluencia de ejemplos arquitectónicos griegos, vistos a través de aguafuertes y grabados, dio un nuevo impulso al neoclasicismo, el Renacimiento griego . Al mismo tiempo, el estilo Imperio fue una ola más grandiosa de neoclasicismo en la arquitectura y las artes decorativas. Basado principalmente en estilos romanos imperiales, se originó en el gobierno de Napoleón en el Primer Imperio Francés, y tomó su nombre de él, donde se pretendía idealizar el liderazgo de Napoleón y el estado francés. El estilo corresponde al estilo Biedermeier más burgués en los países de habla alemana, al estilo federal en los Estados Unidos, [57] al estilo Regencia en Gran Bretaña y al estilo Napoleón en Suecia. Según el historiador de arte Hugh Honour , "lejos de ser, como a veces se supone, la culminación del movimiento neoclásico, el Imperio marca su rápido declive y transformación una vez más en un mero renacimiento antiguo, vaciado de todas las ideas altruistas y la fuerza de convicción que habían inspirado sus obras maestras". [59] Una fase anterior del estilo se denominó estilo Adam en Gran Bretaña.
El neoclasicismo siguió siendo una fuerza importante en el arte académico durante el siglo XIX y más allá (una antítesis constante del romanticismo o los resurgimientos góticos ), aunque desde finales del siglo XIX en adelante a menudo se lo había considerado antimoderno, o incluso reaccionario, en círculos críticos influyentes. [ ¿ quién? ] Los centros de varias ciudades europeas, en particular San Petersburgo y Múnich , llegaron a parecerse mucho a museos de arquitectura neoclásica.
La arquitectura neogótica (a menudo vinculada al movimiento cultural romántico), un estilo que se originó en el siglo XVIII y que ganó popularidad a lo largo del siglo XIX, contrastaba con el neoclasicismo. Mientras que el neoclasicismo se caracterizaba por estilos con influencia griega y romana, líneas geométricas y orden, la arquitectura neogótica ponía énfasis en edificios de aspecto medieval, a menudo diseñados para tener una apariencia rústica y "romántica".
![Fachada del Petit Trianon, Versalles, Francia, por Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[63]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/West_facade_of_Petit_Trianon_002.JPG/1280px-West_facade_of_Petit_Trianon_002.JPG)
It marks the transition from Rococo to Classicism. Unlike the Classicism of Louis XIV, which transformed ornaments into symbols, Louis XVI style represents them as realistic and natural as possible, i.e. laurel branches really are laurel branches, roses the same, and so on. One of the main decorative principles is symmetry. In interiors, the colours used are very bright, including white, light grey, bright blue, pink, yellow, very light lilac, and gold. Excesses of ornamentation are avoided.[70] The return to antiquity is synonymous with above all with a return to the straight lines: strict verticals and horizontals were the order of the day. Serpentine ones were no longer tolerated, save for the occasional half circle or oval. Interior decor also honored this taste for rigor, with the result that flat surfaces and right angles returned to fashion. Ornament was used to mediate this severity, but it never interfered with basic lines and always was disposed symmetrically around a central axis. Even so, ébénistes often canted fore-angles to avoid excessive rigidity.[71]
The decorative motifs of Louis XVI style were inspired by antiquity, the Louis XIV style, and nature. Characteristic elements of the style: a torch crossed with a sheath with arrows, imbricated disks, guilloché, double bow-knots, smoking braziers, linear repetitions of small motifs (rosettes, beads, oves), trophy or floral medallions hanging from a knotted ribbon, acanthus leaves, gadrooning, interlace, meanders, cornucopias, mascarons, Ancient urns, tripods, perfume burners, dolphins, ram and lion heads, chimeras, and gryphons. Greco-Roman architectural motifs are also heavily used: flutings, pilasters (fluted and unfluted), fluted balusters (twisted and straight), columns (engaged and unengaged, sometimes replaced by caryathids), volute corbels, triglyphs with guttae (in relief and trompe-l'œil).[72]
Neoclassicism was representative for the new French society that exited the revolution, setting the tone in all life fields, including art. The Jacquard machine was invented during this period (which revolutionised the entire sewing system, manual until then). One of the dominant colours was red, decorated with gilt bronze. Bright colours were also used, including white, cream, violet, brown, blue, dark red, with little ornaments of gilt bronze. Interior architecture included wood panels decorated with gilt reliefs (on a white background or a coloured one). Motifs were placed geometrically. The walls were covered in stuccos, wallpaper fabrics. Fireplace mantels were made of white marble, having caryatids at their corners, or other elements: obelisks, sphinxes, winged lions, and so on. Bronze objects were placed on their tops, including mantel clocks. The doors consisted of simple rectangular panels, decorated with a Pompeian-inspired central figure. Empire fabrics are damasks with a blue or brown background, satins with a green, pink or purple background, velvets of the same colors, brooches broached with gold or silver, and cotton fabrics. All of these were used in interiors for curtains, for covering certain furniture, for cushions or upholstery (leather was also used for upholstery).[79]
All Empire ornament is governed by a rigorous spirit of symmetry reminiscent of the Louis XIV style. Generally, the motifs on a piece's right and left sides correspond to one another in every detail; when they do not, the individual motifs themselves are entirely symmetrical in composition: antique heads with identical tresses falling onto each shoulder, frontal figures of Victory with symmetrically arrayed tunics, identical rosettes or swans flanking a lock plate, etc. Like Louis XIV, Napoleon had a set of emblems unmistakably associated with his rule, most notably the eagle, the bee, stars, and the initials I (for Imperator) and N (for Napoleon), which were usually inscribed within an imperial laurel crown. Motifs used include: figures of Victory bearing palm branches, Greek dancers, nude and draped women, figures of antique chariots, winged putti, mascarons of Apollo, Hermes and the Gorgon, swans, lions, the heads of oxen, horses and wild beasts, butterflies, claws, winged chimeras, sphinxes, bucrania, sea horses, oak wreaths knotted by thin trailing ribbons, climbing grape vines, poppy rinceaux, rosettes, palm branches, and laurel. There's a lot of Greco-Roman ones: stiff and flat acanthus leaves, palmettes, cornucopias, beads, amphoras, tripods, imbricated disks, caduceuses of Mercury, vases, helmets, burning torches, winged trumpet players, and ancient musical instruments (tubas, rattles and especially lyres). Despite their antique derivation, the fluting and triglyphs so prevalent under Louis XVI are abandoned. Egyptian Revival motifs are especially common at the beginning of the period: scarabs, lotus capitals, winged disks, obelisks, pyramids, figures wearing nemeses, caryatids en gaine supported by bare feet and with women Egyptian headdresses.[80]
Neoclassical architecture became widespread as a symbol of wealth and power in Germany, mostly in what was then Prussia. Karl Friedrich Schinkel built many prominent buildings in this style, including the Altes Museum in Berlin. While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning, his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center.
His Bauakademie is considered one of the forerunners of modern architecture due to its hithertofore relatively streamlined façade of the building
From the second half of the 18th century through the 19th century, Italy went through a great deal of socio-economic changes, several foreign invasions and the turbulent Risorgimento, which resulted in Italian unification in 1861. Thus, Italian art went through a series of minor and major changes in style.
Italian Neoclassicism was the earliest manifestation of the general period known as Neoclassicism and lasted more than the other national variants of neoclassicism. It developed in opposition to the Baroque style around c. 1750 and lasted until c. 1850. Neoclassicism began around the period of the rediscovery of Pompeii and spread all over Europe as a generation of art students returned to their countries from the Grand Tour in Italy with rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals. It first centred in Rome where artists such as Antonio Canova and Jacques-Louis David were active in the second half of the 18th century, before moving to Paris. Painters of Vedute, like Canaletto and Giovanni Paolo Panini, also enjoyed a huge success during the Grand Tour. Neoclassical architecture was inspired by the Renaissance works of Andrea Palladio and saw in Luigi Vanvitelli the main interpreters of the style.
