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Guerra en el Donbass

La guerra en el Donbás , [c] también conocida como la guerra del Donbás , fue una fase de la guerra ruso-ucraniana en la región del Donbás de Ucrania . La guerra comenzó en abril de 2014 , cuando una unidad de comando dirigida por el ciudadano ruso Ígor Girkin tomó Sloviansk en el óblast de Donetsk . [20] [21] [6] [22] El ejército ucraniano lanzó una operación contra ellos. [23] [5] La guerra continuó hasta que fue absorbida por la invasión rusa de Ucrania en 2022. [24]

En marzo de 2014, tras la Revolución de la Dignidad de Ucrania , comenzaron las protestas contra la revolución y a favor de Rusia en las provincias de Donetsk y Luhansk de Ucrania , colectivamente "el Donbás". Estas comenzaron cuando Rusia invadió Crimea . Separatistas armados respaldados por Rusia tomaron edificios del gobierno ucraniano y declararon las repúblicas de Donetsk y Luhansk (DPR y LPR) como estados independientes, lo que llevó a un conflicto con las fuerzas ucranianas. [25] Rusia apoyó de forma encubierta a los separatistas con tropas y armamento. Solo admitió haber enviado "especialistas militares", [26] [27] pero luego reconoció a los separatistas como veteranos de combate rusos . [28] En abril de 2014, Ucrania lanzó una contraofensiva, llamada "Operación Antiterrorista" [29] (ATO), más tarde rebautizada como "Operación de Fuerzas Conjuntas" (JFO). [30] [31] En agosto de 2014, Ucrania había recuperado la mayor parte del territorio en manos de los separatistas y casi había recuperado el control de la frontera entre Rusia y Ucrania . [32] En respuesta, Rusia envió de forma encubierta tropas, tanques y artillería al Donbás. [33] [34] [35] La incursión rusa ayudó a las fuerzas prorrusas a recuperar gran parte del territorio que habían perdido. [30] [36] [37]

Ucrania, Rusia, la RPD y la RPL firmaron un acuerdo de alto el fuego, el Protocolo de Minsk , en septiembre de 2014. [38] Las violaciones del alto el fuego se volvieron habituales, 29 en total, [39] y los duros combates se reanudaron en enero de 2015, durante los cuales los separatistas capturaron el aeropuerto de Donetsk . Un nuevo alto el fuego, Minsk II , se acordó el 12 de febrero de 2015. Inmediatamente después, los separatistas renovaron su ofensiva en Debáltseve y obligaron al ejército de Ucrania a retirarse. [40] Las escaramuzas continuaron, pero la línea del frente no cambió. Ambos bandos fortificaron su posición construyendo redes de trincheras , búnkeres y túneles , lo que resultó en una guerra de trincheras estática . [41] [42] El estancamiento llevó a que la guerra se llamara un " conflicto congelado ", [43] pero Donbas siguió siendo una zona de guerra, con docenas de muertos mensualmente. [44] En 2017, en promedio, un soldado ucraniano murió cada tres días, [45] con un estimado de 40.000 separatistas y 6.000 tropas rusas en la región. [46] [47] A fines de 2017, los observadores de la OSCE habían contado alrededor de 30.000 personas con equipo militar cruzando desde Rusia en los dos puestos de control fronterizos que se les permitió monitorear , [48] y documentaron convoyes militares cruzando desde Rusia de manera encubierta. [49] Todas las partes acordaron una hoja de ruta para poner fin a la guerra en octubre de 2019, [50] pero siguió sin resolverse. [51] [52] Durante 2021, las muertes ucranianas aumentaron drásticamente y las fuerzas rusas se concentraron alrededor de las fronteras de Ucrania . [53] Rusia reconoció a la RPD y la RPL como estados independientes el 21 de febrero de 2022 y desplegó tropas en esos territorios. El 24 de febrero, Rusia inició una invasión a gran escala de Ucrania , incluyendo en ella la guerra en el Donbás.

En la guerra murieron unas 14.000 personas: 6.500 rusos y soldados aliados de Rusia, 4.400 soldados ucranianos y 3.400 civiles de ambos bandos. [17] La ​​mayoría de las bajas civiles se produjeron durante el primer año. [17]

Fondo

A pesar de ser reconocida como un país independiente desde 1991 , como una ex república constituyente de la URSS, Ucrania era percibida por los líderes de Rusia como parte de su esfera de influencia . En un artículo de 2002, Taras Kuzio afirmó: "Si bien acepta la independencia de Ucrania, Putin ha tratado de acercar a Ucrania a una relación más estrecha. Este enfoque ha sido aceptable para los oligarcas ucranianos del este , que no albergan sentimientos antirrusos". [54]

En 2011, Taras Kuzio declaró:

La tradicional política soviética de dividir a los ucranianos del este y del oeste, entonces "nacionalistas burgueses" y ahora "galicianos locos", sigue vigente. Esta táctica fue empleada deliberadamente por la administración de Yanukovych, que promueve una estrategia de "dividir y gobernar" regional mediante la polarización, utilizando provocaciones al estilo del 9 de mayo, para mantener a su electorado ucraniano oriental movilizado permanentemente. [55]

Los analistas han afirmado que a febrero de 2014, Rusia pudo: [56]

Según el Instituto de Rusia Moderna, el Kremlin también mantuvo un férreo control sobre el presidente de Ucrania, Viktor Yanukovych . [57] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ]

En noviembre de 2013, comenzaron las protestas del « Euromaidán » en respuesta a la decisión de Yanukovych de abandonar una asociación política y un acuerdo de libre comercio con la Unión Europea (UE), optando en su lugar por lazos más estrechos con Rusia. A principios de ese año, el parlamento de Ucrania había aprobado abrumadoramente la finalización del acuerdo con la UE. [58] Rusia había presionado a Ucrania para que lo rechazara. [59] El alcance de las protestas se amplió, con llamados a la renuncia de Yanukovych. [60] Los manifestantes se opusieron a lo que vieron como corrupción gubernamental generalizada y abuso de poder , la influencia de los oligarcas , brutalidad policial y violaciones de los derechos humanos . [61] Las protestas culminaron en febrero de 2014 con enfrentamientos en Kiev entre manifestantes y la policía antidisturbios especial Berkut , en los que murieron 108 manifestantes . [62] Yanukovych y la oposición firmaron un acuerdo el 21 de febrero, pero él huyó en secreto de la ciudad esa noche. [63] Al día siguiente, el parlamento votó para destituirlo de su cargo . Esta serie de acontecimientos se conoció como la Revolución de la Dignidad .

Inmediatamente después de la revolución, tropas rusas sin distintivos ocuparon el territorio ucraniano de Crimea . Después de un referéndum ilegal , Crimea fue anexada a Rusia .

Protestas

Manifestantes prorrusos en Donetsk , 9 de marzo de 2014

Tras la revolución, comenzaron las protestas contrarrevolucionarias y prorrusas en algunas partes del Donbás. Una encuesta nacional realizada en marzo y abril de 2014 reveló que el 58% de los encuestados en el Donbás quería la autonomía dentro de Ucrania, mientras que el 31% quería que la región se separara de Ucrania. [64]

Los manifestantes prorrusos ocuparon el edificio de la Administración Estatal Regional de Donetsk del 1 al 6 de marzo de 2014, antes de ser desalojados por el Servicio de Seguridad de Ucrania (SBU). [65] Pavel Gubarev , miembro del grupo neonazi Unidad Nacional Rusa , fue proclamado "gobernador del pueblo" del óblast de Donetsk. [66]

El 6 de abril, entre 1.000 y 2.000 personas se reunieron en una manifestación en Donetsk para exigir un referéndum sobre una mayor autonomía o la adhesión a Rusia, similar al celebrado en Crimea en marzo. [67] Cientos de hombres enmascarados también se apoderaron de armas del edificio del SBU en la ciudad. [68] Una gran multitud irrumpió y ocupó el edificio de la RSA de Donetsk , izando la bandera rusa. [67] Exigieron que el consejo regional se reuniera al mediodía del día siguiente y votara a favor de un referéndum sobre la adhesión a Rusia. [68] De lo contrario, prometieron tomar el control del gobierno regional con un "mandato popular" y destituir a todos los consejeros regionales y miembros del parlamento electos. [69] Como estas demandas no se cumplieron, al día siguiente los activistas celebraron una reunión en el edificio y proclamaron la República Popular de Donetsk (RPD) como un estado independiente. [68] [70]

El 6 de abril también comenzaron disturbios en Luhansk , cuando cientos de manifestantes atacaron y sitiaron la sede del SBU durante seis horas, exigiendo la liberación de los militantes antigubernamentales detenidos allí. [68] Finalmente, irrumpieron en el edificio, liberaron a los prisioneros y se apoderaron de armas. [68]

En respuesta a la creciente agitación, el presidente interino de Ucrania, Oleksandr Turchynov, anunció el 7 de abril que Ucrania lanzaría una "operación antiterrorista". [71] El 8 de abril, firmó un decreto para tomar los edificios del gobierno regional de Donetsk "bajo protección estatal". [72] El ministro del Interior, Arsen Avakov , dijo el 9 de abril que la agitación se resolvería en 48 horas, ya sea mediante negociaciones o el uso de la fuerza. [73] El 10 de abril, el presidente Turchynov ofreció amnistía a los militantes, si deponían las armas, y también ofreció celebrar referendos sobre la autonomía. [74] [75]

Guerra por poderes

Aunque las protestas iniciales fueron en gran medida expresiones nativas de descontento con el nuevo gobierno ucraniano, Rusia las aprovechó para lanzar una campaña política y militar coordinada contra Ucrania. [76] Los ciudadanos rusos lideraron el movimiento separatista en Donetsk desde abril hasta agosto de 2014, y fueron apoyados por voluntarios y material de Rusia. [77] [78] [79] A medida que el conflicto se intensificó en mayo de 2014, Rusia empleó un " enfoque híbrido ", desplegando una combinación de desinformación, combatientes irregulares, tropas rusas regulares y apoyo militar convencional para desestabilizar el Donbass. [80] [81] [82]

Los militantes toman las ciudades

Paramilitares prorrusos ocupan el ayuntamiento de Sloviansk, 14 de abril de 2014 [83] [84]

Entre el 12 y el 14 de abril, militantes aliados de Rusia tomaron el control de edificios gubernamentales en varias ciudades y pueblos del óblast de Donetsk, incluidos Sloviansk , Mariupol , Horlivka , Kramatorsk , Yenakiieve , Makiivka , Druzhkivka y Zhdanivka . [75] [85] [86]

Esloviansk

Insurgentes prorrusos ocupan el edificio de la administración de la ciudad de Sloviansk, 14 de abril de 2014

El 12 de abril, la ciudad estratégica de Sloviansk fue capturada por una unidad de cincuenta militantes prorrusos fuertemente armados. [68] Atacaron y ocuparon el edificio de la administración de la ciudad, la estación de policía y el edificio del SBU, y establecieron barricadas con la ayuda de activistas armados locales. [68] [87] La ​​unidad estaba formada por "voluntarios" de las Fuerzas Armadas Rusas bajo el mando del coronel del GRU ruso Ígor Girkin ("Strelkov"). [68] [88] Habían sido enviados desde Crimea ocupada por Rusia y no llevaban insignias . [68]

Girkin afirmó que esta acción desencadenó la Guerra del Donbás. "Yo soy quien apretó el gatillo de la guerra. Si nuestra unidad no hubiera cruzado la frontera, todo habría fracasado, como en Járkov, como en Odesa", afirmó. [89] [90] Explicó que "allí nadie quería luchar" hasta que su unidad tomó Sloviansk. [91]

Después de que los militantes tomaron la ciudad, la alcaldesa de Sloviansk, Nelya Shtepa, apareció brevemente en una comisaría ocupada y expresó su apoyo a los militantes. [87] Otros se reunieron fuera del edificio y expresaron de manera similar su apoyo a los militantes. Dijeron a los periodistas ucranianos que informaban sobre la situación que "regresaran a Kiev ". [87] Shtepa fue detenido más tarde por los insurgentes y reemplazado por el autoproclamado "alcalde del pueblo" Vyacheslav Ponomarev . [92] Los militantes prorrusos mataron a un miembro del consejo municipal de Solviansk, Volodymyr Ivanovych Rybak , así como a otros cuatro ucranianos, incluido Yuri Dyakovsky, de 25 años, y un hombre anónimo de 19 años. Girkin asumió la responsabilidad de estas ejecuciones sumarias en 2020, a pesar de que en los años anteriores él y otros militantes prorrusos habían afirmado que Rybak había sido liberado. [93]

Los militantes tomaron el control del arsenal policial de la ciudad y se apoderaron de cientos de armas de fuego, lo que llevó al gobierno ucraniano a lanzar una operación "antiterrorista" para recuperar la ciudad. [92] Esta contraofensiva gubernamental comenzó en la mañana del 13 de abril. [94] Se produjo un enfrentamiento arraigado entre las fuerzas prorrusas y las Fuerzas Armadas de Ucrania , lo que marcó el inicio del combate en el Donbás. [95]

Kramatorsk

El mismo día de la captura de Sloviansk, los hombres de Girkin atacaron la comisaría de policía en la cercana Kramatorsk , lo que resultó en un tiroteo. [96] Los combatientes, que afirmaban ser miembros de la Milicia Popular de Donbass , capturaron más tarde la comisaría de policía. Quitaron el cartel de la comisaría e izaron la bandera de la República Popular de Donetsk sobre el edificio. [97] Luego emitieron un ultimátum que establecía que si el alcalde y la administración de la ciudad no juraban lealtad a la República antes del lunes siguiente, los destituirían de su cargo. [97] Al mismo tiempo, una multitud de manifestantes rodeó el edificio de la administración de la ciudad, lo capturó e izó la bandera de la República Popular de Donetsk sobre él. Un representante de la República se dirigió a los lugareños fuera de la comisaría ocupada, pero fue recibido negativamente y abucheado. [97]

Horlovka

El 12 de abril, militantes prorrusos intentaron tomar la sede de la policía en Horlivka , pero fueron detenidos. Ukrainska Pravda informó que la policía dijo que el propósito del intento de toma era obtener acceso a un depósito de armas. [98] Dijeron que usarían la fuerza si fuera necesario para defender el edificio de "criminales y terroristas". [99] El 14 de abril, militantes habían capturado el edificio después de un tenso enfrentamiento con la policía. [75] Algunos miembros de la unidad de policía local habían desertado a la República Popular de Donetsk ese mismo día, mientras que los oficiales restantes se vieron obligados a retirarse, lo que permitió a los insurgentes tomar el control del edificio. [100]

El jefe de policía local fue capturado y brutalmente golpeado por los insurgentes. [101] Un diputado del ayuntamiento de Horlivka, Volodymyr Rybak , fue secuestrado por hombres enmascarados que se cree que eran militantes prorrusos el 17 de abril. Su cuerpo fue encontrado más tarde en un río en la ciudad ocupada de Sloviansk el 22 de abril. [102] El edificio de la administración de la ciudad fue tomado el 30 de abril, consolidando el control separatista sobre Horlivka. [103]

Otros asentamientos

Otras ciudades más pequeñas, así como edificios gubernamentales, fueron tomadas por militantes respaldados por Rusia en el Donbass.

