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Lacado

Colección de lacas, China, dinastía Qing

Los objetos lacados son objetos cubiertos de forma decorativa con laca . Los objetos lacados incluyen recipientes pequeños o grandes, vajillas, una variedad de objetos pequeños que llevan las personas y objetos más grandes, como muebles e incluso ataúdes pintados con laca. Antes de lacar, la superficie a veces se pinta con imágenes, se incrusta con conchas y otros materiales, o se talla . La laca se puede espolvorear con oro o plata y se le pueden aplicar tratamientos decorativos adicionales.

Los países del este de Asia tienen una larga tradición en el trabajo con laca, que se remonta a varios miles de años en los casos de China, Japón y Corea. La laca más conocida, una laca a base de urushiol común en el este de Asia, se obtiene de la savia seca de Toxicodendron vernicifluum . Otros tipos de lacas se procesan a partir de una variedad de plantas e insectos. Las tradiciones del trabajo con laca en el sudeste asiático , el sur de Asia y las Américas también son antiguas y se originaron de forma independiente. La verdadera laca no se fabrica fuera de Asia, pero algunas imitaciones, como la japonesa en Europa o técnicas paralelas, a menudo se denominan vagamente "laca".

Asia oriental

El árbol de laca más antiguo encontrado es del período Jōmon en Japón, hace 12600 años. [1] [2] La laca más antigua del mundo, adornos funerarios que se crearon en el siglo VII a. C., se desenterraron en el sitio de Kakinoshima en Hakodate , Hokkaido , Japón. [3] [4] [5] [2] Se han desenterrado varias lacas prehistóricas en China que datan del período Neolítico y objetos. Se cree que la laca más antigua conocida fue un cuenco de madera roja, que se desenterró en un sitio de la cultura Hemudu ( c.  V milenio a. C. ) en Zhejiang , China. [6] [7] [8]

Laca china

Exposición de muebles y complementos lacados en el museo. Los objetos lacados se convirtieron en un artículo de lujo habitual desde los Estados Combatientes hasta la dinastía Han .
Bandeja lacada de la dinastía Song con la técnica de grabado en oro qiangjin aplicada, siglo XII o XIII
Pintura de laca de la dinastía Wei del Norte.
Figura masculina con túnica Hanfu , pintura de laca sobre madera  [zh] , período Wei del Norte , siglo V d. C.

Durante la dinastía Shang (aprox. 1600–1046 a. C.) de China, se desarrollaron sofisticadas técnicas de procesamiento de laca que se convirtieron en una artesanía altamente artística. [1]

Durante el período Zhou oriental (771-256 a. C.), la laca comenzó a aparecer en grandes cantidades. Esta es la primera época de la que han sobrevivido cantidades notables de laca, [9] siendo los estados, más tarde reinos, de Qin y Chu los que produjeron la mayor cantidad de laca. El estado de Chu, al tener la ventaja geográfica y climas más cálidos, permitió el cultivo masivo dedicado de árboles de laca y que la laca se convirtiera en una industria comercial. [10] Debido a esto, el estado de Chu se hizo famoso por sus exportaciones de laca en los estados vecinos del reino Zhou , con referencias literarias encontradas en libros como Zhuangzi y Shangshu , y proporcionando cierta polinización cruzada cultural entre la cultura sureña de Chu y la cultura de Zhongyuan . [11] [12]

En la época de la dinastía Han (206 a. C. – 220 d. C.), se establecieron administraciones especiales para organizar y dividir el trabajo para la creciente producción de laca en China. [13] Durante la dinastía Han, se utilizaron elaboradas decoraciones incisas en la laca. [14]

En la dinastía Tang (618-907), la laca china conoció un nuevo estilo marcado por el uso de láminas de oro o plata hechas en diversas formas, como pájaros, animales y flores. [13] Los recortes se fijaban sobre la superficie de la laca, después de lo cual se aplicaban nuevas capas de laca, se secaban y luego se pulían, para que la superficie pudiera pulirse para revelar los patrones dorados o plateados debajo. [13] Esto se hacía mediante una técnica conocida como pingtuo . [15] Estas técnicas consumían mucho tiempo y eran costosas, pero estas lacas se consideraban muy refinadas. [13] También fue el período en el que comenzó la primera práctica de tallado de lacas. [16]