Classicist literature had a great impact on the Risorgimento movement: the main figures of the period include Vittorio Alfieri, Giuseppe Parini, Vincenzo Monti and Ugo Foscolo, Giacomo Leopardi and Alessandro Manzoni (nephew of Cesare Beccaria), who were also influenced by the French Enlightenment and German Romanticism. The virtuoso violinist Paganini and the operas of Rossini, Donnizetti, Bellini and, later, Verdi dominated the scene in Italian classical and romantic music.
The art of Francesco Hayez and especially that of the Macchiaioli represented a break with the classical school, which came to an end as Italy unified (see Italian modern and contemporary art). Neoclassicism was the last Italian-born style, after the Renaissance and Baroque, to spread to all Western Art.
![Round church of Saint Demetrius, Lețcani, unknown architect, 1795[81]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Biserica_rotunda_Letcani_04.JPG/1280px-Biserica_rotunda_Letcani_04.JPG)
During the 19th century, the predominant style in Wallachia and Moldavia, later the Kingdom of Romania, was Classicism which lasted for a long time, until the 20th century, although it coexisted in some short periods with other styles. Foreign architects and engineers were invited here since the first decade of the 19th century. Most of the architects that built during the beginning of the century were foreigners because Romanians did not have yet the instruction needed for designing buildings that were very different compared to the Romanian tradition. Usually using Classicism, they started building together with Romanian artisans, usually prepared in foreign schools or academies. Romanian architects studied in Western European schools as well. One example is Alexandru Orăscu, one of the representatives of Neoclassicism in Romania.
Classicism manifested both in religious and secular architecture. A good example of secular architecture is the Știrbei Palace on Calea Victoriei (Bucharest), built around the year 1835, after the plans of French architect Michel Sanjouand. It received a new level in 1882, designed by Austrian architect Joseph Hartmann[85][86]
In 1905–1914 Russian architecture passed through a brief but influential period of Neoclassical revival; the trend began with recreation of Empire style of Alexandrine period and quickly expanded into a variety of neo-Renaissance, Palladian and modernized, yet recognizably classical schools. They were led by architects born in the 1870s, who reached creative peak before World War I, like Ivan Fomin, Vladimir Shchuko and Ivan Zholtovsky. When the economy recovered in the 1920s, these architects and their followers continued working in primarily modernist environment; some (Zholtovsky) strictly followed the classical canon, others (Fomin, Schuko, Ilya Golosov) developed their own modernized styles.[87]
With the crackdown on architect's independence and official denial of modernism (1932), demonstrated by the international contest for the Palace of Soviets, Neoclassicism was instantly promoted as one of the choices in Stalinist architecture, although not the only choice. It coexisted with moderately modernist architecture of Boris Iofan, bordering with contemporary Art Deco (Schuko); again, the purest examples of the style were produced by Zholtovsky school that remained an isolated phenomena. The political intervention was a disaster for constructivist leaders yet was sincerely welcomed by architects of the classical schools.
Neoclassicism was an easy choice for the Soviet Union since it did not rely on modern construction technologies (steel frame or reinforced concrete) and could be reproduced in traditional masonry. Thus the designs of Zholtovsky, Fomin and other old masters were easily replicated in remote towns under strict material rationing. Improvement of construction technology after World War II permitted Stalinist architects to venture into skyscraper construction, although stylistically these skyscrapers (including "exported" architecture of Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw and the Shanghai International Convention Centre) share little with the classical models. Neoclassicism and neo-Renaissance persisted in less demanding residential and office projects until 1955, when Nikita Khrushchev put an end to expensive Stalinist architecture.
![Apotheosis of Virgil; by John Flaxman; c.1776; jasperware; diameter: 41 cm; Harris Museum, Preston, Lancashire, UK[91]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Jasperware_plaque_by_Wedgwood_(c._1776),_Harris_Museum.JPG/1280px-Jasperware_plaque_by_Wedgwood_(c._1776),_Harris_Museum.JPG)
The Adam style was created by two brothers, Adam and James, who published in 1777 a volume of etchings with interior ornamentation. In the interior decoration made after Robert Adam's drawings, the walls, ceilings, doors, and any other surface, are divided into big panels: rectangular, round, square, with stuccos and Greco-Roman motifs at the edges. Ornaments used include festoons, pearls, egg-and-dart bands, medallions, and any other motifs used during the Classical antiquity (especially the Etruscan ones). Decorative fittings such as urn-shaped stone vases, gilded silverware, lamps, and stauettes all have the same source of inspiration, classical antiquity. The Adam style emphasizes refined rectangular mirrors, framed like paintings (in frames with stylised leafs), or with a pediment above them, supporting an urn or a medallion. Another design of Adam mirrors is shaped like a Venetian window, with a big central mirror between two other thinner and longer ones. Another type of mirrors are the oval ones, usually decorated with festoons. The furniture in this style has a similar structure to Louis XVI furniture.[94]
Besides the Adam style, when it comes to decorative arts, England is also known for the ceramic manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795), who established a pottery called Etruria. Wedgwood ware is made of a material called jasperware, a hard and fine-grained type of stoneware. Wedgwood vases are usually decorated with reliefs in two colours, in most cases the figures being white and the background blue.
![Capitol Building, Washington, D.C., 1793–1863, by William Thornton and Thomas Ustick Walter[95]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/US_Capitol_west_side.JPG/1280px-US_Capitol_west_side.JPG)
On the American continent, architecture and interior decoration have been highly influenced by the styles developed in Europe. The French taste has highly marked its presence in the southern states (after the French Revolution some emigrants have moved here, and in Canada a big part of the population has French origins). The practical spirit and the material situation of the Americans at that time gave the interiors a typic atmosphere. All the American furniture, carpets, tableware, ceramic, and silverware, with all the European influences, and sometimes Islamic, Turkish or Asian, were made in conformity with the American norms, taste, and functional requirements. There have existed in the US a period of the Queen Anne style, and an Chippendale one. A style of its own, the Federal style, has developed completely in the 18th and early 19th centuries, which has flourished being influenced by Britannic taste. Under the impulse of Neoclassicism, architecture, interiors, and furniture have been created. The style, although it has numerous characteristics which differ from state to state, is unitary. The structures of architecture, interiors, and furniture are Classicist, and incorporate Baroque and Rococo influences. The shapes used include rectangles, ovals, and crescents. Stucco or wooden panels on walls and ceilings reproduce Classicist motifs. Furniture tend to be decorated with floral marquetry and bronze or brass inlays (sometimes gilded).[98]
In England, Augustan literature had a direct parallel with the Augustan style of landscape design. The links are clearly seen in the work of Alexander Pope. The best surviving examples of Neoclassical English gardens are Chiswick House, Stowe House and Stourhead.[99]
In fashion, Neoclassicism influenced the much greater simplicity of women's dresses, and the long-lasting fashion for white, from well before the French Revolution, but it was not until after it that thorough-going attempts to imitate ancient styles became fashionable in France, at least for women. Classical costumes had long been worn by fashionable ladies posing as some figure from Greek or Roman myth in a portrait (in particular there was a rash of such portraits of the young model Emma, Lady Hamilton from the 1780s), but such costumes were only worn for the portrait sitting and masquerade balls until the Revolutionary period, and perhaps, like other exotic styles, as undress at home. But the styles worn in portraits by Juliette Récamier, Joséphine de Beauharnais, Thérésa Tallien and other Parisian trend-setters were for going-out in public as well. Seeing Mme Tallien at the opera, Talleyrand quipped that: "Il n'est pas possible de s'exposer plus somptueusement!" ("One could not be more sumptuously undressed"). In 1788, just before the Revolution, the court portraitist Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun had held a Greek supper where the ladies wore plain white Grecian tunics.[100] Shorter classical hairstyles, where possible with curls, were less controversial and very widely adopted, and hair was now uncovered even outdoors; except for evening dress, bonnets or other coverings had typically been worn even indoors before. Thin Greek-style ribbons or fillets were used to tie or decorate the hair instead.