El 12 de abril, en Artemivsk , los separatistas no lograron capturar la oficina local del Ministerio del Interior, pero en su lugar capturaron el edificio de la administración de la ciudad e izaron la bandera de la RPD sobre él. [104] Los edificios de la administración de la ciudad en Yenakiieve y Druzhkivka también fueron capturados. [105] La policía repelió un ataque de militantes prorrusos contra una oficina del Ministerio del Interior en Krasnyi Lyman el 12 de abril, pero el edificio fue capturado más tarde por los separatistas después de una escaramuza. [106] Los insurgentes afiliados a la Milicia Popular del Donbass ocuparon un edificio de la administración regional en Khartsyzk el 13 de abril, seguido por un edificio de la administración local en Zhdanivka el 14 de abril. [85] [107]

El 12 de abril, militantes prorrusos sin identificar tomaron la sede del Ministerio del Interior en Donetsk y dos comisarías de policía sin encontrar resistencia, mientras que un asalto a la fiscalía general fue repelido. [87] Tras negociaciones entre los militantes y los que estaban en el edificio, el jefe de la fiscalía dimitió de su puesto. [108] Según testigos anónimos, algunos militantes llevaban uniformes de la fuerza policial especial Berkut , que había sido disuelta por el nuevo gobierno tras la revolución de febrero. [92] Los militantes también tomaron el edificio de la administración municipal sin oposición el 16 de abril. [109]

El 16 de abril, los manifestantes izaron la bandera de la RPD en los edificios de la administración municipal de Krasnoarmiisk y Novoazovsk . [110] El edificio de la administración local de Siversk fue tomado de manera similar el 18 de abril. Tras la toma, la policía local anunció que cooperaría con los activistas. [111]

Contraofensiva del Gobierno: “Operación Antiterrorista”

La barricada fuera de la RSA de Donetsk con un lema que pide a la UE y a los EE. UU. "volver a casa", en alusión a las afirmaciones de una intervención occidental.

El 9 de abril, el ministro del Interior, Arsen Avakov , declaró que el problema separatista se resolvería en 48 horas mediante negociaciones o el uso de la fuerza. Según la agencia de noticias estatal Ukrinform , dijo: "Hay dos formas opuestas de resolver este conflicto: un diálogo político y un enfoque de mano dura. Estamos listos para ambos". El presidente en funciones Oleksandr Turchynov ya había firmado un decreto que exigía que el edificio de la administración estatal regional de Donetsk, ocupado por separatistas, fuera tomado "bajo protección estatal". [73] [72] Ofreció amnistía a cualquier separatista que depusiera las armas y se rindiera. [112] El 11 de abril, el primer ministro Arseniy Yatsenyuk dijo que había estado en contra del uso de la "fuerza de seguridad" en ese momento, pero que "había un límite" a lo que el gobierno ucraniano toleraría. [113] En respuesta a la expansión del control separatista en todo el óblast de Donetsk y la negativa de los separatistas a deponer las armas, Turchynov prometió lanzar una operación de contraofensiva militar, llamada "Operación Antiterrorista", contra los insurgentes en la región antes del 15 de abril. [71]

El 13 de abril, las Fuerzas Armadas de Ucrania y el Consejo de Seguridad Nacional y Defensa lanzaron una operación antiterrorista "en el marco de la guerra que libra la Federación de Rusia contra Ucrania". [114]

Como parte de la contraofensiva, las tropas ucranianas retomaron el aeródromo de Kramatorsk después de una escaramuza con miembros de la Milicia Popular del Donbás. Según los medios rusos, al menos cuatro personas murieron como resultado. [115] Después de que las Fuerzas Armadas de Ucrania retomaron el aeródromo, el comandante general de la unidad que lo había recuperado, Vasyl Krutov, fue rodeado por manifestantes hostiles que exigieron saber por qué las tropas ucranianas habían disparado contra los residentes locales. [116] Krutov fue arrastrado de regreso a la base aérea junto con su unidad. Luego fueron bloqueados por los manifestantes, que juraron no dejar que las tropas abandonaran la base. [116] Krutov dijo más tarde a los periodistas que "si ellos [los separatistas] no deponen las armas, serán destruidos". [117] Los insurgentes de la Milicia Popular del Donbás entraron en Sloviansk el 16 de abril, junto con seis vehículos blindados de transporte de personal que afirmaron haber obtenido de la 25.ª Brigada Aerotransportada ucraniana , que se había rendido en la ciudad de Kramatorsk . [118] Los informes dicen que los miembros de la brigada fueron desarmados después de que los vehículos fueran bloqueados por los lugareños enojados. [119] En otro incidente, varios cientos de residentes de la aldea de Pchyolkino, al sur de Sloviansk, rodearon otra columna de 14 vehículos blindados ucranianos. Después de las negociaciones, se permitió a las tropas conducir sus vehículos, pero solo después de aceptar entregar los cargadores de sus rifles de asalto. [119] Estos incidentes llevaron al presidente Turchynov a decir que disolvería la 25.ª Brigada Aerotransportada , [120] aunque esto fue cancelado más tarde. Tres miembros de la Milicia Popular del Donbass murieron, 11 resultaron heridos y 63 fueron arrestados después de que intentaron, sin éxito, asaltar una base de la Guardia Nacional en Mariupol . [121]

El 20 de abril, los separatistas de Yenakiieve abandonaron el edificio de la administración de la ciudad, que ocupaban desde el 13 de abril. [105] A pesar de ello, el 27 de mayo la ciudad todavía no estaba bajo el control del gobierno ucraniano. [122] El 22 de abril, manifestantes prorrusos en Kostiantynivka quemaron las oficinas de un periódico que había sido crítico con la RPD. [123]

El 21 de abril, los manifestantes se reunieron en una "asamblea popular" frente al edificio del SBU en Luhansk y pidieron un "gobierno popular", exigiendo la federalización o la adhesión a Rusia. [124] En esta asamblea, eligieron a Valery Bolotov como "Gobernador del Pueblo". [125] Se anunciaron dos referendos, uno que se celebraría el 11 de mayo para determinar si la región de Luhansk debería buscar una mayor autonomía, y otro programado para el 18 de mayo para determinar si la región debería unirse a Rusia o declarar la independencia. [126]

Turchynov relanzó la contraofensiva estancada contra los insurgentes prorrusos el 22 de abril, después de que dos hombres, uno de ellos un político local, fueran encontrados "torturados hasta la muerte". [127] El político, Volodymyr Rybak , fue encontrado muerto cerca de Sloviansk después de haber sido secuestrado por insurgentes prorrusos. Turchynov dijo que "los terroristas que efectivamente tomaron como rehenes a todo el óblast de Donetsk ahora han ido demasiado lejos". [127] El Ministerio del Interior informó que la ciudad de Sviatohirsk , cerca de Sloviansk, fue retomada por tropas ucranianas el 23 de abril. [128] Además, el Ministerio de Defensa dijo que había tomado el control de todos los puntos de importancia estratégica en el área alrededor de Kramatorsk . [129]

El 24 de abril, entre 70 y 100 insurgentes armados con fusiles de asalto y lanzacohetes atacaron una armería en Artemivsk. [130] El depósito albergaba alrededor de 30 tanques . Las tropas ucranianas intentaron luchar contra los insurgentes, pero se vieron obligadas a retirarse después de que muchos hombres resultaran heridos por el fuego insurgente. [130] El ministro del Interior, Arsen Avakov, dijo que los insurgentes estaban dirigidos por un hombre con "una barba extensa". [130] Unos 30 militantes tomaron la sede de la policía en Konstantinovka el 28 de abril. [131]

Manifestación separatista en Sloviansk, 9 de mayo de 2014

El ministro del Interior, Arsen Avakov , dijo el 24 de abril que las tropas ucranianas habían capturado la administración de la ciudad de Mariupol, después de un enfrentamiento con manifestantes prorrusos allí. [132] A pesar de esto, un informe de la BBC dijo que, si bien parecía que las tropas ucranianas y el alcalde de Mariupol entraron en el edificio a primera hora de la mañana, las tropas ucranianas lo habían abandonado por la tarde. Los activistas prorrusos locales culparon a los nacionalistas ucranianos por el ataque al edificio, pero dijeron que la RPD había recuperado el control. Una representante de la República, Irina Voropoyeva, dijo: "Nosotros, la República Popular de Donetsk, todavía controlamos el edificio. Hubo un intento de provocación, pero ahora se acabó". [132]

El mismo día, funcionarios del gobierno ucraniano dijeron que las Fuerzas Armadas tenían la intención de retomar la ciudad de Sloviansk, pero que una creciente amenaza de "invasión rusa" detuvo estas operaciones. [133] Las fuerzas rusas se habían movilizado a 10 kilómetros ( 6 millas ) de la ciudad.+14  millas) de la frontera ucraniana. [133] Los funcionarios dijeron que siete soldados murieron durante las operaciones del día. El presidente Turchynov emitió una declaración más tarde ese mismo día y dijo que la "Operación Antiterrorista" se reanudaría, citando la crisis de rehenes en curso en Sloviansk como una razón. [134] Para el 6 de mayo, 14 soldados ucranianos habían muerto y 66 habían resultado heridos en los combates. [135]

El 27 de abril, los insurgentes tomaron las oficinas de la cadena de televisión estatal regional. [136] Después de capturar el centro de transmisión, los militantes comenzaron a transmitir canales de televisión rusos.

El 27 de abril se declaró la República Popular de Luhansk (LPR). [137] Los representantes de la República exigieron que el gobierno ucraniano otorgara amnistía a todos los manifestantes, consagrara el ruso como idioma oficial y celebrara un referéndum sobre el estatus de la región. [137] Emitieron un ultimátum que establecía que si Kiev no cumplía con sus demandas antes de las 14:00 horas del 29 de abril, lanzarían una insurgencia en tándem con la de la República Popular de Donetsk . [137]

El 29 de abril, un edificio de la administración de la ciudad en Pervomaisk fue invadido por insurgentes de la República Popular de Luhansk , quienes luego izaron su bandera sobre él. [138] [139] En Krasnyi Luch , la administración de la ciudad cedió a las demandas de los activistas separatistas de que apoyara los referendos sobre el estatus de Donetsk y Luhansk del 11 de mayo, y luego izó la bandera rusa sobre el edificio de la administración de la ciudad. [139]

El 1 de mayo, los insurgentes ocuparon el edificio de la administración de la ciudad en Kadiivka . Más tarde, durante la semana, capturaron la comisaría local, el centro de negocios y el edificio del SBU. [140] El 5 de mayo, los activistas de Rovenky ocuparon un edificio de policía, pero lo abandonaron rápidamente. [141] El mismo día, la sede de la policía en Slovianoserbsk fue tomada por miembros del Ejército del Sudeste , afiliado a la República Popular de Luhansk. [142] La ciudad de Antratsyt fue ocupada por varios cosacos renegados del Don . [143] Los insurgentes tomaron la fiscalía en Sievierodonetsk el 7 de mayo. [144] Al día siguiente, los partidarios de la República Popular de Luhansk capturaron edificios gubernamentales en Starobilsk . [145]

Tras una contraofensiva gubernamental como parte de la "Operación antiterrorista" en la provincia de Donetsk los días 2 y 3 de mayo, los insurgentes fueron derrotados en el edificio del SBU ocupado en Kramatorsk . [138] A pesar de ello, las tropas ucranianas se retiraron rápidamente de la ciudad por razones desconocidas, y los separatistas recuperaron rápidamente el control. Los combates esporádicos continuaron hasta el 5 de julio, cuando los insurgentes se retiraron de Kramatorsk. [146]

Enfrentamiento entre activistas prorrusos y fuerzas ucranianas en Mariupol , 9 de mayo de 2014

Temprano en la mañana del 7 de mayo, la Guardia Nacional retomó la administración de la ciudad en Mariupol después de duros combates con los insurgentes durante la noche. [147] Los manifestantes antigubernamentales dijeron que las fuerzas gubernamentales habían usado gas lacrimógeno durante la operación, lo que resultó en lesiones cuando los manifestantes intentaron volver a ocupar el edificio después de que la Guardia Nacional se retiró. [148] En la mañana del 7 de mayo, la bandera de la RPD estaba nuevamente ondeando sobre el edificio. [148] Los enfrentamientos entre las fuerzas gubernamentales y los grupos prorrusos se intensificaron a principios de mayo cuando el edificio de la administración de la ciudad fue brevemente retomado por la Guardia Nacional de Ucrania . Las fuerzas prorrusas rápidamente recuperaron el edificio. [149] Luego, los militantes lanzaron un ataque contra una estación de policía local, lo que llevó al gobierno ucraniano a enviar fuerzas militares. Las escaramuzas entre las tropas y los manifestantes locales provocaron que el edificio de la administración de la ciudad fuera incendiado. [ ¿ Quién? ] Las fuerzas gubernamentales no lograron expulsar a los prorrusos y sólo aumentaron aún más las tensiones en Mariupol. [149]