El arte de incrustar oro, plata y nácar continuó desde la dinastía Tang hasta la dinastía Song (960-1279). [17] Varias técnicas decorativas existentes se desarrollaron gradualmente después del siglo X, como diaoqi ( laca tallada ) que implica la construcción de capas que comprenden capas finas de laca aplicadas y tallarlas en un diseño tridimensional; qiangjin (oro grabado) en el que se inciden líneas finas, se aplica un adhesivo de laca y se presiona una hoja de oro o polvo en las ranuras; y diaotian o tianqi (relleno) en el que la laca se incrusta con laca de otro color. [14] Una variación de diaotian o tianqi se conoce como moxian (pulido-revelado) en el que se construye un diseño con laca en ciertas áreas, las áreas restantes se rellenan con laca de un color diferente y se pule toda la superficie. [14] Especialmente el arte de incrustar laca con nácar se desarrolló intensamente durante la dinastía Song. [14] [17] Sin embargo, durante la dinastía Song, la artesanía artística también hizo uso de oro incrustado en un proceso que consiste en grabar patrones intrincados en la superficie de la laca y llenar el huecograbado con polvo de oro. [13]

El conocimiento de los métodos chinos del proceso de lacado se difundió desde China durante las dinastías Han, Tang y Song, [18] y finalmente se introdujo en Corea y Japón. [18] En Japón, el arte de la fabricación de objetos de laca llegó junto con el budismo y otros artefactos culturales de China a través de la península de Corea durante el siglo VIII, [19] y los objetos de laca tallados llegaron a Japón desde la dinastía Ming de China durante el siglo XIV. [19] Una de las primeras técnicas japonesas para decorar la superficie de la laca fue, además de pintar diseños simples, la incrustación de láminas de oro y plata del período Nara (710-784). Esta técnica se transmitió desde China durante la dinastía Tang. [14]

La laca Coromandel es un tipo de exportación chino, llamado así porque se enviaba a los mercados europeos a través de la costa de Coromandel en la India.

Korean lacquerware

The very term 'Najeonchilgi' is a combination of two particular words: 'najeon'– mother-of-pearl and ‘chilgi’ which refers to lacquerware. ‘najeon’ refers to the composite material which forms the inner shiny shell layer. The Three Kingdom period (57 B.C. – 668 A.D.) witnessed the introduction of the first method and the second one was introduced during the Shilla period (668 A.D. – 935 A.D.). The Goryeo dynasty (918–1392), considered the golden period of this craft, was influenced by Buddhism.

Japanese lacquerware

Writing lacquer box with Irises at Yatsuhashi, by Ogata Kōrin, Edo period (National Treasure)

The term for lacquer is urushi (漆), source of the English hybrid word "urushiol". Etymologically, urushi may be related to the words uruwashii ("beautiful") or uruoi ("watered", "profitable", "favored"), due speculatively to their value or shiny appearance, or perhaps the humidifying rooms used in production of lacquered wares. The term "Japanning" in the 17th century is a term for the technique used by Europe to emulate Asian lacquer, derived from the then famous Japanese lacquer.

The general characteristic of Japanese lacquerware is the widespread use of various Maki-e techniques compared to other countries. As a result, there are many works in which relatively vivid gold and silver patterns and pictures shine on the black base of lacquerware, and the entire lacquerware is covered with shiny gold and silver grains.[20]

History and regional production

Primitive lacquer was used in Japan as early as 12,600 BC, during the Jōmon period.[2]

Lacquer was used in Japan as early as 7000 BCE, during the Jōmon period. Evidence for the earliest lacquerware was discovered at the Kakinoshima "B" Excavation Site in Hokkaido.[21] These objects were discovered in a pit grave dating from the first half of the Initial Jōmon period (approx. 9,000 years ago)[2][4][5] Japanese lacquering technology may have been invented by the Jōmon. They learned to refine urushi (poison oak sap) – the process taking several months. Iron oxide (colcothar) and cinnabar (mercury sulfide) were used for producing red lacquer.[22] Lacquer was used both on pottery, and on different types of wooden items. In some cases, burial clothes for the dead were also lacquered.[22] Many lacquered objects have turned up during the Early Jōmon period; this indicates that this was an established part of Jōmon culture.[22] Experts are divided on whether Jōmon lacquer was derived from Chinese techniques, or invented independently. For example, Mark Hudson believes that “Jomon lacquer technology was developed independently in Japan rather than being introduced from China as once believed”.[23][22]

During the Asuka and Nara periods, between the 7th and 8th centuries, Chinese lacquer art forms were imported to Japan.