Very light and loose dresses, usually white and often with shockingly bare arms, rose sheer from the ankle to just below the bodice, where there was a strongly emphasized thin hem or tie round the body, often in a different colour. The shape is now often known as the Empire silhouette although it predates the First French Empire of Napoleon, but his first Empress Joséphine de Beauharnais was influential in spreading it around Europe. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, very often plain red but with a decorated border in portraits, helped in colder weather, and was apparently laid around the midriff when seated—for which sprawling semi-recumbent postures were favoured.[101] By the start of the 19th century, such styles had spread widely across Europe.
Neoclassical fashion for men was far more problematic, and never really took off other than for hair, where it played an important role in the shorter styles that finally despatched the use of wigs, and then white hair-powder, for younger men. The trouser had been the symbol of the barbarian to the Greeks and Romans, but outside the painter's or, especially, the sculptor's studio, few men were prepared to abandon it. Indeed, the period saw the triumph of the pure trouser, or pantaloon, over the culotte or knee-breeches of the Ancien Régime. Even when David designed a new French "national costume" at the request of the government during the height of the Revolutionary enthusiasm for changing everything in 1792, it included fairly tight leggings under a coat that stopped above the knee. A high proportion of well-to-do young men spent much of the key period in military service because of the French Revolutionary Wars, and military uniform, which began to emphasize jackets that were short at the front, giving a full view of tight-fitting trousers, was often worn when not on duty, and influenced civilian male styles.
The trouser-problem had been recognised by artists as a barrier to creating contemporary history paintings; like other elements of contemporary dress they were seen as irredeemably ugly and unheroic by many artists and critics. Various stratagems were used to avoid depicting them in modern scenes. In James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758) by Gavin Hamilton, the two gentleman antiquaries are shown in toga-like Arab robes. In Watson and the Shark (1778) by John Singleton Copley, the main figure could plausibly be shown nude, and the composition is such that of the eight other men shown, only one shows a single breeched leg prominently. However the Americans Copley and Benjamin West led the artists who successfully showed that trousers could be used in heroic scenes, with works like West's The Death of General Wolfe (1770) and Copley's The Death of Major Peirson, 6 January 1781 (1783), although the trouser was still being carefully avoided in The Raft of the Medusa, completed in 1819.
Classically inspired male hairstyles included the Bedford Crop, arguably the precursor of most plain modern male styles, which was invented by the radical politician Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford as a protest against a tax on hair powder; he encouraged his friends to adopt it by betting them they would not. Another influential style (or group of styles) was named by the French "coiffure à la Titus" after Titus Junius Brutus (not in fact the Roman Emperor Titus as often assumed), with hair short and layered but somewhat piled up on the crown, often with restrained quiffs or locks hanging down; variants are familiar from the hair of both Napoleon and George IV of the United Kingdom. The style was supposed to have been introduced by the actor François-Joseph Talma, who upstaged his wigged co-actors when appearing in productions of works such as Voltaire's Brutus (about Lucius Junius Brutus, who orders the execution of his son Titus). In 1799 a Parisian fashion magazine reported that even bald men were adopting Titus wigs,[102] and the style was also worn by women, the Journal de Paris reporting in 1802 that "more than half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wig à la Titus.[103]
Neoclassicism in music is a 20th-century movement; in this case it is the Classical and Baroque musical styles of the 17th and 18th centuries, with their fondness for Greek and Roman themes, that were being revived, not the music of the ancient world itself. (The early 20th century had not yet distinguished the Baroque period in music, on which Neoclassical composers mainly drew, from what we now call the Classical period.) The movement was a reaction in the first part of the 20th century to the disintegrating chromaticism of late-Romanticism and Impressionism, emerging in parallel with musical Modernism, which sought to abandon key tonality altogether. It manifested a desire for cleanness and simplicity of style, which allowed for quite dissonant paraphrasing of classical procedures, but sought to blow away the cobwebs of Romanticism and the twilit glimmerings of Impressionism in favour of bold rhythms, assertive harmony and clean-cut sectional forms, coinciding with the vogue for reconstructed "classical" dancing and costume in ballet and physical education.
The 17th–18th century dance suite had had a minor revival before World War I but the Neoclassicists were not altogether happy with unmodified diatonicism, and tended to emphasise the bright dissonance of suspensions and ornaments, the angular qualities of 17th-century modal harmony and the energetic lines of countrapuntal part-writing. Ottorino Respighi's Ancient Airs and Dances (1917) led the way for the sort of sound to which the Neoclassicists aspired. Although the practice of borrowing musical styles from the past has not been uncommon throughout musical history, art musics have gone through periods where musicians used modern techniques coupled with older forms or harmonies to create new kinds of works. Notable compositional characteristics are: referencing diatonic tonality, conventional forms (dance suites, concerti grossi, sonata forms, etc.), the idea of absolute music untramelled by descriptive or emotive associations, the use of light musical textures, and a conciseness of musical expression. In classical music, this was most notably perceived between the 1920s and the 1950s. Igor Stravinsky is the best-known composer using this style; he effectively began the musical revolution with his Bach-like Octet for Wind Instruments (1923). A particular individual work that represents this style well is Prokofiev's Classical Symphony No. 1 in D, which is reminiscent of the symphonic style of Haydn or Mozart. Neoclassical ballet as innovated by George Balanchine de-cluttered the Russian Imperial style in terms of costume, steps and narrative, while also introducing technical innovations.
After the middle of the 19th century, Neoclassicism starts to no longer be the main style, being replaced by Eclecticism of Classical styles. The Palais Garnier in Paris is a good example of this, since despite being predominantly Neoclassical, it features elements and ornaments taken from Baroque and Renaissance architecture. This practice was frequent in late 19th and early 20th century architecture, before World War I. Besides Neoclassicism, the Beaux-Arts de Paris well known for this eclecticism of Classical styles.
Pablo Picasso experimented with classicizing motifs in the years immediately following World War I.[106]
In American architecture, Neoclassicism was one expression of the American Renaissance movement, ca. 1890–1917; its last manifestation was in Beaux-Arts architecture, and its final large public projects were the Lincoln Memorial (highly criticized at the time), the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. (also heavily criticized by the architectural community as being backward thinking and old fashioned in its design), and the American Museum of Natural History's Roosevelt Memorial. These were considered stylistic anachronisms when they were finished. In the British Raj, Sir Edwin Lutyens' monumental city planning for New Delhi marks the sunset of Neoclassicism. World War II was to shatter most longing for (and imitation of) a mythical time.
There was an entire 20th-century movement in the non-visual arts which was also called Neoclassicism. It encompassed at least music, philosophy and literature. It was between the end of World War I and the end of World War II. (For information on the musical aspects, see 20th-century classical music and Neoclassicism in music. For information on the philosophical aspects, see Great Books.)
This literary Neoclassical movement rejected the extreme romanticism of (for example) Dada, in favour of restraint, religion (specifically Christianity) and a reactionary political program. Although the foundations for this movement in English literature were laid by T. E. Hulme, the most famous Neoclassicists were T. S. Eliot and Wyndham Lewis. In Russia, the movement crystallized as early as 1910 under the name of Acmeism, with Anna Akhmatova and Osip Mandelshtam as the leading representatives.