El 9 de mayo, las tropas ucranianas lanzaron otro ataque contra los insurgentes en Mariupol. Durante un asalto a un edificio policial ocupado, las fuerzas gubernamentales incendiaron el edificio, lo que provocó la huida de los insurgentes. [150] Arsen Avakov dijo que 60 insurgentes atacaron el edificio policial, no tropas ucranianas, y que la policía y otras fuerzas gubernamentales habían logrado repeler a los insurgentes. Entre seis y veinte militantes murieron, junto con un oficial de policía. [151] Cuatro militantes fueron capturados y cinco policías resultaron heridos. [152] Un vehículo blindado de transporte de personal fue capturado por manifestantes prorrusos durante los combates. Después de los enfrentamientos, las fuerzas prorrusas construyeron barricadas en todo el centro de la ciudad. [151] Al mismo tiempo, Ukrainian National News dijo que los separatistas intentaron desarmar a las tropas ucranianas cerca de Donetsk. Las tropas resistieron disparando tiros de advertencia y deteniendo a 100 de los separatistas. [153] Además, un sacerdote anónimo de la Iglesia Ortodoxa Ucraniana (Patriarcado de Moscú) intentó negociar con los separatistas cerca de Druzhkivka , pero luego fue asesinado después de recibir ocho disparos. [154] Esto fue confirmado por la Iglesia y la Fiscalía. [155]

Mayo de 2014: luchas posteriores al referéndum

Iglesia de la Santa Epifanía en Karlivka el 23 de mayo

El 12 de mayo se informó de que, tras el referéndum de autonomía local , el líder de la Milicia Popular del Donbass, Igor Girkin, se declaró "Comandante Supremo" de la República Popular de Donetsk. En su decreto, exigió que todos los militares estacionados en la región le hicieran juramento de lealtad en un plazo de 48 horas, y dijo que todos los militares ucranianos que quedaban en la región serían "destruidos en el lugar". A continuación, solicitó a la Federación de Rusia apoyo militar para protegerse de "la amenaza de intervención de la OTAN" y del "genocidio". [156] Pavel Gubarev , presidente de la República Popular de Donetsk, instituyó la ley marcial el 15 de mayo y prometió la "aniquilación total" de las fuerzas ucranianas si no se retiraban del Donbass a las 21:00. Del mismo modo, el presidente de la República Popular de Luhansk, Valery Bolotov , declaró la ley marcial el 22 de mayo. [157]

El magnate siderúrgico Rinat Akhmetov, con sede en Donetsk, convocó a sus 300.000 empleados en la región de Donetsk a "manifestarse contra los separatistas" el 20 de mayo. Las sirenas sonaron al mediodía en sus fábricas para señalar el comienzo de la manifestación. [158] Se celebró una denominada "Marcha por la Paz" en el Donbas Arena de la ciudad de Donetsk , acompañada por coches que hicieron sonar sus bocinas al mediodía. [159] BBC News y Ukrainska Pravda informaron de que algunos vehículos fueron atacados por separatistas y que hombres armados habían advertido a las oficinas de varios servicios de taxis de la ciudad que no participaran. [159] El 16 de mayo, los trabajadores siderúrgicos de Metinvest , junto con la policía local y las fuerzas de seguridad, expulsaron a los insurgentes de la administración de la ciudad y de otros edificios gubernamentales ocupados en la ciudad. [160] La mayoría de los insurgentes abandonaron la ciudad y se dijo que los pocos que quedaron estaban desarmados. [ ¿ Quién? ] A pesar de ello, la sede de la República Popular de Donetsk permaneció intacta y todavía se podían ver manifestantes prorrusos [ aclaración necesaria ] fuera de la administración de la ciudad quemada. [161]

En respuesta a la negativa de Akhmetov a pagar impuestos a la República Popular de Donetsk, el 20 de mayo el presidente del Consejo de Estado de la RPD, Denis Pushilin , anunció que la República intentaría nacionalizar los activos de Akhmetov. [162] El 25 de mayo, entre 2.000 y 5.000 manifestantes marcharon hasta la mansión de Akhmetov en la ciudad de Donetsk y exigieron la nacionalización de la propiedad de Akhmetov, mientras cantaban "¡Akhmetov es un enemigo del pueblo!". [163]

El 22 de mayo, 18 soldados murieron durante un ataque insurgente a un puesto de control del ejército cerca de la ciudad de Volnovakha . [164] Tres vehículos blindados de transporte de personal y varios camiones fueron destruidos en el ataque, mientras que un insurgente murió. [165] El mismo día, un convoy formado por 100 soldados intentó cruzar un puente en Rubizhne , óblast de Luhansk, y avanzar hacia territorio controlado por los insurgentes. [166] Fueron emboscados por un grupo de entre 300 y 500 insurgentes. Después de combates que duraron todo el día, los soldados se vieron obligados a retirarse. Entre dos y catorce soldados y entre siete y veinte insurgentes murieron durante los combates. Tres vehículos de combate de infantería del ejército y un camión fueron destruidos, y otros tres vehículos blindados fueron capturados por los insurgentes. [166] [167] El Ministerio del Interior declaró que algunos insurgentes habían intentado entrar en la provincia de Luhansk desde Rusia, pero habían sido repelidos por los guardias fronterizos. [168]

Tras una declaración de Pavel Gubarev estableciendo el " Partido Nueva Rusia " el 22 de mayo, los representantes de las repúblicas de Donetsk y Luhansk firmaron un acuerdo creando el estado confederado de Nueva Rusia . Los separatistas planeaban incorporar la mayor parte de las regiones meridionales y orientales de Ucrania a la nueva confederación, incluidas las ciudades clave de Járkov , Jersón , Dnipropetrovsk , Nikolaiyev , Zaporizhia y Odesa . [169] La declaración firmada estableció la posición de la ortodoxia rusa como religión estatal y la intención de nacionalizar las industrias clave. [170]

Una barricada separatista en la ciudad de Luhansk , abril de 2014

El 23 de mayo, una unidad del Batallón de voluntarios paramilitares progubernamentales de Donbass intentó avanzar hacia un puesto de control separatista cerca de la aldea de Karlivka , al noroeste de la ciudad de Donetsk. [171] Fueron emboscados por un grupo de entre 150 y 200 separatistas, apoyados por uno de los vehículos blindados de transporte de personal capturados. Los paramilitares progubernamentales fueron rodeados por los separatistas y eran superados en número seis a uno hasta que los combatientes afiliados al nacionalista Sector Derecho rompieron las líneas separatistas para permitir que algunos miembros del grupo escaparan. [171]

Cinco miembros del Batallón Donbass fueron asesinados, junto con cuatro separatistas. [171] Veinte miembros de los paramilitares pro gubernamentales resultaron heridos, y al menos cuatro fueron capturados. La participación de Sector Derecho fue cuestionada por el liderazgo del Batallón Donbass. [172] El líder prorruso Igor Bezler dijo que ejecutó a todos los paramilitares capturados. [173] Otro líder separatista confirmó que cuatro de sus combatientes fueron asesinados, y también dijo que diez paramilitares pro gubernamentales y dos civiles murieron. [167] Durante el mismo día, dos separatistas prorrusos fueron asesinados durante un asalto por parte de los paramilitares pro gubernamentales "Batallón Ucrania" en un edificio del gobierno local ocupado en Torez . [174]

Batalla y combates en el aeropuerto de Luhansk

En la mañana del 26 de mayo, 200 insurgentes prorrusos, incluidos miembros del Batallón Vostok , capturaron la terminal principal del Aeropuerto Internacional de Donetsk , levantaron barricadas a su alrededor y exigieron que las fuerzas gubernamentales se retiraran. [175] Poco después de que se emitieran estas demandas, la Guardia Nacional de Ucrania emitió un ultimátum a los separatistas, pidiéndoles que se rindieran. Esto fue posteriormente rechazado. Las fuerzas gubernamentales lanzaron entonces un asalto a las posiciones separatistas en el aeropuerto con paracaidistas y ataques aéreos. [176] Las fuerzas gubernamentales utilizaron helicópteros de ataque. Apuntaron a un cañón antiaéreo operado por separatistas. [177] Se estima que 40 insurgentes murieron en los combates, y algunos civiles quedaron atrapados en el fuego cruzado. [178] Entre 15 y 35 insurgentes murieron en un solo incidente de fuego amigo, cuando dos camiones que transportaban a combatientes heridos fuera del aeropuerto fueron emboscados por insurgentes que los confundieron con fuerzas ucranianas. [179] [180]

Durante los combates en el aeropuerto, el estadio Druzhba Arena de la ciudad de Donetsk fue saqueado por insurgentes prorrusos, que saquearon el edificio, destruyeron el equipo de vigilancia y lo incendiaron. [181] Al mismo tiempo, la policía de Donetsk dijo que los insurgentes habían matado a dos policías en la cercana ciudad de Horlivka. El Moscow Times informó que los dos hombres habían sido ejecutados por "romper su juramento a la República Popular de Donetsk". [181]

Los insurgentes afiliados a la República Popular de Luhansk atacaron una unidad de la Guardia Nacional de Ucrania en las primeras horas del 28 de mayo. [182]

Escalada en mayo y junio de 2014

El 30 de mayo, el ministro de Defensa, Mykhailo Koval , declaró que las fuerzas del gobierno ucraniano habían "limpiado completamente" a los insurgentes de las partes sur y oeste de la provincia de Donetsk y la parte norte de la provincia de Luhansk. [183] ​​Mientras tanto, un golpe interno reemplazó al liderazgo de la República Popular de Donetsk, y algunos cuerpos de combatientes rusos muertos en la batalla del aeropuerto fueron repatriados a Rusia. [184]

Asedio al puesto fronterizo de Luhansk

El 31 de mayo, dos separatistas murieron en una escaramuza con guardias fronterizos ucranianos. [185] Dos días después, cinco separatistas murieron cuando 500 separatistas atacaron un puesto fronterizo en la provincia de Luhansk. Once guardias fronterizos y ocho separatistas resultaron heridos durante los combates, [186] en los que también murió un civil. [187]

Ataque aéreo en Luhansk el 2 de junio

El 2 de junio, ocho personas murieron y más de 20 resultaron heridas en una serie de explosiones que afectaron al edificio ocupado de la RSA en la ciudad de Luhansk. [188] Los separatistas culparon del incidente a un ataque aéreo del gobierno, mientras que los funcionarios ucranianos lo negaron y afirmaron que las explosiones fueron causadas por un misil tierra-aire disparado por los insurgentes. [189] La Organización para la Seguridad y la Cooperación en Europa (OSCE) publicó un informe al día siguiente, afirmando que, basándose en una "observación limitada", creían que la explosión fue causada por un ataque aéreo, lo que apoyaba las afirmaciones separatistas. [190]

Una investigación de CNN encontró evidencia clara de que el ataque se produjo desde el aire y el patrón de los cráteres sugirió el uso de equipo estándar en el Su-25, un caza de ataque terrestre, y el Su-27, ambos aviones de combate operados por Ucrania. [188] Radio Liberty también concluyó que "A pesar de las negaciones, todas las pruebas de la explosión mortal apuntan a Kiev". [191] CNN dijo que era la primera vez que civiles habían muerto en un ataque de la fuerza aérea ucraniana durante los disturbios prorrusos de 2014 en el Donbass. [188] Al día siguiente, la República Popular de Luhansk declaró un luto de tres días en la ciudad. [192]

Lucha continua

Miembros del Batallón Vostok desmantelan la barricada en la base militar de Donetsk el 3 de junio de 2014

Las fuerzas gubernamentales destruyeron un bastión separatista en Semenivka y recuperaron el control de Krasnyi Lyman el 3 de junio. [193] Dos soldados murieron en los combates y cuarenta y cinco resultaron heridos. Un portavoz de las Fuerzas Armadas de Ucrania dijo que 300 insurgentes murieron durante la operación y que 500 resultaron heridos. Los insurgentes dijeron que perdieron entre 10 y 50 hombres. [194] Dijeron que al menos 25 murieron mientras estaban en el hospital de Krasnyi Lyman. [195] Ninguno de estos informes fue confirmado de forma independiente y ambos bandos negaron las versiones del otro sobre la batalla. [194]

Al día siguiente, los insurgentes capturaron el puesto fronterizo asediado de Luhansk, así como una base de la Guardia Nacional cerca de la ciudad de Luhansk. Los combates en estas áreas dejaron seis insurgentes muertos y tres soldados del gobierno heridos. Otro puesto fronterizo fue capturado por los insurgentes en Sverdlovsk . [196] La base de la Guardia Nacional cayó después de que los guardias se quedaran sin municiones. Los separatistas habían confiscado previamente grandes cantidades de municiones del puesto fronterizo capturado. [197]

El 5 de junio, en la aldea de Marynivka , se produjo otro ataque a un puesto fronterizo . [198] Los funcionarios del Gobierno afirmaron que entre 15 y 16 insurgentes murieron y que cinco soldados resultaron heridos. [199] El 7 de junio, cerca de la RSA de Donetsk, se produjo un tiroteo entre grupos separatistas rivales en la ciudad de Donetsk. El vicepresidente de la República Popular de Donetsk, Maxim Petrukhin, murió en el combate y el presidente Denis Pushilin resultó herido. [200]

Incursión de tanques rusos

Los funcionarios ucranianos dijeron que Rusia había permitido que los tanques cruzaran la frontera ruso-ucraniana hacia la región de Donetsk el 11 de junio. El ministro del Interior, Arsen Avakov, dijo: "Hemos observado columnas que pasaban con vehículos blindados de transporte de personal, otros vehículos blindados y piezas de artillería, y tanques que, según nuestra información, cruzaron la frontera y esta mañana estaban en Snizhne ". Continuó diciendo que las fuerzas ucranianas habían destruido parte de la columna y que los combates seguían en curso. Los corresponsales de Reuters confirmaron la presencia de tres tanques en la ciudad de Donetsk, y la Oficina de Inteligencia e Investigación del Departamento de Estado de EE. UU . también dijo que Rusia había enviado tanques, junto con otras armas pesadas, a los separatistas en Ucrania. [201]