Cosmetic box Design of wheels-in-stream in maki-e lacquer and mother-of-pearl inlay, Heian period, 12th century (National Treasure)

In the Heian period (794-1185), various Maki-e techniques characteristic of Japanese lacquerware were developed. While the method of drawing designs with a brush by dissolving gold powder in lacquer is a common technique in other countries, the method of drawing designs with lacquer and then sprinkling gold, silver, or copper powder of various sizes and shapes on top to polish them was developed in Japan. This made it possible to make the gold and silver of lacquerware brighter than before.[20]

In the Kamakura period (1185–1333), carved lacquer from the Song dynasty of China was imported to Japan. However, many Japanese lacquer craftsmen did not adopt the Chinese method of depositing lacquer and then carving it; instead, they created Kamakurabori, a method of carving wood and then coating lacquer.[24]

A Japanese lacquerware produced and exported at the request of the Society of Jesus. Azuchi–Momoyama period, 16th century, Kyushu National Museum

Japanese lacquerware was abundantly exported to China where the Ming and Qing rulers generally described Japanese lacquerwares as " foreign lacquer " ( yangqi ). Yang Ming, and famous lacquer man Zhejiang, made annotations for A Record of Decoration with Lacquer, ... People of the Ming dynasty once recorded: “The decoration art with lacquer coated with gold originated (maki-e) from Japan". Yang in the reign of Xuande of the Ming dynasty made a trip to Japan to study Japanese techniques, and a Japanese visited a Chinese imperial workshop in Beijing during the Ming dynasty. It is well documented that the Yongzheng Emperor had a formidable interest in Japanese lacquer, yangqi, and this was reflected in many of the works produced in the Imperial workshops during his reign.[25][26][27][28][29] In the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568-1600) also made its way into Colonial Mexico (Manila Galleons) and Europe by Nanban trade. Japanese lacquerware attracted European aristocrats and missionaries from Europe, and western style chests and church furniture were exported in response to their requests.[30][31][32]

Inro with Fox's Wedding (Kitsune no yomeiri). Edo period, late 18th–early 19th century

The Edo period (1603–1868) saw an increase in the focused cultivation of lacquer trees and the development of the techniques used. In the 18th century colored lacquers came into wider use. With the development of economy and culture, the artistic quality of lacquered furniture has improved. Hon'ami Kōetsu and Ogata Kōrin brought the designs of the Rinpa school of painting into lacquerware. From the middle of the Edo period, inro became popular as men's accessories, and wealthy merchants of the chōnin class and samurai class collected inro of high aesthetic value, precisely designed with lacquer.[33][34] Marie Antoinette and Maria Theresa are known collectors of Japanese lacquerware and their collections are now often exhibited in the Louvre and the Palace of Versailles.[20]

In the Meiji period (1868-1912), Richly-decorated lacquerwares in original designs were popular domestically, and even more so with Western buyers during this period of European and American fascination with Japanese art. Shibata Zeshin's lacquer work was especially popular.[35] In addition, lacquerware called Shibayama, which was created in the Edo period, became popular for its showy style, inlaid with gold, silver, shellfish, ivory, coral, tortoise shell and ceramics, and reached its peak during this period. Lacquerware called Somada, which was created in the Edo period and characterized by regular patterns of finely cut seashells, gold leaf and silver leaf, also became popular during this period.[36] The government took an active interest in the art export market, promoting Japan's lacquers and other decorative arts at a succession of world's fairs.[37][38] Lacquer from Japanese workshops was recognised as technically superior to what could be produced anywhere else in the world.[39]

Today, the Japanese government has designated excellent lacquer artists as Living National Treasures and is encouraging them to make lacquerware. Lacquerware is produced throughout the Japanese archipelago, with many regional techniques and variations. Besides the very old Kamakura tradition mentioned above (and still alive today), the port town of Wajima provides a good example of regional lacquerware. Wajima-nuri, dating back to the 16th century, is characterized by use of the elm-like Japanese zelkova (keyaki 欅), powdered earth, and delicate features formed from cloth. (See the Japanese article, 輪島塗. A more complete list of regional lacquer traditions is available in the Japanese article.)