![Chest of drawers, a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style; by Clément Mère; 1910; maple, ebony, leather and ivory; 87.5 x 96 x 37 cm; Musée d'Orsay, Paris[107]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cl%C3%A9ment_m%C3%A8re,_comodino,_francia_1910_ca._01.JPG/1280px-Cl%C3%A9ment_m%C3%A8re,_comodino,_francia_1910_ca._01.JPG)
Although it started to be seen as 'dated' after WW1, principles, proportions and other Neoclassical elements were not abandoned yet. Art Deco was the dominant style during the interwar period, and it corresponds with the taste of a bourgeois elite for high class French styles of the past, including the Louis XVI, Directoire and Empire (the period styles of French Neoclassicism). At the same time, the French elite was equally capable of appreciating Modern art, like the works of Pablo Picasso or Amedeo Modigliani. The result of this situation is the early Art Deco style, which uses both new and old elements. The Palais de Tokyo from 1937 in Paris, by André Aubert and Marcel Dastugue, is a good example of this. Although ornaments are not used here, the facade being decorated only with reliefs, the way columns are present here is a strong reminiscence of Neoclassicism. Art Deco design often drew on Neoclassical motifs without expressing them overtly: severe, blocky commodes by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann or Louis Süe & André Mare; crisp, extremely low-relief friezes of damsels and gazelles in every medium; fashionable dresses that were draped or cut on the bias to recreate Grecian lines; the art dance of Isadora Duncan. Conservative modernist architects such as Auguste Perret in France kept the rhythms and spacing of columnar architecture even in factory buildings.
The oscillation of Art Deco between the use of historic elements, shapes and proportions, and the appetite for 'new', for Modernism, is the result of multiple factors. One of them is eclecticism. The complexity and heterogeneity of Art Deco is largely due to the eclectic spirit. Stylized elements from repertoire of Beaux-Arts, Neoclassicism, or of cultures distant in time and space (Ancient Egypt, Pre-Columbian Americas, or Sub-Saharian African art) are put together with references to Modernist avant-guard artists of the early 20th century (Henri Matisse, Amedeo Modigliani or Constantin Brâncuși). The Art Deco phenomenon owes to academic eclecticism and Neoclassicism mainly the existence of a specific architecture. Without the contribution of the Beaux-Arts trained architects, Art Deco architecture would have remained, with the exception of residential buildings, a collection of decorative objects magnified to an urban scale, like the pavilions of the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts from 1925, controversial at their time. Another reason for the swinging between historical elements and modernism was consumer culture. Objects and buildings in the puritan International style, devoid of any ornamentation or citation of the past, were too radical for the general public. In interwar France and England, the spirit of the public and much architectural criticism could not conceive a style totally deprived of ornament, like the International style.
The use of historic styles as sources of inspiration for Art Deco starts as far back as the years before WW1, through the efforts of decorators like Maurice Dufrêne, Paul Follot, Paul Iribe, André Groult, Léon Jallot or Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann, who relate to the prestigious French artistic and handicraft tradition of the late 18th and early 19th centuries (the Louis XVI, Directoire and Louis Philippe), and who want to bring a new approach to these styles. The neo-Louis XVI style was really popular in France and Romania in the years before WW1, around 1910, and it heavily influenced multiple early Art Deco designs and buildings. A good example of this is the Château de Sept-Saulx in Grand Est, France, by Louis Süe, 1928–1929.[114]
![Fascist - University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building in Bucharest (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46), Bucharest, Romania, by Petre Antonescu, 1933-1935[117]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Bucuresti,_Romania,_Facultatea_de_Drept,_UNIVRSITATEA_Bucuresti,_B-II-m-A-19003.JPG/1280px-Bucuresti,_Romania,_Facultatea_de_Drept,_UNIVRSITATEA_Bucuresti,_B-II-m-A-19003.JPG)
In Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, Romania under the rule of Carol II and the Soviet Union, during the 1920s and 1930s, totalitarian regimes chose Neoclassicism for state buildings and art. Architecture was central to totalitarian regimes' expression of their permanence (despite their obvious novelty). The way totalitarian regimes drew from Classicism took many forms. When it comes to state buildings in Italy and Romania, architects attempted to fuse a modern sensibility with abstract classical forms. Two good examples of this are the Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana in Rome, and the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building in Bucharest (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46). In contrast, the Classicism of the Soviet Union, known as Socialist Realism, was bombastic, overloaded with ornaments and architectural sculptures, as an attempt to be in contrast with the simplicity of 'Capitalist' or 'bourgeois' styles like Art Deco or Modernism. The Lomonosov University in Moscow is a good example of this. Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader that succeeded Stalin, did not like this pompous Socialist Realist architecture from the reign of his predecessor. Because of the low speed and cost of these Neoclassical buildings, he stated that 'they spent people's money on beauty that no one needs, instead of building simpler, but more'.
In the Soviet Union, Neoclassicism was embraced as a rejection of Art Deco and Modernism, which the Communists saw as being too 'bourgeois' and 'capitalist'. This Communist Neoclassical style is known as Socialist Realism, and it was popular during the reign of Joseph Stalin (1924–1953). In fine art. Generally, it manifested through deeply idealized representations of wiry workers, shown as heroes in collective farms or industrialized cities, political assemblies, achievements of Soviet technology, and through depictions happy children staying around Lenin or Stalin. Both subject matter and representation were carefully monitored. Artistic merit was determined by the degree to which a work contributed to the building of socialism. All artists had to join the state-controlled Union of Soviet Artists and produce work in the accepted style. The three guiding principles of Socialist Realism were party loyalty, presentation of correct ideology and accessibility. Realism, more easily understood by the masses, was the style of choice. At the beginning, in the Soviet Union, multiple competing avant-garde movements were present, notably Constructivism. However, as Stalin consolidated his power towards the end of the 1920s, avant-garde art and architecture were suppressed and eventually outlawed and official state styles were established. After Boris Iofan won the competition for the design of the Palace of the Soviets with a stepped classical tower, surmounted by a giant statue of Lenin, architecture soon reverted to pre-Revolutionary styles of art and architecture, untainted by Constructivism's perceived Western influence.[121] Although Socialist Realism in architecture ended more or less with the death of Stalin and the rise of Nikita Khrushchev, paintings in this style continued to be produced, especially in countries where there was a strong personality cult of the leader in power, like in the case of Mao Zedong's China, Kim Il Sung's North Korea, or Nicolae Ceaușescu's Romania.
The Nazis suppressed Germany's vibrant avant-garde culture once they gained control of the government in 1933. Albert Speer was set as Adolf Hitler's architectural advisor in 1934, and he tried to create an architecture that would both reflect the perceived unity of the German people and act as backdrop to the Nazis' expressions of power. The Nazis' approach to architecture was riffled with contradictions: while Hitler and Speer's plans for reordering Berlin aspired to imitate imperial Rome, in rural contexts Nazi buildings took inspiration from local vernaculars, trying to channel an 'authentic' German spirit. When it come to fine art, the Nazis created the term 'Degenerate art' for Modern art, a kind of art which to them was 'un-German', 'Jewish' or 'Communist'. The Nazis hated modern art and linked it to 'Cultural Bolshevism', the conspiracy theory that art (or culture broadly) was controlled by a leftist Jewish cabal seeking to destroy the aryan race. Hitler's war on Modern art mostly consisted of an exhibition that tried to discredit Modern artists, called the 'Degenerate Art exhibition' (‹See Tfd›German: Die Ausstellung "Entartete Kunst"). This exhibition was displayed next to the Great Exhibition of German Art, which consisted of artworks that the Nazis approved of. This way, the visitiors of both exhibitions could compare the art labeled by the regime as 'good' and 'bad'. With a similar atitude, the regime closed in 1931 the Bauhaus, an avant-garde art school in Dessau that was extremely influential post-war. It reopened in Berlin in 1932, but was closed again in 1933.