Se dice que las armas enviadas incluían: una columna de tres tanques T-64 , varios lanzacohetes múltiples BM-21 Grad y otros vehículos militares. "Rusia afirmará que estos tanques fueron tomados de las fuerzas ucranianas, pero ninguna unidad de tanques ucraniana ha estado operando en esa área", dijo el Departamento de Estado en un comunicado. "Estamos seguros de que estos tanques vinieron de Rusia". [202] El recién elegido presidente ucraniano, Petro Poroshenko, dijo que era "inaceptable" que los tanques cruzaran a Ucrania. Rusia calificó los informes como "otra pieza de información falsa". [203] Sin embargo, los tres tanques fueron vistos más tarde moviéndose a través de Makiivka y Torez , enarbolando la bandera de la Federación Rusa. [204] Los insurgentes confirmaron que habían obtenido tres tanques, pero los líderes se negaron a dar más detalles sobre cómo los adquirieron; un militante dijo a los periodistas que se originaron "de un almacén militar". [205]

El presidente de la RPD, Denis Pushilin , declaró que los tres tanques estarían estacionados en la ciudad de Donetsk y que daban a sus fuerzas "al menos alguna esperanza de defender [Donetsk] porque ya se están utilizando armas pesadas contra nosotros". [205] Konstantin Mashovets, un ex funcionario del Ministerio de Defensa de Ucrania, dijo que los tanques probablemente habían sido confiscados por las fuerzas rusas en Crimea antes de dirigirse a Ucrania continental. Anton Heraschenko, un asesor de Arsen Avakov, confirmó en una reunión informativa en Kiev que los tanques alguna vez estuvieron en posesión de las Fuerzas Armadas de Ucrania en Crimea , y que habían sido transferidos por mar a Rusia antes de cruzar la frontera con Ucrania. [206]

Un BTR-80 en servicio en Ucrania, 12 de junio de 2014

Al día siguiente de la incursión de los tanques, tres soldados murieron cuando fueron emboscados por los insurgentes en Stepanivka . [207] Los duros combates se reanudaron durante la mañana del 13 de junio, cuando el gobierno lanzó un nuevo ataque contra los insurgentes en Mariupol. Las tropas ucranianas lograron recuperar la ciudad y la declararon la "capital provisional" del óblast de Donetsk hasta que el gobierno recuperara el control sobre la ciudad de Donetsk. [208] Las tropas ucranianas obtuvieron el control de Mariupol el 13 de junio con la ayuda de la Guardia Nacional. [209] La sede de la RPD fue capturada y Mariupol fue declarada capital provisional del óblast de Donetsk, en lugar de la ciudad de Donetsk, que estaba ocupada por los separatistas. [210] Mientras tanto, un acuerdo entre el ministro del Interior, Arsen Avakov, y el presidente de la RPD, Denis Pushilin, destinado a crear un alto el fuego y permitir que los civiles escaparan de la violencia en Sloviansk, fracasó y ambas partes se culparon mutuamente por lanzar nuevos ataques. [211] Durante la mañana siguiente, un convoy de guardias fronterizos fue atacado por insurgentes cuando pasaba por Mariupol, dejando al menos cinco de los guardias muertos. [212]

Derribo del Ilyushin Il-76

El 14 de junio, un Ilyushin Il-76 MD de la Fuerza Aérea de Ucrania fue derribado por fuerzas aliadas de la República Popular de Luhansk . [213] El avión se preparaba para aterrizar en el Aeropuerto Internacional de Luhansk y transportaba tropas y equipo desde un lugar no revelado. Las 49 personas a bordo murieron. [213] Mientras tanto, dos tanques T-72 entraron en Donetsk y estalló una escaramuza en un puesto de control militar en Luhansk que duró dos días. [214]

Batalla de Yampil

El 19 de junio por la tarde, estalló una batalla con tanques y vehículos blindados en la ciudad de Yampil , cerca de Krasnyi Lyman , en poder del gobierno . Hasta 4.000 insurgentes estuvieron presentes en la lucha, que comenzó, según los insurgentes, después de que las Fuerzas Armadas intentaran capturar Yampil, en poder de los insurgentes, [215] con el objetivo de abrirse paso hacia Siversk . [216] Según las Fuerzas Armadas, comenzó después de que los insurgentes intentaran atravesar un cordón de tropas gubernamentales alrededor de Krasny Lyman, en poder del gobierno. La batalla fue descrita como superior "en términos de fuerza y ​​escala a todo lo que ha habido" durante el conflicto en el Donbass. [217]

Las Fuerzas Armadas desplegaron ataques aéreos y de artillería en sus intentos de derrotar a los insurgentes. [218] La batalla continuó hasta el día siguiente. Durante la noche, entre 7 y 12 soldados murieron y entre 25 y 30 resultaron heridos. Las Fuerzas Armadas dijeron que mataron a 300 insurgentes, pero esto no fue verificado de forma independiente, [219] los separatistas confirmaron solo dos muertes y siete heridos de su lado. [218] Los insurgentes también dijeron que destruyeron un tanque, varios BMD-1 y también derribaron un bombardero Su-25 . [220]

El ejército ucraniano dijo que había obtenido el control de Yampil y Siversk el 20 de junio, 20 horas antes de un alto el fuego unilateral por parte de las fuerzas ucranianas, como parte del plan de paz de 15 puntos del presidente ucraniano Petro Poroshenko . [221] También reconocieron que todavía había duros combates en el área alrededor de Yampil y el pueblo de Zakitne. [222] En este punto, el número de soldados muertos en la batalla había llegado a 13. [223] Durante los continuos combates, los militantes volaron un puente sobre un río en el pueblo de Zakitne. [224]

Julio de 2014: ofensiva gubernamental posterior al alto el fuego

Después de que terminara un alto el fuego de una semana declarado unilateralmente por el presidente ucraniano Petro Poroshenko , las Fuerzas Armadas reanudaron sus operaciones contra los insurgentes el 1 de julio. Se produjeron bombardeos en Kramatorsk y Sloviansk, y las fuerzas gubernamentales retomaron un cruce fronterizo en Dolzhansk , uno de los tres principales cruces fronterizos ocupados por los separatistas. Las fuerzas gubernamentales también recuperaron los pueblos de Brusivka y Stary Karavan. [225] El mismo día, los insurgentes en Luhansk dijeron que habían tomado el control del Aeropuerto Internacional de Luhansk . [226] El 1 de julio de 2014 en Donetsk estalló un tiroteo callejero entre facciones rivales de militantes prorrusos, que dio como resultado una persona herida de muerte y otras dos en estado crítico. [227]

El portavoz del Ministerio del Interior, Zoryan Shkyriakuk, dijo que más de 1.000 insurgentes prorrusos murieron en el primer día tras la reanudación de las hostilidades. [228] Liga.net , citando a una fuente involucrada en la operación militar del gobierno, informó que más de 400 insurgentes murieron en acción, pero que las cifras más altas informadas anteriormente no pudieron ser confirmadas. [229] Los propios separatistas informaron de sólo dos muertes en los combates en Mykolaivka . [230]

Un bloque de viviendas dañado en Donetsk, 14 de julio de 2014

El 2 de julio, los insurgentes atacaron un puesto fronterizo en Novoazovsk . Durante el ataque, se dispararon morteros contra el puesto y estallaron enfrentamientos. Un guardia fronterizo murió en los combates y otros ocho guardias resultaron heridos. [231] Las fuerzas gubernamentales recuperaron la ciudad de Mykolaivka , cerca de Sloviansk, el 4 de julio. Un grupo de militantes afiliados a la RPD desertó como resultado de ello y se unió al ejército ucraniano. [232]

En otro golpe a los insurgentes, las fuerzas gubernamentales retomaron la fortaleza de Sloviansk el 5 de julio. [233] El comandante de los insurgentes de la RPD, Ígor Girkin , tomó la decisión "debido a la abrumadora superioridad numérica del enemigo", según el primer ministro de la RPD, Aleksandr Borodai . Dijo que las fuerzas de la RPD se habían retirado a Kramatorsk , pero BBC News informó que se les vio abandonar sus puestos de control en Kramatorsk. [233] Más tarde ese día, Borodai confirmó que los insurgentes habían abandonado "todo el sector norte", incluido Kramatorsk, y se habían retirado a la ciudad de Donetsk . [146] Después de la retirada de las fuerzas de Girkin a Donetsk, asumió el control de la RPD, reemplazando a las autoridades anteriores allí en lo que se describió como un " golpe de estado ". [234]

Posteriormente, las Fuerzas Armadas de Ucrania recuperaron Druzhkivka , Kostyantynivka y Artemivsk . [235] En medio de la retirada insurgente, el alcalde de la ciudad de Donetsk, Oleksandr Lukyanchenko, dijo que al menos 30.000 personas habían abandonado la ciudad desde abril. [236] En un desarrollo separado, las fuerzas ucranianas dijeron que detectaron dos drones aéreos en Mariupol y derribaron a uno de ellos. [237]

El 7 de julio, antes de una ofensiva gubernamental planeada contra la ciudad de Donetsk, ocupada por los insurgentes, se bloquearon las carreteras principales que conducían a la ciudad. [238] Los insurgentes destruyeron los puentes ferroviarios sobre las carreteras, provocando su derrumbe y bloqueando las carreteras. El ministro de Defensa, Valeriy Heletey, declaró el 8 de julio que no habría "más ceses del fuego unilaterales", y dijo que el diálogo sólo era posible si los insurgentes deponían las armas. [239] El 9 de julio estallaron más combates en el Aeropuerto Internacional de Luhansk . [240] Los insurgentes afiliados a la LPR dijeron que habían capturado el aeropuerto el 1 de julio, pero que el ejército ucraniano logró mantener el control sobre él. Más de 10.000 hogares en el óblast de Luhansk se quedaron sin servicio de gas debido a daños en las tuberías de gas, según un comunicado emitido el mismo día por el proveedor regional de gas. [241]

Una casa destruida en el Donbass, julio de 2014

Los enfrentamientos en el Aeropuerto Internacional de Donetsk continuaron el 10 de julio. Los insurgentes dispararon morteros contra el aeropuerto e intentaron recuperarlo, pero fueron repelidos por las Fuerzas Armadas. [242] Las fuerzas ucranianas también retomaron la ciudad de Siversk , lo que fue confirmado por los insurgentes. [243] El mismo día, la administración de la ciudad de Luhansk informó que seis civiles habían resultado heridos debido a las hostilidades en curso en toda la ciudad. [244] También hubo informes de faccionalismo entre los separatistas, con algunas deserciones. Según estos informes, el Batallón Vostok había rechazado la autoridad de Igor Girkin. Sin embargo, Alexander Borodai , primer ministro de la RPD, negó estos informes y dijo que eran mentiras. [245]

El 11 de julio continuaron los duros combates en la provincia de Luhansk. Ese día, una columna de las Fuerzas Armadas que viajaba cerca de Rovenky fue atacada por un camión lanzacohetes Grad operado por los insurgentes . [246] Un ataque aéreo lanzado por las Fuerzas Armadas finalmente logró destruir el lanzacohetes , pero solo después de que 23 soldados murieran. [247] En respuesta al ataque, el presidente ucraniano Poroshenko dijo que "por cada vida de nuestros soldados, los militantes pagarán con decenas y cientos de los suyos". [246] Al día siguiente, la Fuerza Aérea de Ucrania lanzó ataques aéreos dirigidos contra posiciones insurgentes en las provincias de Donetsk y Luhansk. [248] El gobierno ucraniano dijo que 500 insurgentes murieron en estos ataques, que dijeron que eran represalias por el ataque con cohetes separatistas del día anterior. Cuatro personas murieron en Marinka , un suburbio occidental de la ciudad de Donetsk, después de que los cohetes impactaran una zona de la ciudad controlada por los insurgentes. El gobierno ucraniano y los separatistas se culparon mutuamente por el ataque. [249]

Los combates se agravan en el este de la región de Donetsk

Tras una breve pausa tras la retirada de los insurgentes de la parte norte de la provincia de Donetsk, los combates siguieron aumentando considerablemente en las partes orientales de la provincia. El 13 de julio cayeron proyectiles en la ciudad fronteriza de Donetsk , en la provincia de Rostov , parte de Rusia. [250] Un civil murió en el bombardeo. Los funcionarios rusos culparon a las Fuerzas Armadas de Ucrania por el bombardeo, mientras que Ucrania negó la responsabilidad y acusó a los insurgentes en el Donbass de haber organizado un ataque de falsa bandera . [251] Rusia dijo que estaba considerando lanzar ataques aéreos contra objetivos gubernamentales en Ucrania como represalia por el bombardeo. [252]

Las fuerzas ucranianas lograron avances en los alrededores de Luhansk, poniendo fin a un bloqueo insurgente del Aeropuerto Internacional de Luhansk. Los funcionarios de la LPR reconocieron que perdieron 30 hombres durante los combates en el pueblo de Oleksandrivka . [253] La ciudad de Snizhne, ocupada por los insurgentes, fue alcanzada por cohetes disparados desde un avión el 15 de julio, dejando al menos 11 personas muertas y destruyendo varias casas. [254] Los insurgentes culparon a la Fuerza Aérea de Ucrania, pero el gobierno ucraniano negó cualquier participación en el ataque.