Ryukyuan lacquerware

Chest with a cartouche and carved relief showing an outdoor scene, Ryukyuan lacquerware, circa 1750–1800

Ryukyuan lacquerware is one of the chief artistic products of the Ryukyu Islands (today Okinawa Prefecture of Japan); it is quite distinct from the lacquerware found among the surrounding cultures. Nevertheless, Chinese and Japanese influences are present.

Southeast Asia

Burmese lacquerware

Burmese lacquerware – a private collection

Yun-de is lacquerware in Burmese, and the art is called Pan yun (ပန်းယွန်း). The lacquer is the sap tapped from the varnish tree or Thitsee (Gluta usitata, syn. Melanorrhoea usitata) that grows wild in the forests of Myanmar (formerly Burma).[40] It is straw-colored but turns black on exposure to air. When brushed in or coated on, it forms a hard glossy smooth surface resistant to a degree from the effects of exposure to moisture or heat.

History

The earliest fragments of lacquerware basketry found in Bagan dates back to the 13th century. Evidence for older lacquerware in Bagan remains inconclusive.[41]

Bayinnaung's conquest and subjugation in 1555–1562 of Manipur, Bhamo, Zinme (Chiang Mai), Linzin (Lan Xang), and up the Taping and Shweli rivers in the direction of Yunnan brought back large numbers of skilled craftsmen into Burma. It is thought that the finer sort of Burmese lacquerware, called Yun, was introduced during this period by imported artisans belonging to the Yun or Northern Thai people of the Chiang Mai region.[42]

Manufacture and design

Pickled tea, called lahpet, is traditionally served in a lacquer tray called laphet ok.

Lacquer vessels, boxes and trays have a coiled or woven bamboo-strip base often mixed with horsehair. The thitsee may be mixed with ashes or sawdust to form a putty-like substance called thayo which can be sculpted. The object is coated layer upon layer with thitsee and thayo to make a smooth surface, polished and engraved with intricate designs, commonly using red, green and yellow colors on a red or black background. Shwezawa is a distinctive form in its use of gold leaf to fill in the designs on a black background.[43][44]

Palace scenes, scenes from the Jataka tales, and the signs of the Burmese Zodiac are popular designs and some vessels may be encrusted with glass mosaic or semi-precious stones in gold relief.[44] The objects are all handmade and the designs and engraving done free-hand. It may take three to four months to finish a small vessel but perhaps over a year for a larger piece. The finished product is a result of teamwork and not crafted by a single person.[43]

Forms

The most distinctive vessel is probably a rice bowl on a stem with a spired lid for monks called hsun ok. Lahpet ok is a shallow dish with a lid and has a number of compartments for serving lahpet (pickled tea) with its various accompaniments. Stackable tiffin carriers fastened with a single handle or hsun gyaink are usually plain red or black. Daunglan are low tables for meals and may be simple broad based or have three curved feet in animal or floral designs with a lid. Water carafes or yeidagaung with a cup doubling as a lid, and vases are also among lacquerware still in use in many monasteries.[43][44]

Various round boxes with lids, small and large, are known as yun-it including ones for paan called kun-it (Burmese: ကွမ်းအစ်; betel boxes). Yun titta are rectangular boxes for storing various articles including peisa or palm leaf manuscripts when they are called sadaik titta. Pedestal dishes or small trays with a stem with or without a lid are known as kalat for serving delicacies or offering flowers to royalty or the Buddha. Theatrical troupes and musicians have their lacquerware in costumes, masks, head-dresses, and musical instruments, some of them stored and carried in lacquer trunks.[44] Boxes in the shape of a pumpkin or a bird such as the owl, which is believed to bring luck, or the hintha (Brahminy duck) are common too. Screens and small polygonal tables are also made for the tourist trade today.