Compared to Germany and the Soviet Union, in Italy the avant-garde contributed to state architecture. Classical architecture was also an influence, echoing Benito Mussolini's far cruder attempts to create links between his Fascist regime and ancient Rome. Some Italian architects tried to create fusions between Modernism and Classicism, like Marcello Piacentini with the Sapienza University of Rome, or Giuseppe Terragni with Casa del Fascio in Como.[122]
In Romania, towards the late 1930s, influenced by the Autocratic tendency of King Carol II, multiple state buildings were erected. They were Neoclassical, many very similar with what was popular in the same years in Fascist Italy. Examples in Bucharest include the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46), the Kretzulescu Apartment Building (Calea Victoriei no. 45), the CFR Building (Bulevardul Dinicu Golescu no. 38) or the Victoria Palace (Piața Victoriei no. 1). The Royal Palace, whose interiors are mostly done in a neo-Adam style, stands out by being more decorated, a little closer to the architecture before World War I.
![M2 Building, Tokyo, Japan, by Kengo Kuma, 1991[130]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/M2%E3%83%93%E3%83%AB_(%E4%B8%96%E7%94%B0%E8%B0%B7%E5%8C%BA).jpeg/1280px-M2%E3%83%93%E3%83%AB_(%E4%B8%96%E7%94%B0%E8%B0%B7%E5%8C%BA).jpeg)
![Children's Museum of Houston, Houston, US, by Robert Venturi, 1992[131]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/HoustonChildrenMuseum.JPG/1280px-HoustonChildrenMuseum.JPG)
![Exterior of the Trafford Centre, Manchester, UK, designed by Chapman Taylor and Leach Rhodes Walker, with sculptures by Colin Spofforth, 1998[133]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Trafford_Centre,_May_2013_(20).JPG/1280px-Trafford_Centre,_May_2013_(20).JPG)
An early text questioning Modernism was by architect Robert Venturi, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966), in which he recommended a revival of the 'presence of the past' in architectural design. He tried to include in his own buildings qualities that he described as 'inclusion, inconsistency, compromise, accommodation, adaptation, superadjacency, equivalence, multiple focus, juxtaposition, or good and bad space.'[135] Robert Venturi's work reflected the broader counter-cultural mood of the 1960s which saw younger generations begin to question and challenge the political, social and racial realities with which they found themselves confronted. This rejection of Modernism is known as Postmodernism. Robert Venturi parodies Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's well-known maxim 'less is more' with 'less is a bore'. During the 1980s and 1990s, some Postmodern architects found a refuge in a sort of Neo-Neoclassicism. Their use of Classicism was not limited only to ornaments, using more or less proportions and other principles too. Post-Modern Classicism had been variously described by some people as 'camp' or 'kitsch'. An architect who has been remarked through Post-Modern Classicism is Ricardo Bofill. His work includes two housing projects of titanic scale near Paris, known as Les Arcades du Lac from 1975 to 1981, and Les Espaces d'Abraxas from 1978 to 1983. A building that stands out through its revivalism is the J. Paul Getty Museum, in Malibu, California, from 1970 to 1975, inspired by the ancient Roman Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum. The J. Paul Getty Museum is far closer to 19th century Neoclassicism, like the Pompejanum in Aschaffenburg, Germany, than to Post-Modern Classicism of the 1980s.[136]
After a lull during the period of modern architectural dominance (roughly post-World War II until the mid-1980s), Neoclassicism has seen something of a resurgence.
As of the first decade of the 21st century, contemporary Neoclassical architecture is usually classed under the umbrella term of New Classical Architecture. Sometimes it is also referred to as Neo-Historicism or Traditionalism.[138] Also, a number of pieces of postmodern architecture draw inspiration from and include explicit references to Neoclassicism, Antigone District and the National Theatre of Catalonia in Barcelona among them. Postmodern architecture occasionally includes historical elements, like columns, capitals or the tympanum.
For sincere traditional-style architecture that sticks to regional architecture, materials and craftsmanship, the term Traditional Architecture (or vernacular) is mostly used. The Driehaus Architecture Prize is awarded to major contributors in the field of 21st century traditional or classical architecture, and comes with a prize money twice as high as that of the modernist Pritzker Prize.[139]
In the United States, various contemporary public buildings are built in Neoclassical style, with the 2006 Schermerhorn Symphony Center in Nashville being an example.
In Britain, a number of architects are active in the Neoclassical style. Examples of their work include two university libraries: Quinlan Terry's Maitland Robinson Library at Downing College and Robert Adam Architects' Sackler Library.
_MET_DP827987.jpg/1280px-The_ancient_Capitol_ascended_by_approximately_one_hundred_steps_._._._(Campidoglio_antico_a_cui_si_ascendeva_per_circa_cento_gradini_._._.)_MET_DP827987.jpg)
![Un filósofo dando una conferencia sobre el planetario; por Joseph Wright de Derby; c.1766; óleo sobre lienzo; 1,47 x 2,03 m; Museo y galería de arte de Derby, Derby, Inglaterra[22]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Wright_of_Derby,_The_Orrery.jpg/1280px-Wright_of_Derby,_The_Orrery.jpg)
![Los atributos de las artes; por Anne Vallayer-Coster; 1769; óleo sobre lienzo; 90 x 121 cm; Louvre[23]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Attributs_de_la_peinture,_de_la_sculpture_et_de_l'architecture_-_Anne_Vallayer-Coster.jpg/1280px-Attributs_de_la_peinture,_de_la_sculpture_et_de_l'architecture_-_Anne_Vallayer-Coster.jpg)
![Ariadna abandonada; por Angélica Kauffmann; antes de 1782; óleo sobre lienzo; 88 x 70,5 cm; Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresde, Alemania[24]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Kauffmann,_Angelica_-_Ariadne_von_Theseus_verlassen_-_prior_to_1782.jpg/1280px-Kauffmann,_Angelica_-_Ariadne_von_Theseus_verlassen_-_prior_to_1782.jpg)
![Juramento de los Horacios; por Jacques-Louis David; 1784; óleo sobre lienzo; 3,3 x 4,27 m; Louvre[25]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Jacques-Louis_David,_Le_Serment_des_Horaces.jpg/1280px-Jacques-Louis_David,_Le_Serment_des_Horaces.jpg)
_Flaxman_Ilias_1795,_Zeichnung_1793,_189_x_284_mm.jpg/1280px-(27)_Flaxman_Ilias_1795,_Zeichnung_1793,_189_x_284_mm.jpg)
![Retrato del ciudadano Belley, ex representante de las colonias; por Anne-Louis Girodet; 1796–1797; óleo sobre lienzo; 1,59 x 1,11 m; Palacio de Versalles, Francia[26]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Anne-Louis_Girodet_De_Roucy-Trioson_-_Portrait_of_J._B._Belley,_Deputy_for_Saint-Domingue_-_WGA09508.jpg/1280px-Anne-Louis_Girodet_De_Roucy-Trioson_-_Portrait_of_J._B._Belley,_Deputy_for_Saint-Domingue_-_WGA09508.jpg)
![Cupido y Psique; por François Gérard; 1798; óleo sobre lienzo; 186 x 132 cm; Louvre[27]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Gerard_FrancoisPascalSimon-Cupid_Psyche_end.jpg/1280px-Gerard_FrancoisPascalSimon-Cupid_Psyche_end.jpg)