El 16 de julio estallaron enfrentamientos entre los insurgentes y las Fuerzas Armadas a lo largo de la frontera con Rusia en el raión de Shakhtarsk . Los insurgentes que se habían atrincherado en la ciudad de Stepanivka intentaron escapar del cerco de las fuerzas gubernamentales a las 05:00. [255] Según un informe de la Guardia Nacional , un puesto de control cerca de la aldea fronteriza de Marynivka fue atacado por los insurgentes con tanques, fuego de mortero y misiles antitanque. [256] El puesto de control fue bombardeado durante más de una hora, lo que causó daños significativos a la infraestructura en Marynivka. Los guardias lograron repeler el ataque y obligaron a los insurgentes a retroceder a Stepanivka, donde continuaron los combates. [256] Luego, la batalla se trasladó a la cercana aldea de Tarany. Al menos 11 soldados ucranianos murieron en los combates. [255] Los intentos de formar un "grupo de contacto" entre los insurgentes y el gobierno ucraniano, parte del " plan de paz de 15 puntos " del presidente Poroshenko, fracasaron, dejando pocas esperanzas de un nuevo alto el fuego . [255] Los insurgentes dijeron más tarde que habían recuperado con éxito Marynivka de las Fuerzas Armadas. [257]

Derribo del vuelo 17 de Malaysia Airlines

El 17 de julio de 2014, las fuerzas de la RPD derribaron un avión de pasajeros civil, el vuelo 17 de Malaysia Airlines, sobre Hrabove (un pueblo de la provincia de Donetsk), y mataron a las 298 personas que iban a bordo. Este desastre se produjo después de dos incidentes similares ocurridos a principios de la semana, cuando dos aviones de la Fuerza Aérea de Ucrania fueron derribados. [258]

Los insurgentes afiliados a la RPD culparon al gobierno ucraniano por el desastre, mientras que el gobierno, los Países Bajos y Australia culparon a Rusia y a los insurgentes. [259] [260] La responsabilidad de la investigación fue delegada a la Junta de Seguridad Holandesa (DSB) y al equipo de investigación conjunto (JIT) liderado por los holandeses, quienes concluyeron que el avión fue derribado por un misil tierra-aire Buk lanzado desde territorio controlado por los separatistas prorrusos en Ucrania. [261] [262] Según el JIT, el Buk que se utilizó se originó en la 53.ª Brigada de Misiles Antiaéreos de la Federación Rusa , [263] [264] y había sido transportado desde Rusia el día del accidente, disparado desde un campo en un área controlada por los separatistas, y el lanzador regresó a Rusia después de que se utilizó para derribar el MH17. [265] [263] [266]

Sobre la base de las conclusiones del JIT, los gobiernos de los Países Bajos y Australia responsabilizaron a Rusia del despliegue de la instalación Buk y tomaron medidas para exigirle formalmente cuentas. [259] [260]

El Gobierno avanza en las ciudades de Donetsk y Luhansk

Mientras tanto, los combates en Luhansk provocaron la pérdida de los servicios de electricidad y agua en toda la ciudad. [267] Los bombardeos dañaron una subestación eléctrica en el distrito de Kamennobrodskiy, lo que provocó la pérdida de energía. También se incendió una refinería de petróleo en Lysychansk . [267]

Al menos 20 civiles murieron en el bombardeo de Luhansk, según un comunicado de la administración de la ciudad. [268] El comunicado decía que una andanada de cohetes alcanzó "prácticamente todos los distritos". El bombardeo obligó a los observadores de la OSCE a huir de su oficina en Luhansk y trasladarse a Starobilsk . [269] Las fuerzas gubernamentales continuaron capturando la sección sureste de la ciudad. [270] Otras 16 personas murieron durante la noche y al menos 60 resultaron heridas. [271] Según un informe del gobierno, el aeropuerto de Luhansk fue asegurado por las fuerzas gubernamentales en medio de la batalla. [272]

Un bloque de pisos dañado en Lysychansk, 28 de julio de 2014

Durante la noche se reanudaron los duros combates en torno al aeropuerto de Donetsk y se oyeron explosiones en todos los distritos de la ciudad. La ciudad quedó en silencio a las 09:00 horas del 19 de julio. [273] El 21 de julio se reanudaron los duros combates en Donetsk. [274] Donetsk se vio sacudida por explosiones y el fuego de armas pesadas hizo que se elevara humo sobre la ciudad. Los combates se concentraron en los distritos noroccidentales de Kyivskyi y Kuibyshevskyi , y también cerca de la estación central de trenes y el aeropuerto, lo que llevó a los residentes locales a buscar refugio en refugios antiaéreos o a huir de la ciudad. [275] El suministro de agua de la ciudad se cortó durante los combates y se detuvo todo el servicio de trenes y autobuses. [276] Las calles se vaciaron y los insurgentes levantaron barricadas por toda la ciudad para controlar el tráfico. [277] Las ciudades de Dzerzhynsk , Soledar y Rubizhne [278] también fueron recuperadas por las fuerzas gubernamentales. [279]

El suburbio de Mayorsk, justo en las afueras de Horlivka , y la ciudad de Sievierodonetsk , en el óblast de Luhansk, fueron recapturados por las Fuerzas Armadas el 22 de julio. [280] Los observadores de la OSCE que visitaron Donetsk después de los combates del día anterior dijeron que la ciudad estaba "prácticamente desierta" y que los combates habían cesado. [281] El mismo día, el primer ministro de la RPD, Alexander Borodai, dijo que quería reanudar las conversaciones de alto el fuego. El comandante de la RPD, Igor Girkin , también dijo: "Ha llegado el momento en que Rusia debe tomar una decisión final: apoyar realmente a los rusos de Donbass o abandonarlos para siempre". [282] Además, el Batallón paramilitar proucraniano de Donbass capturó Popasna . [283]

Un paso elevado de ferrocarril destruido, 25 de julio de 2014

Después de haber recuperado Sievierodonetsk , las fuerzas gubernamentales lucharon contra los insurgentes en los alrededores de la vecina ciudad de Lysychansk . [284] Un coche bomba insurgente mató a tres soldados durante los combates allí. Se lanzaron ataques con cohetes Grad contra las fuerzas gubernamentales acantonadas en Vesela Hora , Kamysheve y también el aeropuerto de Luhansk. El centro de prensa de la operación militar gubernamental dijo que la situación seguía siendo "más compleja" en las zonas alrededor de "la ciudad de Donetsk, la ciudad de Luhansk, Krasnodon y Popasna ". [285] Las fuerzas gubernamentales rompieron el bloqueo insurgente alrededor del aeropuerto de Donetsk el 23 de julio y luego avanzaron hacia la esquina noroeste de la ciudad de Donetsk. [286]

Posteriormente, los insurgentes se retiraron de muchas áreas en las afueras de la ciudad, incluyendo Karlivka , Netailov, Pokrovsk Raion , Pervomaiske y el área alrededor del aeropuerto de Donetsk. [286] El comandante insurgente Igor Girkin dijo que esto se hizo para fortificar el centro de la ciudad de Donetsk, y también para evitar ser rodeados por las fuerzas gubernamentales. También dijo que no esperaba una incursión del gobierno en el centro de la ciudad de Donetsk. [286] Mientras tanto, los enfrentamientos continuaron en Shakhtarsk Raion , a lo largo de la frontera con Rusia. En medio de los combates, dos aviones de combate Su-25 ucranianos que habían estado brindando apoyo aéreo a las fuerzas terrestres cerca de Dmytrivka fueron derribados por los insurgentes. [287]

El 24 de julio, las fuerzas gubernamentales recuperaron Lysychansk . [288] El mismo día, los combates estallaron alrededor de Horlivka . [289] Las fuerzas gubernamentales lanzaron ataques aéreos y de artillería contra los insurgentes dentro de la ciudad, y se produjeron enfrentamientos por todas partes. Un puente importante se derrumbó en los combates, cortando una ruta crítica para salir de la ciudad. La gente huyó de la violencia en coches y a pie. [289] A pesar de estos avances de las Fuerzas Armadas, la frontera con Rusia no estaba asegurada. Se informó de que el puesto fronterizo de Izvaryne en el óblast de Luhansk, controlado por el Ejército del Sureste, era el principal punto de entrada de armas y refuerzos desde Rusia. [289] Los bombardeos comenzaron de nuevo en los distritos de Kyivskyi , Kirovskyi y Petrovskyi de la ciudad de Donetsk. Según la administración de la ciudad de Donetsk, 11 casas resultaron dañadas en Petrovsky y al menos un hombre resultó herido. [290] Los combates continuaron durante la noche del 26 de julio, con explosiones, bombardeos y disparos en toda la ciudad. [291]

Durante el tercer día de la ofensiva del gobierno sobre el bastión insurgente de Horlivka , entre 20 y 30 civiles fueron asesinados el 27 de julio. [292] Horlivka estaba prácticamente abandonada, con la electricidad y el agua cortadas. Los bombardeos dañaron o destruyeron muchos edificios, incluyendo un hospital, una verdulería y la oficina de una compañía energética. [293] Las tropas ucranianas también entraron en la ciudad de Shakhtarsk , lucharon contra los insurgentes que la habían estado ocupando y la capturaron alrededor de las 14:30. [294] Esto cortó el corredor de suministro entre los territorios en poder de la DPR y la LPR, aislando a los insurgentes en la ciudad de Donetsk. [295] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ]

También estallaron escaramuzas en las ciudades cercanas de Snizhne y Torez . El intenso combate en el Raión de Shakhtarsk obligó a un grupo de policías holandeses y australianos a cancelar un intento de investigar el lugar del accidente del vuelo 17 de Malaysia Airlines . [296] 41 soldados ucranianos desertaron de sus puestos y se dirigieron al cruce fronterizo de Izvaryne , controlado por los insurgentes, donde les dijeron que se negaban a luchar contra su "propia gente". [297] Los insurgentes les permitieron huir de Ucrania y cruzar a Rusia. [ cita requerida ] El 28 de julio, las alturas estratégicas de Savur-Mohyla estaban bajo control ucraniano, junto con la ciudad de Debaltseve . [298]

Los insurgentes habían utilizado previamente Savur-Mohyla para bombardear a las tropas ucranianas en los alrededores de la ciudad de Marynivka. [299] Para el 29 de julio, otros 17 civiles habían muerto en los combates, junto con otras 43 personas heridas. [300] Los bombardeos continuaron en los distritos de Leninskyi y Kyivskyi de la ciudad de Donetsk. Según la administración de la ciudad, estos distritos sufrieron graves daños. [301]

Según un informe del Consejo de Seguridad Nacional y Defensa de Ucrania , los puntos de cruce de la frontera con Rusia fueron atacados desde territorio ruso al menos 153 veces desde el 5 de junio. [302] 27 guardias fronterizos murieron en estos ataques y 185 resultaron heridos. Las fuerzas gubernamentales hicieron un nuevo avance el 30 de julio, cuando desalojaron a los insurgentes de Avdiivka , cerca del aeropuerto de Donetsk. [303] Las operaciones militares se detuvieron el 31 de julio. [304] Esto tenía como objetivo permitir que los expertos internacionales examinaran el lugar del accidente del vuelo 17 de Malaysia Airlines , que se encuentra en el raión de Shakhtarsk , donde se habían producido las batallas más encarnizadas en los días anteriores. Los observadores fueron escoltados hasta el lugar por las Fuerzas Armadas de Ucrania. [305]

Después de que los combates cortaran varias líneas de transmisión, la ciudad de Luhansk perdió todo acceso a la energía eléctrica. [305] Quedaba poco combustible para alimentar los generadores de emergencia. Se produjeron escaramuzas menores en Vasylivka y Zhovtneve. [306] Mientras tanto, se celebraron conversaciones entre los separatistas, Rusia, Ucrania y la OSCE en Minsk . [304] Los combates continuaron en Shakhtarsk . Una emboscada de los insurgentes a las fuerzas gubernamentales allí resultó en la muerte de diez soldados. [307] 11 desaparecieron y 13 resultaron heridos. Continuó una ofensiva del gobierno en la ciudad de Pervomaisk en el óblast de Luhansk. [307]

Edificio dañado en Snizhne , 6 de agosto de 2014

Tras una serie de derrotas militares, Igor Girkin, comandante insurgente de la RPD, instó a la intervención militar rusa y dijo que la inexperiencia en combate de sus fuerzas irregulares, junto con las dificultades de reclutamiento entre la población local en el óblast de Donetsk, habían causado los reveses. Se dirigió al presidente ruso Vladimir Putin y dijo que "perder esta guerra en el territorio que el presidente Vladimir Putin personalmente llamó Nueva Rusia amenazaría el poder del Kremlin y, personalmente, el poder del presidente". [308] Las fuerzas gubernamentales se acercaron a las ciudades de Luhansk y Donetsk el 3 de agosto. [309]

En ambas ciudades murieron varios civiles en los combates. Se informó de que Luhansk estaba "prácticamente rodeada", con poco suministro de electricidad o agua disponible. La situación en la ciudad de Donetsk era menos grave, ya que los trenes a Rusia seguían funcionando, pero los combates y los bombardeos no cesaban. [309] Según las Fuerzas Armadas, tres cuartas partes del territorio que alguna vez estuvo en manos de los insurgentes habían sido recapturados. [310] También dijeron que habían cortado por completo las líneas de suministro entre la RPD y la RPL, después de más de una semana de combates en el raión de Shakhtarsk . [311]

Tras una prolongada batalla, las Fuerzas Armadas recuperaron la vital ciudad de Yasynuvata el 4 de agosto. [312] Al menos cinco soldados murieron en los combates para capturar la ciudad, que es un cruce ferroviario estratégico en la carretera principal entre las ciudades de Donetsk y Luhansk. Los batallones paramilitares pro gubernamentales Azov y Shakhtarsk dijeron que habían avanzado hacia la ciudad de Donetsk y habían comenzado a "liberarla". [313] El gobierno ucraniano dijo que todos los civiles debían evacuar Donetsk y emitió declaraciones pidiendo a las fuerzas de la DPR y la LPR que ayudaran a establecer "corredores humanitarios" para permitir que los civiles en Donetsk, Luhansk y Horlivka huyeran. [314] Al comentar sobre la situación en Luhansk, el alcalde Sergei Kravchenko dijo que "como resultado del bloqueo y los incesantes ataques con cohetes, la ciudad está al borde de una catástrofe humanitaria". [315]