Industry

Bagan is the major centre for the lacquerware industry where the handicraft has been established for nearly two centuries, and still practiced in the traditional manner. Here a government school of lacquerware was founded in the 1920s. Since plastics, porcelain and metal have superseded lacquer in most everyday utensils, it is today manufactured in large workshops mainly for tourists who come to see the ancient temples of Bagan. At the village of Kyaukka near Monywa in the Chindwin valley, however, sturdy lacquer utensils are still produced for everyday use mainly in plain black.[43]

A decline in the number of visitors combined with the cost of resin, which has seen a 40-fold rise in 15 years, has led to the closure of over two-thirds of more than 200 lacquerware workshops in Bagan.[45]

Vietnamese lacquer painting and lacquerware

Lacquerware, Nguyễn dynasty, Vietnam
A folding screen using Vietnamese lacquer
A lacquered folding screen

Sơn mài is a painting technique in Vietnam. It developed from the painters of the Hanoi EBAI in the 1930s and today is counted a national painting style with many famous painters.

In 1924 the Ecole des Beaux Arts was established in Hanoi. This institution was to be the birthplace of the revitalised art of lacquer painting. In 1934 the school opened its lacquer department and it was from here that well known contributors to the art including; Bui Trang Chuoc, Nguyen Van Binh, Nguyen Khang, Nguyen Duc Nung, Nguyen Tien Chung, and Pham Van Don would emerge.

It was the first generation of Vietnamese students of the Indochina School of Fine Art during the 1930s, who elevated the craft of lacquer painting to a truly fine art. Less interested in decor than their craftsmen predecessors, it was also these men who would begin a series of artistic innovations from which craftsmen producing purely utilitarian or decorative pieces would also benefit.

Creating images with crushed eggshell, painting pigment over gold and tin foil and adding sand to lacquer were all techniques developed by those first students. The metallic color lacquerware for which Vietnamese craftsmen are rightly famous, was first developed by artists experimenting with many innovative techniques.

After the reunification, the art of lacquerware was slowly dying out in Vietnam. But since the 1980s, the government has recognized it as a vital cultural and economic force and has encouraged the business community to invest in the craft. As a result, we see a resurgence of lacquerware and a proliferation of lacquerware products from Vietnam.

South Asia

Laksha is a traditional form of lacquerware from Sri Lanka which is made from shellac derived from Lac.

In India, the insect lac or shellac was used since ancient times. Shellac is the secretion of the lac bug (Tachardia lacca Kerr. or Laccifer lacca). It is used for wood finish, lacquerware, skin cosmetic, ornaments, dye for textiles, production of different grades of shellac for surface coating.[46] The Atharvaveda text 1200 BCE – 1000 BCE devotes a chapter to 'lākshā' and its various uses.[47]

Americas

Barniz de Pasto technique

Barniz de Pasto (es) is a lacquer-like varnish technique originating in the Pre-Columbian era that is a specialty of Pasto, Colombia. It is made by chewing the resin of the Andean mopa-mopa shrub (Elaeagia pastoensis) into thin layers, and then painting it and applying it to a wood, metal, clay or glass surface using heated stones.[48][49] Historically, the technique was applied to wooden keros, drinking vessels.

Mexican lacquerware

A decorative lacquered gourd with gold details at a shop in Pátzcuaro, Michoacán.

Known in Mexican Spanish as laca or maque (from Japanese maki-e[50][self-published source]), Mexican lacquer has independent origins from Asian lacquer. In the pre-Hispanic period, a substance from the larvae of aje scale insects and/or oil from the chia seed were mixed with powdered minerals to create protective coatings and decorative designs. During this period, the process was almost always applied to dried gourds, especially to make the cups that Mesoamerican nobility drank chocolate from.

After the Conquest, the Spanish had indigenous craftsmen apply the technique to European style furniture and other items, changing the decorative motifs and color schemes, but the process and materials remained mostly the same. Asian lacquerware and artisans brought by the Nao de China also had an influence on the style and motifs of colonial Mexican lacquerware. Today, workshops creating lacquerware are limited to Olinalá, Temalacatzingo and Acapetlahuaya in the state of Guerrero, Uruapan and Pátzcuaro in Michoacán and Chiapa de Corzo in Chiapas. The most popular modern lacquerware are small boxes, sometimes known as cajitas de Olinalá.

See also

References

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Further reading

Enlaces externos

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