![Retrato de una mujer negra, de Marie-Guillemine Benoist; 1800; óleo sobre lienzo; 81 x 65 cm; Louvre[28]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Marie-Guillemine_Benoist_-_portrait_d'une_negresse.jpg/1280px-Marie-Guillemine_Benoist_-_portrait_d'une_negresse.jpg)
![Melancolía; por Constanza María Charpentier; 1801; óleo sobre lienzo; 130 x 165; Museo de Picardía, Amiens, Francia[29]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Charpentier,_Constance_Marie_-_Melancholy_-_1801.jpg/1280px-Charpentier,_Constance_Marie_-_Melancholy_-_1801.jpg)
![Retrato de Charlotte du Val d'Ognes; por Marie-Denise Villers; 1801; óleo sobre lienzo; 161,3 x 128,6 cm; Museo Metropolitano de Arte[30]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Villers_Young_Woman_Drawing.jpg/1280px-Villers_Young_Woman_Drawing.jpg)
![Bonaparte visita a las víctimas de la peste en Jaffa; por Antoine-Jean Gros; 1804; óleo sobre lienzo; 5,2 x 7,2 m; Louvre[31]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_visitant_les_pestif%C3%A9r%C3%A9s_de_Jaffa.jpg/1280px-Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_visitant_les_pestif%C3%A9r%C3%A9s_de_Jaffa.jpg)
![Retrato de la emperatriz Joséfina; por Pierre-Paul Prud'hon; 1805; óleo sobre lienzo; 244x179cm; Louvre[32]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Pierre-Paul_Prud'hon_001.jpg/1280px-Pierre-Paul_Prud'hon_001.jpg)
![Napoleón I en su trono imperial; por Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres; 1806; óleo sobre lienzo; 2,62 x 1,62 m; Museo del Ejército (París)[25]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ingres,_Napoleon_on_his_Imperial_throne.jpg/1280px-Ingres,_Napoleon_on_his_Imperial_throne.jpg)
![An Arch-Rascal (n.° 33 en una serie de personajes); de Franz Xaver Messerschmidt; después de 1770; alabastro; altura: 38 cm; Österreichische Galerie Belvedere, Viena, Austria[42]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Franz_Xaver_Messerschmidt_-_Charakterkopf_03.jpg/1280px-Franz_Xaver_Messerschmidt_-_Charakterkopf_03.jpg)
![Marte y Venus; por Johan Tobías Sergel; c.1775; mármol; altura: 93 cm; Museo Nacional, Estocolmo, Suecia[43]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Mars_and_Venus,_1804_CE,_by_Johan_Tobias_Sergel,_Nationalmuseum,_Sweden.jpg/1280px-Mars_and_Venus,_1804_CE,_by_Johan_Tobias_Sergel,_Nationalmuseum,_Sweden.jpg)
![El invierno; de Jean-Antoine Houdon; 1783; mármol; altura: 145 cm; Musée Fabre, Montpellier, Francia[44]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/SculpturesMus%C3%A9eFabre27b_Houdon_Hiver.jpg/1280px-SculpturesMus%C3%A9eFabre27b_Houdon_Hiver.jpg)
![Las princesas Luisa y Federica de Prusia; por Johann Gottfried Schadow; 1795–1797; mármol; altura: 172 cm; Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlín, Alemania[43]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Alte_Nationalgalerie-Schadow-Prinzessinnengruppe_DSC8124.jpg/1280px-Alte_Nationalgalerie-Schadow-Prinzessinnengruppe_DSC8124.jpg)
![Venus Victrix; por Antonio Cánova; 1804–1808; mármol; longitud: 200 cm; Galería Borghese, Roma[45]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Paolina_Borghese_(Canova).jpg/1280px-Paolina_Borghese_(Canova).jpg)
![Las Tres Gracias; de Antonio Canova; 1813–1816; mármol; altura: 1,82 m; Museo del Hermitage, San Petersburgo, Rusia[46]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Canova_-_The_Three_Graces,_between_1813_and_1816,_%D0%9D.%D1%81%D0%BA-506.jpg/1280px-Canova_-_The_Three_Graces,_between_1813_and_1816,_%D0%9D.%D1%81%D0%BA-506.jpg)
![Ganímedes y Júpiter; por Bertel Thorvaldsen; 1817; mármol; altura: 94 cm; Museo Thorvaldsen, Copenhague, Dinamarca[43]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ganymede_Waters_Zeus_as_an_Eagle_by_Thorvaldsen.jpg/1280px-Ganymede_Waters_Zeus_as_an_Eagle_by_Thorvaldsen.jpg)
![Pabellón central de la École militaire, París, 1752, de Ange-Jacques Gabriel[60]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/%C3%89cole_Militaire_Paris_Pavillon_central_depuis_la_cour_d'honneur.jpg/1280px-%C3%89cole_Militaire_Paris_Pavillon_central_depuis_la_cour_d'honneur.jpg)
![Panteón, París, por Jacques-Germain Soufflot y Jean-Baptiste Rondelet, 1758-1790[61]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Pantheon_1,_Paris_May_11,_2013.jpg/1280px-Pantheon_1,_Paris_May_11,_2013.jpg)
![Hôtel de la Marine, París, por Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1761-1770[62]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/L'H%C3%B4tel_de_la_Marine_(Paris)_(51346237676).jpg/1280px-L'H%C3%B4tel_de_la_Marine_(Paris)_(51346237676).jpg)
![Escalera del Pequeño Trianón, de Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[63]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/The_Petit_Trianon_(23935245609).jpg/1280px-The_Petit_Trianon_(23935245609).jpg)
![Interior del Pequeño Trianón, obra de Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[63]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Salon_de_Compagnie_-_Petit_Trianon_(23935437909).jpg/1280px-Salon_de_Compagnie_-_Petit_Trianon_(23935437909).jpg)
![Cómoda de Madame du Barry; por Martin Carlin (atribución); 1772; base de roble chapada en madera de peral, palo de rosa y amaranto, porcelana de Sèvres de pasta blanda, bronce dorado, mármol blanco; 87 x 119 cm; Louvre[64]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Commode_de_la_comtesse_du_Barry_(Louvre,_OA_11293).jpg/1280px-Commode_de_la_comtesse_du_Barry_(Louvre,_OA_11293).jpg)
![Hôtel du Châtelet, París, arquitecto desconocido, 1776[65]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/H%C3%B4tel_du_Ch%C3%A2telet_JP2011_fa%C3%A7ade_cour.jpg/1280px-H%C3%B4tel_du_Ch%C3%A2telet_JP2011_fa%C3%A7ade_cour.jpg)
![Escalera del Gran Teatro de Burdeos, Burdeos, Francia, por Victor Louis, 1777-1780[66]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bordeaux_Grand_Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_R03.jpg/1280px-Bordeaux_Grand_Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_R03.jpg)
![Armario de esquina parisino; por Jean Henri Riesener; 1780–1790; monturas de roble, caoba, mármol y ormolu; 94,3 × 81,3 × 55,9 cm; Art Institute of Chicago, EE. UU.[67]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Jean-henri_riesener,_angoliera,_1785_ca.jpg/1280px-Jean-henri_riesener,_angoliera,_1785_ca.jpg)
_2_(cropped_and_fixed_angles).jpg/1280px-Grand_vase_%C3%A0_fond_beau_bleu_(Louvre,_OA_6627)_2_(cropped_and_fixed_angles).jpg)
![Cabinet Doré of Marie Antoinette at the Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, by the Rousseau brothers, 1783[68]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Cabinet_dore_Marie-Antoinette_Versailles.jpg/1280px-Cabinet_dore_Marie-Antoinette_Versailles.jpg)
![Roll-top desk of Marie-Antoinette; by Jean-Henri Riesener; 1784; oak and pine frame, sycamore, amaranth and rosewood veneer, bronze gilt; 103.6 x 113.4 cm; Louvre[69]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Secr%C3%A9taire_%C3%A0_cylindre_de_Marie-Antoinette_(Louvre,_OA_5226).jpg/1280px-Secr%C3%A9taire_%C3%A0_cylindre_de_Marie-Antoinette_(Louvre,_OA_5226).jpg)