El 5 de agosto, cuando las tropas gubernamentales avanzaron hacia Donetsk, a las 17:00 horas estallaron intensos combates en el distrito Petrovskyi de la ciudad. [316] En otros lugares, los insurgentes recuperaron la ciudad de Yasynuvata después de una retirada de las fuerzas gubernamentales. [ 317] Un portavoz del Consejo Nacional de Seguridad y Defensa de Ucrania dijo que las Fuerzas Armadas abandonaron la ciudad para evitar dañar a la "población pacífica", y que la ciudad estaba siendo evacuada para que pudiera ser "completamente liberada". [318] También dijo que la estación de tren seguía bajo control del gobierno y que todo el tráfico ferroviario había sido bloqueado. Los combates entre insurgentes y fuerzas gubernamentales en toda la región del Donbás continuaron "constantemente" a lo largo del día. [319]

Un edificio de viviendas en llamas en Shakhtarsk , 3 de agosto de 2014

Los combates y bombardeos continuaron alrededor de Donetsk el 8 de agosto, con varios civiles muertos o heridos. [320] Para el 9 de agosto, el comandante insurgente Igor Girkin dijo que Donetsk había sido "completamente rodeado" por fuerzas gubernamentales. [321] Esto siguió a la captura de la vital ciudad de Krasnyi Luch por el gobierno, después de que los cosacos alineados con los insurgentes estacionados allí huyeran. [321] Más escaramuzas entre los insurgentes y las Fuerzas Armadas tuvieron lugar en Mnohopillia, Stepanivka , Hryhorivka , Krasny Yar, Pobeda, Shyshkove, Komyshne , Novohannivka, Krasna Talivka , Dmytrivka , Sabivka y el aeropuerto de Luhansk. [322]

Durante la noche y hasta el 10 de agosto, las fuerzas gubernamentales lanzaron un bombardeo de artillería sobre la ciudad de Donetsk. [323] Según un portavoz de las Fuerzas Armadas, los insurgentes comenzaron a huir de la ciudad durante el bombardeo y se encontraban en un estado de "pánico y caos". Los hospitales y los edificios residenciales resultaron gravemente dañados y muchos de los residentes que quedaron se refugiaron en los sótanos. [323] Las ciudades de Pervomaisk , Kalynove y Komyshuvakha, en el oeste del óblast de Luhansk cerca de Popasna , fueron capturadas por las fuerzas gubernamentales el 12 de agosto después de intensos combates. [324] Los intensos bombardeos de Donetsk continuaron hasta el 14 de agosto. [325]

Durante este bombardeo de artillería, Ígor Girkin renunció a su puesto como comandante de las fuerzas insurgentes de la República Popular de Donetsk. [326] Fue reemplazado por Vladimir Kononov , conocido por el nombre de guerra Tsar . [327] La ​​renuncia de Girkin, junto con la renuncia el 7 de agosto del primer ministro de la RPD, Alexander Borodai (quien fue reemplazado por Alexander Zakharchenko ), representó un cambio en la naturaleza del conflicto. Dados los recientes fallos militares de la RPD y la RPL, Rusia decidió que ya no podía depender de un mosaico de combatientes irregulares en el Donbás y ordenó un cambio de liderazgo. [328] Abandonó el proyecto separatista y lo reemplazó con la idea de la federalización del Donbás dentro de Ucrania. Para efectuar este cambio, pronto cambiaría de marcha de la guerra híbrida a la guerra convencional. [329]

Guerra abierta entre Rusia y Ucrania

Invasión de las fuerzas rusas en agosto de 2014

Mapa de las zonas controladas por los insurgentes de junio a agosto de 2014
Tropas ucranianas vigilan una carretera en el Donbás, agosto de 2014

El 14 de agosto, un convoy de unas dos docenas de vehículos blindados de transporte de personal y otros vehículos con matrículas militares rusas oficiales cruzó hacia Ucrania cerca del cruce fronterizo de Izvaryne , controlado por los insurgentes . [330] [331] El Secretario General de la OTAN, Anders Fogh Rasmussen, confirmó que se había producido una "incursión rusa" en Ucrania. [332] El presidente ucraniano, Petro Poroshenko, dijo que la artillería ucraniana había atacado y destruido una parte "significativa" de la columna blindada. [333] El Ministerio de Defensa ruso negó la existencia de tal convoy. [334] Tras este incidente, el recién nombrado primer ministro de la RPD, Alexander Zakharchenko, dijo que sus fuerzas incluían a 1.200 combatientes entrenados por Rusia. [335]

Edificio dañado en Donetsk , 7 de agosto de 2014

El 17 de agosto, los insurgentes derribaron un avión de combate MiG-29 de la Fuerza Aérea de Ucrania en la provincia de Luhansk. Diez civiles murieron durante los continuos bombardeos en Donetsk. [336] La ciudad de Horlivka, ocupada por los insurgentes, fue rodeada por las Fuerzas Armadas el 18 de agosto. [337] Las fuerzas gubernamentales también avanzaron hacia los límites de la ciudad de Luhansk. Un convoy de refugiados de Luhansk fue alcanzado por cohetes Grad cerca de la aldea de Novosvitlivka . Decenas de civiles murieron en el ataque, que el Consejo de Seguridad Nacional y Defensa de Ucrania atribuyó a los insurgentes. Los insurgentes negaron haber atacado ningún convoy de refugiados. [337] El primer ministro de la RPD, Aleksandr Zakharchenko, declaró que si el gobierno ucraniano hacía "propuestas razonables para deponer las armas y cerrar las fronteras, hablaríamos en igualdad de condiciones como socios iguales". [338] Añadió, sin embargo, que el Gobierno "debe reconocernos como Estado, ahora ya es imposible pedir un cierto grado de autonomía". [338]

Después de haber penetrado en la ciudad de Luhansk el 18 de agosto, las fuerzas gubernamentales comenzaron a avanzar por la ciudad "bloque por bloque" el 19 de agosto. [339] [340] Se oían combates en las calles de toda la ciudad y continuaban los bombardeos de muchos distritos ocupados por los insurgentes. También hubo combates en Makiivka e Ilovaisk , dos ciudades a las afueras de la ciudad de Donetsk. Un portavoz del Ministerio del Interior dijo que las fuerzas gubernamentales estaban "limpiando" Ilovaisk de insurgentes y que más tarde capturaron la mayor parte de la ciudad. [339] [341] La sede de la RPD en la ciudad de Donetsk también fue bombardeada. Los combates en todo el óblast de Donetsk el 19 de agosto resultaron en la muerte de 34 civiles. [342] A primera hora de la tarde del 20 de agosto, las fuerzas gubernamentales dijeron que habían recuperado "partes significativas" de la ciudad de Luhansk, después de una serie de batallas continuas en las calles durante todo el día. [343]

El 25 de agosto, una contraofensiva insurgente había detenido la ofensiva del gobierno en las ciudades de Donetsk y Luhansk. [344] Los insurgentes atacaron posiciones gubernamentales en Shchastia y a lo largo del río Siverskyi Donets en el óblast de Luhansk. Mientras se producía este ataque, los insurgentes en Luhansk recibieron refuerzos. Las fuerzas gubernamentales cerca de Ilovaisk y Amvrosiivka en el óblast de Donetsk se vieron rodeadas por los insurgentes, después de que su intento de tomar Ilovaisk fuera detenido por un intenso bombardeo. [344] El Batallón Donbas de voluntarios progubernamentales , atrapado en la ciudad durante días por los insurgentes, acusó al gobierno y las Fuerzas Armadas de Ucrania de "abandonarlos". [345]

Otros batallones de voluntarios, como el Azov y el Dnipro , abandonaron Ilovaisk tras encontrar una fuerte resistencia. El jefe del batallón de Donbass, Semen Semenchenko, dijo: "Creo que es rentable para el Ministerio de Defensa no enviar ayuda, sino lograr una situación en la que los batallones de voluntarios comiencen a culparse entre sí sobre quién ayudó a quién". [346]

Una columna de vehículos blindados cruzó a Ucrania desde Rusia cerca de Novoazovsk el 25 de agosto. [33] [347] No había formaciones insurgentes en un radio de 30 kilómetros ( 18+23  millas) de esta zona durante muchas semanas. [348] Se produjeron intensos combates en el pueblo de Markyne,a 7 kilómetros ( 4+14 mi) from Novoazovsk. Insurgents used the village as a base to shell Novoazovsk.[349] A spokesman for the National Security and Defence Council of Ukraine said that the entrance of the column into Ukraine was an attempt "by the Russian military in the guise of Donbas fighters to open a new area of military confrontation".[347]

According to the Mariupol city website, the Dnipro and Donbas battalions repelled the attack, and the "invaders" retreated to the border.[350] Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said he had no knowledge of the incident, and suggested that reports of the incident being an incursion by Russian forces were "disinformation."[351] Directly prior to the appearance of the column, the area was heavily shelled. The nearest insurgent artillery positions were beyond the range of this area.[348]

Villagers from Kolosky in Starobesheve Raion told Reuters that military men with Russian accents and no identifying insignias had appeared in the village at the weekend of 23–24 August.[352] They set up a roadblock near the village. The men wore distinctive white armbands.[352] The villagers referred to them as "little green men", a term that was used to refer to the irregular Russian forces that took control of Crimea from February 2014. Following the appearance of these men, ten soldiers in green military uniforms with white armbands were detained by Ukrainian forces at Dzerkalne. This village is north of Novoazovosk, 7 kilometres (4+14 mi) from Kolosky, and about 20 kilometres (12 mi) from the Russian border.[352][353]

The Russian military confirmed that these men were Russian paratroopers and that they had been captured. The Russian Defence Ministry said the men had entered Ukraine "by mistake during an exercise".[352][353] The Security Service of Ukraine (SBU) released videos that they said were interviews with the captive Russian soldiers. In one of the videos, a soldier said that their commanders had sent them on a 70-kilometre (43+12 mi) march "without explaining its purpose or warning that they would be in Ukrainian territory, where they were apprehended by Ukrainian forces and surrendered without a fight".[354]

People queueing for water in Donetsk, 22 August 2014

Insurgents pushed into Novoazovsk on 27 August.[34][355] Whilst the Ukrainian government said they were in "total control" of Novoazovsk, town mayor Oleg Sidorkin confirmed that the insurgents had captured it.[355] He also said that "dozens" of tanks and armoured vehicles had been used by the insurgents in their assault on the town. At least four civilians were injured by insurgent shelling. To the north, close to Starobesheve, Ukrainian forces said that they spotted a column of 100 armoured vehicles, tanks, and Grad rocket lorries that was heading south, toward Novoazovsk.[355] They said these vehicles were marked with "white circles or triangles", similar to the white armbands seen on the captured Russian paratroopers earlier in the week. Amidst pressure on this new third front, government forces retreated westward toward Mariupol.[34]

They evacuated the town of Starobesheve, among other areas in the 75-kilometre (47 mi) stretch of borderland from the Sea of Azov to the existing insurgent-held territories.[34][356] A report by The New York Times described the retreating soldiers as "exhausted, filthy and dismayed".[34] Western officials described the new insurgent actions as a "stealth invasion" by the Russian Federation, with tanks, artillery and infantry said to have crossed into Ukraine from Russian territory. US State Department spokesman Jen Psaki said that "these incursions indicate a Russian-directed counteroffensive is likely underway", and Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko said "An invasion of Russian forces has taken place".[34][357][358] A statement by the National Security and Defence Council of Ukraine (NSDC) later said that Novoazovsk had been captured by "Russian troops", despite earlier denials by the Ukrainian government.[359]

According to the NSDC, Ukrainian troops withdrew from Novoazovsk to save lives, and were instead preparing defences in Mariupol. Meanwhile, fighting continued in and around Donetsk city. Shells fell on the Kalininskyi district of Donetsk, and the Donbas Battalion continued to fight against the insurgents that had trapped them in Ilovaisk for days.[345][357][360] NATO commander Brig. Gen. Nico Tak said on 28 August that "well over" 1,000 Russian soldiers were operating in the Donbas conflict zone.[361] Amidst what The New York Times described as "chaos" in the conflict zone, the insurgents re-captured Savur-Mohyla.[34]

Despite these advances by pro-Russian forces, the National Guard of Ukraine temporarily retook the city of Komsomolske in Starobesheve Raion of Donetsk Oblast on 29 August.[362] However, two days later, Ukrainian forces retreated from the city, and Komsomolske was once again taken by the DPR forces.[363] Elsewhere, Ukrainian forces retreated from Novosvitlivka after being attacked by what they said were "Russian tanks". They said that every house in the village was destroyed.[364] The trapped Donbas Battalion withdrew from Ilovaisk on 30 August after negotiating an agreement with pro-Russian forces. According to some of the troops who withdrew from Ilovaisk, DPR forces violated the agreement and fired on them whilst they retreated under white flags, killing as many as several dozen.[365]

Ukrainian Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk awarding Donbas Battalion volunteers, 1 September 2014

A Ukrainian patrol boat in the Sea of Azov was hit by shore-based artillery fire on 31 August.[366] Eight sailors were rescued from the sinking boat, whilst two crew-members were missing. Former insurgent commander Igor Girkin said that the insurgents had "dealt the enemy their first naval defeat". Government forces withdrew from Luhansk International Airport on 1 September, despite having held the airport from insurgent attacks for weeks prior.[367] The airport saw fierce fighting on the night before the withdrawal, and Ukrainian officials said that their forces at the airport had been attacked by a column of Russian tanks.[368] Clashes also continued at Donetsk International Airport.[367]

Victims of War in Ukraine - Kyiv Hospital - Exhibition by Still Miracle Photography 02

Heavy fighting was observed by OSCE monitors near the villages of Shyrokyne and Bezimenne on 4 September.[369] Respectively, these villages are 24 kilometres (15 mi) and 34 kilometres (21 mi) east of Mariupol. Ukrainian officials in Mariupol said that the situation there "was worsening by the hour", and that there was an imminent danger of an attack on the city.[369] DPR forces came within 5 kilometres (3 mi) of the city on 4 September, but their advance was repulsed by an overnight counter-attack launched by the Armed Forces and the Azov Battalion.[370] They were driven back about 20 kilometres (12+12 mi) east of the city. Constant shelling was heard on the outskirts of Mariupol.[370]

September 2014 ceasefire

A funeral service for a Ukrainian soldier, 11 September 2014

After days of peace talks in Minsk under the auspices of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Ukraine, Russia, the DPR, and the LPR agreed to a ceasefire on 5 September.[38] OSCE monitors said they would observe the ceasefire, and assist the Ukrainian government in implementing it.[371] According to The New York Times, the agreement was an "almost verbatim" replication of Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko's failed June "15-point peace plan".[372] It was agreed that there would be an exchange of all prisoners taken by both sides, and that heavy weaponry should be removed from the combat zone.[372][373]

Humanitarian corridors were meant to be maintained so that civilians could leave affected areas. President Poroshenko said that Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts would be granted "special status", and that use of the Russian language in these areas would be protected by law.[372][373] Russia started a more robust train and equip operation to strengthen separatists forces.[32] DPR and LPR leaders said that they retained their desire for full independence from Ukraine, despite these concessions. Russian president Vladimir Putin and Ukrainian president Poroshenko discussed the ceasefire on 6 September.[374] Both parties said that they were satisfied with the ceasefire, and that it was generally holding.

A destroyed terminal at Luhansk airport, 4 September 2014

The ceasefire was broken multiple times on the night of 6–7 September, and into the day on 7 September.[375][376] These violations resulted in the deaths of four Ukrainian soldiers, whilst 29 were injured.[377] Heavy shelling by the insurgents was reported on the eastern outskirts of Mariupol, and OSCE monitors said that the Ukrainian government had fired rockets from Donetsk International Airport. The OSCE said that these breaches of the agreement would not cause the ceasefire to collapse.[376] Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko said on 10 September that "70% of Russian troops have been moved back across the border", and also added that this action gave him "hope that the peace initiatives have good prospects".[378]

Ceasefire violations continued, however. In line with the Minsk Protocol, OSCE monitors said that they observed a prisoner exchange near Avdiivka at 03:40 on 12 September.[379][380] Ukrainian forces released 31 DPR insurgents, whilst DPR forces released 37 Ukrainian soldiers. OSCE monitors documented violations of the Minsk Protocol in numerous areas of Donetsk Oblast from 13 to 15 September.[381] These areas included Makiivka, Telmanove, Debaltseve, Petrovske, near Mariupol, Yasynuvata, and Donetsk International Airport, all of which saw intense fighting. Two of the armoured vehicles that the monitors were travelling in were struck by shrapnel, rendering one of the vehicles inoperable and forcing the monitors to retreat.[381]

According to the monitors, troop and equipment movements were being carried out by both DPR and Ukrainian forces. They also said that there were "command and control issues" amongst both parties to the conflict.[381] A visit by the monitors to Luhansk International Airport took place on 20 September.[382] They said that the airport was "completely destroyed", and entirely unusable. Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko said on 21 September that the Armed Forces of Ukraine lost between 60% and 65% of its total active equipment over the course of the war.[383]

A DPR policemen in Donetsk, 20 September 2014

Members of the Trilateral Contact Group and the DPR took part in a video conference on 25 September 2014.[384] According to a statement released by the OSCE on the day after the conference, all parties agreed that the fighting had "subsided in recent days", and that the "situation along 70%" of the buffer zone was "calm". They also said that they would "spare no efforts" to strengthen the ceasefire.[384] Scattered violations of the ceasefire continued.[385]

In the most significant incident since the start of the ceasefire, seven Ukrainian soldiers died on 29 September when a tank shell struck the armoured personnel carrier that they were travelling in near Donetsk International Airport.[385] A skirmish ensued, leaving many soldiers wounded. Over the next few days, fighting continued around Donetsk International Airport, whilst Donetsk city itself came under heavy shelling.[386][387] Amidst this renewed violence, OSCE chairman Didier Burkhalter issued a statement that "urged all sides to immediately stop fighting", and also said that putting the ceasefire at risk of collapse would be "irresponsible and deplorable".[388]

According to a report released by the UN Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) on 8 October, the ceasefire implemented by the Minsk Protocol was becoming "increasingly fragile".[389] The statement that announced the release of the report said that at least 331 people had been killed since the start of ceasefire, and that the most fierce fighting took place around Donetsk International Airport, Debaltseve, and Shchastia.[390] The report said that the majority of civilian deaths were caused by both insurgent and Ukrainian shelling.[391]

Several hundred National Guard troops protested outside the Ukrainian presidential administration building in Kyiv on 13 October.[392] They demanded the end of conscription, and their own demobilisation.[392] According to Kyiv Post, many of the protesters stated that they had clashed with Euromaidan protesters, and that they were not in favour of that movement.[392]

November 2014 separatist elections and aftermath

A Donetsk suburb after shelling, 7 November 2014

Heavy fighting continued across the Donbas through October, despite the ceasefire. In violation of the procedure agreed to as part of the Minsk Protocol, DPR and LPR authorities held parliamentary and executive elections on 2 November.[393][394] In response to the elections, Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko asked parliament to revoke the "special status" that was granted to DPR and LPR-controlled areas as part of the Minsk Protocol.[395] DPR deputy prime minister Andrei Purgin said that Ukrainian forces had launched "all-out war" against the DPR and LPR on 6 November.[396]

Ukrainian officials denied any offensive and said that they would adhere to the Minsk Protocol. Despite this, battles continued across the Donbas, leaving many soldiers dead. Concurrently, separatist representatives requested a redraughting of the Minsk Protocol, as a result of recurrent violations.[396] Intermittent shelling of Donetsk renewed on 5 November.[397] OSCE monitors reported on 8 November that there were large movements of unmarked heavy equipment in separatist-held territory.[398]

These movements included armoured personnel carriers, lorries, petrol tankers, and tanks, which were being manned and escorted by men in dark green uniforms without insignias.[398] Ukrainian government spokesmen said that these were movements of Russian troops, but this could not be independently verified.[399] Overnight into 9 November, intense shelling from both government and insurgent positions rocked Donetsk.[397] OSCE chairman Didier Burkhalter said that he was "very concerned" about the "resurgence of violence", and stressed the importance of adhering to the Minsk Protocol.[400] OSCE monitors observed more munitions convoys in separatist-held territory on 9 November.[401] These included 17 unmarked green ZiL lorries loaded with ammunition at Sverdlovsk, and 17 similar Kamaz lorries towing howitzers at Zuhres. Another convoy of 43 green military lories, some towing howitzers and rocket launchers, was observed by OSCE monitors in Donetsk on 11 November.[402]

Damaged building in Kurakhove, 26 November 2014

Following the reports of these troop and equipment movements, NATO General Philip Breedlove said on 12 November that he could confirm that Russian troops and heavy equipment had crossed into Ukraine during the preceding week.[403] In response, the Ukrainian Defence Ministry said that it was preparing for a renewed offensive by pro-Russian forces.[404] Russian Defence Ministry spokesman Major General Igor Konashenkov said "there was and is no evidence" to support NATO's statement.[403]

By 2 December, at least 1,000 people had died during fighting in the Donbas, since the signing of the Minsk Protocol in early September.[405] A BBC report said that the ceasefire had been "a fiction". In light of this continued fighting, Ukrainian and separatist forces agreed to cease all military operations for a "Day of Silence" on 9 December.[406][407] Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko said that he hoped that the "Day of Silence" would encourage the signing of a new peace deal. Whilst no new peace talks took place following the "Day of Silence", fighting between Ukrainian and separatist forces lessened significantly over the course of December.[408][409] A report by the International Crisis Group stated that the late 2014 financial crisis in Russia, in tandem with American and European economic sanctions, deterred further advances by pro-Russian forces.[410] The report also raised concerns about the potential for "humanitarian catastrophe" in separatist-controlled Donbas during the cold winter months, saying that the separatists were unable "to provide basic services for the population".

The ruins of Donetsk International Airport, December 2014. The control tower has since been completely destroyed.

In line with the Minsk Protocol, more prisoner exchanges took place during the week of 21–27 December.[411][412] More OSCE-organised talks were held in Minsk during that week, but they reached no result. In a press conference on 29 December, Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko said that the Minsk Protocol was becoming effective "point by point", and also said that "progress" was being made.[413] Since the signing of the Protocol, over 1,500 people held by the separatists had been released as part of the prisoner exchanges. Whereas Ukrainian forces had been losing about 100 men per day prior to the Protocol, only about 200 had been killed in the four months since its signing. Poroshenko also said that he believed that conflict would only end if Russian troops were to leave Donbas.[413]

Escalation in January 2015

OSCE monitors reported a "rise in tensions" following New Year's Day.[414] Numerous ceasefire violations were recorded, with most occurring near Donetsk International Airport. Infighting amongst insurgent groups broke out in Luhansk Oblast.[415] In one incident, LPR militants said that they had killed Alexander Bednov, the leader of the pro-Russian "Batman Battalion", on 2 January 2015. LPR officials said that Bednov had been running an "illegal prison", and that he had engaged in torturing prisoners.[416] In another incident, the leader of an Antratsyt-based Don Cossack militant group, Nikolai Kozitsyn, said that the territory controlled by his group, claimed by the Luhansk People's Republic, had become part of the "Russian empire", and that Russian president Vladimir Putin was its "emperor".[415] An intercity bus stopped at a government checkpoint in Buhas was hit by a Grad rocket on 13 January, killing 12 civilians.[417][418] Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko declared a day of national mourning.[419] Buhas is 35 kilometres (22 mi) south-west of Donetsk city.

DPR Sparta Battalion commander Arseny Pavlov, Donetsk, 25 December 2014

The new terminal building at Donetsk International Airport, which had been a site of fighting between Ukrainian and separatist troops since May 2014, was captured by the DPR forces on 15 January.[420] In the days prior to the capturing, the airport was heavily barraged by separatist rocket fire.[421][422] DPR leader Alexander Zakharchenko stated that the capture of the airport was the first step toward regaining territory lost to Ukrainian forces during the middle of 2014. He said "Let our countrymen hear this: We will not just give up our land. We will either take it back peacefully, or like that", referring to the capture of the airport.[420]

Such an offensive by separatist forces would signal the complete breakdown of the frequently ignored Minsk Protocol, which established a buffer zone between Ukrainian-controlled and separatist-controlled territories.[423] Ukrainian forces said that there had been "no order to retreat" from the airport, and DPR parliament chairman Andrey Purgin said that while DPR forces had gained control of the terminal buildings, fighting was ongoing because "the Ukrainians have lots of places to hide".[424] Concurrently, a new round of Minsk talks, scheduled for 16 January by the Trilateral Contact Group on Ukraine, was called off after DPR and LPR leaders Alexander Zakharchenko and Igor Plotnitsky refused to attend.[425]

A government military operation at the weekend of 17–18 January resulted in Ukrainian forces recapturing most of Donetsk International Airport.[426] According to Ukrainian NSDC representative Andriy Lysenko, the operation restored the lines of control established by the Minsk Protocol, and therefore did not constitute a violation of it. The operation caused fighting to move toward Donetsk proper, resulting in heavy shelling of residential areas of the city that border the airport.[426] DPR authorities said that they halted government forces at Putylivskiy bridge, which connects the airport and the city proper.[427] The bridge, which is strategically important, was destroyed during the fighting. OSCE monitors reported that shelling had caused heavy damage in the Donetsk residential districts of Kyivskyi, Kirovskyi, Petrovskyi, and Voroshilovskyi.[428]

DPR Somalia Battalion in the new terminal building of Donetsk Airport on 16 January 2015

Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko said on 21 January that Russia had deployed more than 9,000 soldiers and 500 tanks, artillery units, and armoured personnel carriers in the Donbas.[429] An article that appeared in The Daily Telegraph said that deployment appeared to be "a response to Kyiv's success" in retaining control of Donetsk International Airport.[430] On the same day, Ukrainian forces attempted to surround the airport in an attempt to push back the insurgents.[431]

As Ukrainian and DPR forces fought away from the airport, a group of insurgents stormed the first and third floors of the new terminal building. Ukrainian troops held out on the second floor of the building until the ceiling collapsed, killing several soldiers.[431] The remaining Ukrainian forces were either captured, killed, or were forced to withdraw from the airport, allowing DPR forces to overrun it. According to one volunteer, 37 Ukrainian troops died.[431] The Daily Telegraph called the Ukrainian defeat at the airport "devastating".[432]

Donetsk civilians living in bomb shelter, January 2015

Following this victory, separatist forces began to attack Ukrainian forces along the line of control in Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts.[433] Particularly heavy fighting broke out along the Siverskyi Donets River, to the north-west of Luhansk city. Separatist forces captured a Ukrainian checkpoint at Krymske, attacked other checkpoints in the area, and shelled villages near Shchastia.[434]

Separatist forces began an assault on the government-controlled town of Debaltseve in north-eastern Donetsk Oblast, barraging it with artillery fire.[435] The DPR launched an attack on Mariupol from Shyrokyne during the morning of 24 January. A hail of Grad rockets killed at least 30 people, and wounded another 83.[436][437] Heavy fighting continued in Debaltseve over the next week, resulting in many civilian and combatant casualties.[438]

French president François Hollande and German chancellor Angela Merkel put forth a new peace plan on 7 February. The Franco-German plan, drawn up after talks with Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko and Russian president Vladimir Putin, was seen as a revival of the Minsk Protocol. President Hollande said that the plan was the "last chance" for resolution of the conflict.[439][440] The plan was put forth in response to American proposals to send armaments to the Ukrainian government, something that Chancellor Merkel said would only result in a worsening of the crisis.[439][441]

Fighting worsened in the run-up to the scheduled 11 February talks to discuss the Franco-German peace plan. DPR forces shelled the city of Kramatorsk on 10 February, which had last seen fighting in July 2014. The shelling targeted the city's Armed Forces headquarters, but also hit a nearby residential area. Seven people were killed, while 26 were wounded.[442] The pro-government Azov Battalion launched an offensive to recapture separatist-controlled areas on the outskirts of Mariupol, centred on the village of Shyrokyne. Battalion commander Andriy Biletsky said his forces were moving toward Novoazovsk.[442]