![Writing table of Marie Antoinette; by Adam Weisweiler; 1784; oak, ebony and sycamore veneer, Japanese lacquer, steel, bronze gilt; 73.7 x 81. 2 cm; Louvre[69]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Table_%C3%A0_%C3%A9crire_%C3%A0_pupitre_de_Marie-Antoinette_(Louvre,_OA_5509).jpg/1280px-Table_%C3%A0_%C3%A9crire_%C3%A0_pupitre_de_Marie-Antoinette_(Louvre,_OA_5509).jpg)
_(one_of_a_pair)_MET_DP113122.jpg/1280px-Folding_stool_(pliant)_(one_of_a_pair)_MET_DP113122.jpg)
_from_Louis_XVI's_Salon_des_Jeux_at_Saint_Cloud_MET_DP113960.jpg/1280px-Armchair_(fauteuil)_from_Louis_XVI's_Salon_des_Jeux_at_Saint_Cloud_MET_DP113960.jpg)
.jpg/1280px-Paris_10e_H%C3%B4tel_Gouthi%C3%A8re_60675_(fixed_angles).jpg)
![Astronomical clock; by Philippe-Jacques Corniquet; c.1794; gilt bronze and enamel face; unknown dimensions; Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris[73]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Corniquet_-_horloge_%C3%A0_heures_duod%C3%A9cimales_et_d%C3%A9cimales.jpg/1280px-Corniquet_-_horloge_%C3%A0_heures_duod%C3%A9cimales_et_d%C3%A9cimales.jpg)
![Armchair of the salon of Juliette Récamier; attributed to Jacob Frères; c.1798; various types of wood; 84.5 x 62.2 x 62 cm; Louvre[74]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Salon_de_madame_R%C3%A9camier_-_Berg%C3%A8re_(Louvre,_OA_11385).jpg/1280px-Salon_de_madame_R%C3%A9camier_-_Berg%C3%A8re_(Louvre,_OA_11385).jpg)
![Empress Joséphine's Bedroom in Château de Malmaison, Rueil-Malmaison, France, by Charles Percier and Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine, 1800-1802[75]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Malmaison,_France_(48029730202).jpg/1280px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Malmaison,_France_(48029730202).jpg)
_MET_DP106594.jpg/1280px-Washstand_(ath%C3%A9nienne_or_lavabo)_MET_DP106594.jpg)
![Portico of the Palais Bourbon, Paris, by Bernard Poyet, 1806-1808[76]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Palais_Bourbon,_Paris_7e,_NW_View_140402_1.jpg/1280px-Palais_Bourbon,_Paris_7e,_NW_View_140402_1.jpg)
![La Madeleine, Paris, by Pierre-Alexandre Vignon, 1807-1842[76]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Madeleine_Paris.jpg/1280px-Madeleine_Paris.jpg)
![Vase; 1809; hard-paste porcelain and gilded bronze handles; height: 74.9 cm, diameter: 35.6 cm; Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut, US[77]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Pair_of_green_vases,_painted_by_Jean_Georget,_mounts_by_Pierre-Philippe_Thomire,_1_of_2,_S%C3%A8vres_porcelain,_1809,_soft-paste_porcelain_-_Wadsworth_Atheneum_-_Hartford,_CT_-_DSC05493.jpg/1280px-thumbnail.jpg)
![King of Rome's Cradle; by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon, Henri Victor Roguier, Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot and Pierre-Philippe Thomire; 1811; wood, silver gilt, mother-of-pearl, sheets of copper covered with velvet, silk and tulle, decorated with silver and gold thread; height: 216 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria[78]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Austria-03324_-_Cradle_of_Napoleon's_Son_(32936041295).jpg/1280px-Austria-03324_-_Cradle_of_Napoleon's_Son_(32936041295).jpg)
![Știrbei Palace (Calea Victoriei no. 107), Bucharest, by Michel Sanjouand, c.1835; with a new level with caryatids added in 1882 by Joseph Hartmann[82]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Palatul_%C8%98tirbei,_Bucuresti.jpg/1280px-Palatul_%C8%98tirbei,_Bucuresti.jpg)
![The old building of the University of Bucharest, designed by Alexandru Orăscu and decorated with sculptures by Karl Storck, 1857–1864, bombarded in April or May 1944 during WW2 and partially destroyed, partially rebuilt during the late 1960s[83]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/The_University_Building_of_Bucharest,_circa_1869,_photo_by_Franz_Duschek.jpg/1280px-The_University_Building_of_Bucharest,_circa_1869,_photo_by_Franz_Duschek.jpg)
![Romanian Athenaeum on Calea Victoriei, Bucharest, by Albert Galleron, 1886–1895[84]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Ateneo_Rumano,_Bucarest,_Ruman%C3%ADa,_2016-05-29,_DD_73.jpg/1280px-Ateneo_Rumano,_Bucarest,_Ruman%C3%ADa,_2016-05-29,_DD_73.jpg)
.jpg/1280px-3-5_Strada_Icoanei,_Bucharest_(24).jpg)
![Kedleston Hall, Kedleston, Derbyshire, England, by Robert Adam, 1760–1770[88]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Kedleston_Hall_20080730-06.jpg/1280px-Kedleston_Hall_20080730-06.jpg)
![Eating Room, Osterley Park, London, by Robert Adam, 1761[89]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Osterley_House_The_Dinning_Room_(22773780472).jpg/1280px-Osterley_House_The_Dinning_Room_(22773780472).jpg)
![Syon House, Middlesex, England, by Robert Adam, 1762[88]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Syon_House_(33741948060).jpg/1280px-Syon_House_(33741948060).jpg)
![The Hall, Osterley Park, by Robert Adam, 1767[90]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Osterley_House,_entrance_hall.jpg/1280px-Osterley_House,_entrance_hall.jpg)
![Somerset House, London, by William Chambers, 1776-1801[92]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Somerset_House_(42160916102).jpg/1280px-Somerset_House_(42160916102).jpg)
![Covered Wedgwood urn; c.1800; jasper ware with relief decoration; overall: 19.7 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio, US[93]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Wedgwood_Factory_(British)_-_Covered_Urn_-_1951.301.2_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.jpg/1280px-Wedgwood_Factory_(British)_-_Covered_Urn_-_1951.301.2_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.jpg)
.jpg/1280px-Candlestand_LACMA_M.2006.51.13_(1_of_2).jpg)
![White House, Washington, D.C., by James Hoban, 1792-1829[95]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/White_House_north_and_south_sides.jpg/1280px-White_House_north_and_south_sides.jpg)
![The Rotunda (University of Virginia), Charlottesville, Virginia, by Thomas Jefferson, 1822-1826[96]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/University_of_Virginia_Rotunda_2006.jpg/1280px-University_of_Virginia_Rotunda_2006.jpg)
![Brevard-Rice House, Garden District, New Orleans, by James Calrow, 1857[97]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Brevard-Rice_House.jpg/1280px-Brevard-Rice_House.jpg)
![Beaux-Arts - Exterior of the Palais Garnier, Paris, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875[104]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Paris_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg/1280px-Paris_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg)
![Beaux-Arts - Grand stairs of the Palais Garnier, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875[104]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Opera_Garnier_Grand_Escalier.jpg/1280px-Opera_Garnier_Grand_Escalier.jpg)
![Beaux-Arts - Grand Central Terminal, New York City, by Reed and Stem and Warren and Wetmore, 1903[105]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Image-Grand_central_Station_Outside_Night_2.jpg/1280px-Image-Grand_central_Station_Outside_Night_2.jpg)
.jpg/1280px-Art_Deco_dressing_table_(1919-20).jpg)
![Hommage à Jean Goujon; by Alfred Janniot; 1919–1924; limestone partially coloured; 220 x 235 x 129 cm; Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon, Portugal[108]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/The_Gulbenkian_Museum_(40658606370).jpg/1280px-The_Gulbenkian_Museum_(40658606370).jpg)
![Embassy of France, Belgrade, Serbia, by Roger-Henri Expert with Josif Najman as assistant, designed in 1926, built in 1939[109][110]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Beograd_-_Ambasada_Francuske_u_Srbiji_(31092842098).jpg/1280px-Beograd_-_Ambasada_Francuske_u_Srbiji_(31092842098).jpg)
![Château de Sept-Saulx, Grand Est, a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style, France, by Louis Süe, 1928-1929[111]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Photo_(50_sur_102).jpg/1280px-Photo_(50_sur_102).jpg)
![Daily Telegraph Building, London, by Charles Ernest Elcock, after consulting with Thomas S. Tait, 1928[112]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Daily_Telegraph_Building_(24438959395).jpg/1280px-Daily_Telegraph_Building_(24438959395).jpg)
.jpg/1280px-Design_for_Severance_Hall_grand_foyer_-_Walker_and_Weeks_(39638807102).jpg)
![Dumitru Săvulescu House (Bulevardul Dacia no. 73), Bucharest, Romania, by Gheorghe Negoescu, 1933[113]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/73_Bulevardul_Dacia,_Bucharest_(01).jpg/1280px-73_Bulevardul_Dacia,_Bucharest_(01).jpg)
![Grave of the Străjescu Family, Bellu Cemetery, Bucharest, by George Cristinel, 1934[106]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Grave_of_the_colonel_Paul_Str%C4%83jescu_Family_in_the_Bellu_Cemetery_in_Bucharest,_Romania_(04).jpg/1280px-Grave_of_the_colonel_Paul_Str%C4%83jescu_Family_in_the_Bellu_Cemetery_in_Bucharest,_Romania_(04).jpg)
![Avenue Foch no. 53, Paris, by Charles Abella, 1939[111]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/53_avenue_Foch_Paris.jpg/1280px-53_avenue_Foch_Paris.jpg)
![Socialist Realist - Lenin State Library, Moscow, Russia, by Vladimir Shchuko and Vladimir Helfreich, 1928-1941[115]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Moscow_RussianStateLibrary_0987.jpg/1280px-Moscow_RussianStateLibrary_0987.jpg)
![Socialist Realist - Assembly of the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR, Chaired by Kliment Voroshilov; by Isaak Brodsky; 1929; oil on canvas; 95.5 x 129.5 cm; private collection[116]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0.jpg/1280px-%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0.jpg)
![Nazi - New Reich Chancellery, Berlin, by Albert Speer, 1938-1939[118]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R89708,_Berlin,_Neue_Reichskanzlei.jpg/1280px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R89708,_Berlin,_Neue_Reichskanzlei.jpg)
![Fascist - Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana, Rome, by Giovanni Guerrini, Ernesto La Padula, and Mario Romano, 1939-1942[119]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Palazzo_della_civilt%C3%A0_del_lavoro_(EUR,_Rome)_(5904657870).jpg/1280px-Palazzo_della_civilt%C3%A0_del_lavoro_(EUR,_Rome)_(5904657870).jpg)
![Socialist Realist - Lomonosov University, Moscow, by Lev Rudnev, 1947-1952[119]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Moscow_State_University_crop.jpg/1280px-Moscow_State_University_crop.jpg)
![Socialist Realist - Colonels' Quarter (Șoseaua Panduri no. 60–62), Bucharest, by I.Novițchi, C.Ionescu, C.Hacker and A.Șerbescu, 1950–1960[120]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/ce/60-62_%C8%98oseaua_Panduri,_Bucharest_(01).jpg/1280px-60-62_%C8%98oseaua_Panduri,_Bucharest_(01).jpg)
![J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California, US, by the partnership of Langdon and Wilson with Edward Genter as the project architect and archaeological advice from Dr Norman Neuerberg, 1970-1975[123]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/060807-002-GettyVilla001.jpg/1280px-060807-002-GettyVilla001.jpg)
![Interior courtyard of Les Arcades du Lac, Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, France, by Ricardo Bofill, 1975-1981[124]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Les_Arcades_du_Lac_interior_courtyard.jpg/1280px-Les_Arcades_du_Lac_interior_courtyard.jpg)
![Sheraton chair with applied decoration; by Robert Venturi for Knoll; 1978–1984, bent laminated wood; unknown dimensions; Milwaukee Art Museum, Milwaukee, USA[125]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Robert_venturi_e_denise_scott_brown_per_knoll_international_inc.,_sedia_sheraton_(mod._664),_1979-83_(1984-90).jpg/1280px-Robert_venturi_e_denise_scott_brown_per_knoll_international_inc.,_sedia_sheraton_(mod._664),_1979-83_(1984-90).jpg)
.jpg/1280px-Bucure%C5%9Fti_June_1996_(3402685900).jpg)
![Louis XVI, lowboy; by Robert Venturi for Arc International; c.1985; laminated wood; unknown dimensions; Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indianapolis, USA[126]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Robert_venturi_per_paul_downs_cabinetmakers,_comodino_louis_xvi,_1984.jpg/1280px-Robert_venturi_per_paul_downs_cabinetmakers,_comodino_louis_xvi,_1984.jpg)
![Sainsbury Wing, National Gallery, London, by Robert Venturi, 1987-1991[127]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/National_Gallery_London_Sainsbury_Wing_2006-04-17.jpg/1280px-National_Gallery_London_Sainsbury_Wing_2006-04-17.jpg)
![Isle of Dogs Pumping Station, London, John Outram, 1988[126]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Pumping_station,_Stewart_Street_(geograph_4678320).jpg/1280px-Pumping_station,_Stewart_Street_(geograph_4678320).jpg)
![77 West Wacker Drive, Chicago, US, by Ricardo Bofill, 1990-1992[128]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/77_West_Wacker_Drive_May_2016_(2).jpg/1280px-77_West_Wacker_Drive_May_2016_(2).jpg)
![Harold Washington Library, Chicago, by Hammond, Beeby & Babka, 1991[129]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Harold_Washington_Library_-_Chicago_Public_Library_(51574883428).jpg/1280px-Harold_Washington_Library_-_Chicago_Public_Library_(51574883428).jpg)
![Entrance era of the Harold Washington Library, by Hammond, Beeby & Babka, 1991[129]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Chicago_Public_Library_(CPL)_(14756610392).jpg/1280px-Chicago_Public_Library_(CPL)_(14756610392).jpg)
.jpg/1280px-Montpellier,_France_-_panoramio_(210).jpg)
![Forum Shops in Caesars Palace, Las Vegas, US, by Marnell Corrao Associates, 1992[132]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Fountain_of_the_Gods,_Caesars_Palace_(Las_Vegas)_(2).jpg/1280px-Fountain_of_the_Gods,_Caesars_Palace_(Las_Vegas)_(2).jpg)
![Interior of the Trafford Centre, by Chapman Taylor and Leach Rhodes Walker, 1998[133]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Trafford_Centre_escalators.jpg/1280px-Trafford_Centre_escalators.jpg)
![Louis Ghost, a simplified reinterpretation of armchairs in the Louis XVI style; by Philippe Starck; 2009; polycarbonate; height: 94 cm; various locations[134]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Philippe_starck_per_kartell_spa,_poltrona_masters,_2009.jpg/1280px-Philippe_starck_per_kartell_spa,_poltrona_masters,_2009.jpg)
.jpg/1280px-15_Strada_Arthur_Verona,_Bucharest_(27).jpg)
![Queen's Gallery, Buckingham Palace, London, by John Simpson, 2000-2002[137]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Entrance_of_Queen's_Gallery,_Buckingham_Palace_(cropped).jpg/1280px-Entrance_of_Queen's_Gallery,_Buckingham_Palace_(cropped).jpg)
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)