In October 2015 a member of the monitoring mission Maksim Udovichenko, delegated to OSCE by Russia, was suspended for "misbehavior" involving alcohol while in Severodonetsk and admitted he is actually a GRU officer.[443]

Minsk II ceasefire and denouement

Map of separatist-held areas from the conclusion of the Battle of Debaltseve in 2015 until the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
The withdrawal of Ukrainian heavy weaponry, March 2015

The scheduled summit at Minsk on 11 February 2015 resulted in the signing of a new package of peacemaking measures, called Minsk II, on 12 February.[444] The plan, similar in content to the failed Minsk Protocol, called for an unconditional ceasefire, to begin on 15 February, amongst many other measures.[444][445] Despite the signing of Minsk II, fighting continued around Debaltseve.[446] DPR forces said that ceasefire did not apply to Debaltseve, and continued their offensive. Ukrainian forces were forced to withdraw from the Debaltseve area on 18 February, leaving separatist forces in control of it.[447]

In the week after the fall of Debaltseve to pro-Russian forces, fighting in the conflict zone abated.[448] DPR and LPR forces began to withdraw artillery from the front lines as specified by Minsk II on 24 February, and Ukraine did so on 26 February. Ukraine reported that it had suffered no casualties during 24–26 February, something that had not occurred since early January 2015.[448][449]

Minor skirmishes continued into March, but the ceasefire was largely observed across the combat zone. Ukrainian and separatist forces had withdrawn most of the heavy weaponry specified in Minsk II by 10 March.[450] Minor violations of the ceasefire continued throughout March and into April, though it continued to hold, and the numbers of casualties reported by both sides were greatly reduced.[451][452][453] Fighting flared up on 3 June 2015, when DPR insurgents launched an attack on government-controlled Marinka. Artillery and tanks were utilised in the battle there, which was described as the heaviest fighting since the signing of Minsk II.[454]

An anti-war protest took place in Donetsk city on 15 June.[455][456] The protest, the first of its kind in pro-Russian separatist-controlled territory, called for an end to the fighting in the Donbas. About 500 people, who had gathered outside the RSA building, shouted, "Stop the war!", "Give us back our houses, our homes are broken!", and "Get out of here!" Specifically, protesters demanded that the separatists cease firing rocket attacks from residential areas on the outskirts of Donetsk.[455][457]

DPR armoured vehicles near Donetsk, May 2015

Whilst all parties to the conflict continued to support implementation of the measures specified by Minsk II, minor skirmishes continued on a daily basis through June and July 2015. Ukrainian troops suffered losses on a daily basis, and the ceasefire was labelled "unworkable" and "impossible to implement". Despite constant fighting and shelling along the line of contact, no territorial changes occurred.[458] This state of stalemate led the war to be labelled a "frozen conflict".[43]

Following months of ceasefire violations, the Ukrainian government, the DPR and the LPR jointly agreed to halt all fighting, starting on 1 September 2015. This agreement coincided with the start of the school year in Ukraine, and was intended to allow for another attempt at implementing the points of Minsk II.[459] By 12 September, German Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier said that the ceasefire had been holding, and that the parties to the conflict were "very close" to reaching an agreement to withdraw heavy weaponry from the line of contact, as specified by Minsk II. The area around Mariupol, including Shyrokyne, saw no fighting. According to Ukrainian Defence Minister Stepan Poltorak, violence in the Donbas had reached its lowest level since the start of the war.[460]

Whilst the ceasefire continued to hold into November, no final settlement to the conflict was agreed. The New York Times described this result as part of "a common arc of post-Soviet conflict, visible in the Georgian enclaves of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan and in Transnistria", and said that separatist-controlled areas had become a "frozen zone", where people "live in ruins, amid a ruined ideology, in the ruins of the old empire."[461] This state of affairs continued into 2016, with a 15 April report by the BBC labelling the conflict as "Europe's forgotten war".[462] Minor outbreaks of fighting continued along the line of contact, though no major territorial changes occurred.[462]

A new ceasefire came into effect on 1 September 2016, described at the time by BBC correspondent Tom Burridge as "the first time there has been a true halt to fighting in 11 months", and in 2018 described by TASS as the most successful ceasefire over the course of the conflict, due to it lasting six weeks.[463][39] Within days both sides accused each other of breaching the ceasefire, although they also stated that the ceasefire was widely observed.[464] Nevertheless, on 6 September (2016), Ukrainian authorities reported the death of yet another soldier.[465] On 24 December 2016, the tenth indefinite ceasefire since the start of the conflict came into effect; according to the OSCE Special Monitoring Mission in Ukraine, the Ukrainian government, and the separatists, the ceasefire was not observed.[466]

January 2017 eruption of heavy fighting and failed ceasefires

A view from a Ukrainian Armed Forces support point near Pisky, January 2017

2016 was the first full calendar year of the conflict in which Ukraine lost no territories to pro-Russian forces.[467] In addition, both the Ukrainian Armed Forces (211 combat losses and 256 non-combat losses) and the local populace (13 in Ukrainian government-controlled areas) suffered significantly less casualties than in 2015.[467] The new year, however, brought a new eruption of heavy fighting, starting on 29 January 2017, centred on the Ukrainian-controlled city of Avdiivka.[468]

On 18 February 2017, Russian president Vladimir Putin signed a decree whereby the Russian authorities would recognise personal and vehicle-registration documents issued by the DPR and LPR.[469] The presidential decree referred to "permanent residents of certain areas of Ukraine's Donetsk and Luhansk Oblasts", without any mention of the self-proclaimed People's Republics.[470] Ukrainian authorities decried the decree as being directly contradictory to the Minsk II agreement and that it "legally recognised the quasi-state terrorist groups which cover Russia's occupation of part of Donbas."[471] Secretary General of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Lamberto Zannier stated on 19 February the decree "implies...recognition of those who issue the documents, of course" and that it would make it more difficult to hold a ceasefire.[472]

A Ukrainian soldier inside a trench. Extensive trench networks were built at the frontlines and the conflict turned into trench warfare.

Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov, after meeting with his Ukrainian, German and French counterparts in Munich on 18 February, said that a ceasefire between Ukraine and the separatists had been agreed effective from 20 February 2017.[473] But according to a Ukrainian Armed Forces spokesman on 20 February 2017 separatists attacks continued, although he did state there was a "significant reduction in military activity."[474] On 21 February OSCE's Secretary General Zannier stated there were still a significant number of violations of the cease-fire and "no evidence of the withdrawal of weapons".[475]

According to both parties to the conflict, the fourth truce attempt of 2017 collapsed within a few hours on 24 June 2017.[476] A "back to school ceasefire" to begin on 25 August 2017 also immediately collapsed when, on that very day, both combatants claimed that the other side had violated it.[477] A further "Christmas ceasefire" that was to be upheld starting 00:00 (Eastern European Time) on 23 December 2017 was immediately broken by DPR and LPR forces according to the Ukrainian Armed Forces (reporting nine violations including the death of a Ukrainian soldier killed by an enemy sniper and claiming the Ukrainians had not fired back[478][479]).[480][481] In turn, the DPR stated that the Ukrainian Armed Forces had broken the truce, while the LPR Luganskinformcenter news agency said the same, but also that, the "ceasefire is generally observed."[481][482] On 27 December 2017, as part of the Minsk deal, a prisoner swap was conducted with 73 Ukrainian soldiers exchanged for over 200 separatists.[483]

On 18 January 2018, the Ukrainian parliament passed a bill to regain control over separatist-held areas. The bill was adopted with support from 280 lawmakers in the 450-seat Verkhovna Rada[484] (due to the war in the Donbas and the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea, only 423 of the parliament's 450 seats were elected in the previous election[485][486][487]). The Russian government denounced the bill, calling it "preparations for a new war",[488] and accused the Ukrainian government of violating the Minsk agreement. The law on the reintegration of Donbas labeled the republics of Donetsk and Luhansk as "temporarily-occupied territories", while Russia was labeled as an "aggressor". The legislation granted President Poroshenko "the right to use military force inside the country, without consent from the Ukrainian parliament", which would include the reclaiming of Donbas. The bill supports a ban on trade and a transport blockade of the east that has been in place since 2017. Under the legislation, the only separatist-issued documents that Ukraine would recognize are birth and death certificates.

A new ceasefire agreed by all parties to the conflict went into force on 5 March 2018.[489] By 9 March, the Ukrainian military claimed it was not being observed by the DPR and LPR forces, who in turn claimed the same of the Ukrainian military.[489] On 26 March 2018, the Trilateral Contact Group on Ukraine agreed on a "comprehensive, sustainable and unlimited ceasefire" that was to start on 30 March 2018.[490] It collapsed on its first day.[490] Ukraine officially ended the "Anti-Terrorist Operation" (ATO), and replaced it with "Joint Forces Operation" (JFO) on 30 April 2018.[491][492][493][494][495][496] According to Lieutenant-General Serhii Naiev, the commander of the Joint Forces Operation, the renaming was intended to signify that Ukraine was not fighting against indigenous "terrorists" or "separatist militants" in the Donbas, but against the Russian military.[31] On the same day, the United States confirmed that it had delivered Javelin anti-tank missiles to Ukraine.[497] According to The Washington Post, the missiles will be kept away from the front line, and would be used only in the case of an all-out separatist assault.[498]

On 28 June 2018, a new "harvest" "comprehensive and indefinite ceasefire regime" was agreed set to start on 1 July 2018.[499] Within hours after its start both pro-Russian and Ukrainian sides accused each other of violating this truce.[500] The 29 August 2018 ceasefire also failed.[501][39] On 31 August 2018, DPR leader Alexander Zakharchenko was killed in an explosion at a restaurant.[502]

As reported on 27 December 2018, Yuriy Biriukov, an advisor to Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko, claimed that almost the entire "grey zone" between the warring sides had been liberated from Russian-led forces without breaching the Minsk peace agreements, and came under the control of the Ukrainian Armed Forces.[503] This was confirmed the following day by Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine Viktor Muzhenko.[504] On the same day, a new (and the 22nd[505] attempt at an) indefinite truce starting midnight 29 December was agreed.[506] Both the Ukrainians and the separatists accused each other of violating the ceasefire on the day it came into effect.[507]

On 7 March 2019, the Trilateral Contact Group on Ukraine agreed on a new truce to start on 8 March 2019.[508] Although Ukraine claimed that "Russian proxies" (the separatists) had violated it on the same day, fighting did die down, with the Ukrainian side stating that the ceasefire was fully observed from 10 March 2019.[509] In June, Russia began distributing Russian passports to Ukrainians living in the regions of Donbas.[510] Which was considered by Ukrainian government as a step towards annexation of the region.[511][512]

October 2019 Steinmeier formula agreement and July 2020 ceasefire

Zelenskyy, Merkel, Macron and Putin in Paris, France, December 2019

Following extensive negotiations, Ukraine, Russia, the DPR, LPR, and the OSCE signed an agreement to try to end the conflict in the Donbas on 1 October 2019. Called the "Steinmeier formula", after its proposer, German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier, the agreement envisages free elections in DPR and LPR territories, observed and verified by the OSCE, and the subsequent reintegration of those territories into Ukraine with special status. Russia demanded the agreement's signing before any continuation of the "Normandy format" peace talks.[50] A survey of public opinion in DPR and LPR-controlled Donbas conducted by the Centre for East European and International Studies in March 2019 found that 55% of those polled favoured reintegration with Ukraine. 24% of those in favour of reintegration supported a return to the pre-war administrative system for Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts, while 33% percent supported special status for the region.[513]

Ukrainian National Guard soldier in a security checkpoint near the JFO zone, 2019.

In line with the Steinmeier formula, Ukrainian and separatist troops began withdrawing from the town of Zolote on 29 October. Attempts to withdraw earlier in the month had been prevented by protests from Ukrainian war veterans.[514] A further withdrawal was successfully completed in Petrovske during November. Following the withdrawals, and a successful Russian–Ukrainian prisoner swap, Russian president Vladimir Putin, Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy, French president Emmanuel Macron and German chancellor Angela Merkel met in Paris on 9 December 2019 in a resumption of the Normandy format talks.[515] The two sides agreed to exchange all remaining prisoners of war by the end of 2019, work toward new elections in the Donbas, and schedule further talks.[516]

The COVID-19 pandemic deteriorated the living conditions in the conflict zone.[517] Particularly, quarantine measures imposed by Ukraine, the DPR, and the LPR prevented those in the occupied territories from crossing the line of contact, negating access to critical resources.[518][517] Fighting increased in March 2020, with nineteen civilians killed, more than in the previous five months combined.[517] While some crossings opened to small numbers of people in June 2020, the DPR introduced new regulations, ostensibly to prevent the spread of coronavirus, which made it nigh impossible for most people to cross the line of contact. In contrast, the Russian border completely reopened.[519]

The 29th attempt[52] at a "full and comprehensive" ceasefire came into effect on 27 July 2020.[520] During his 24 August 2020 Ukrainian Independence Day speech, President Zelenskyy announced the ceasefire had held, leading to 29 days without combat losses.[521] Zelenskyy also admitted, however, that despite the prisoner exchange and de-mining operations that had taken place, the peace process did not move as fast as he had expected when he signed the 9 December 2019 summit.[51] On 6 September 2020, the Ukrainian Armed Forces reported its first combat loss since the 27 July 2020 truce, when a soldier was killed by shelling.[522] Despite this, President Zelenskyy stated on 7 November 2020 that since the July 2020 ceasefire was established, deaths of Ukrainian soldiers in combat had decreased tenfold, and the number of attacks on soldiers decreased by five-and-a-half-fold.[523] From 27 July 2020 until 7 November 2020, only three Ukrainian soldiers were killed.[523]

2021–2022 escalation

According to Ukrainian authorities, in the first three months of 2021, 25 Ukrainian soldiers were killed in the conflict zone, compared to a total of 50 that had died in all of 2020.[53] According to the Ombudsman of the DPR, 85 soldiers and 30 civilians were killed in January–October 2021 as a consequence of military action.[524]

In late March–early April 2021, the Russian military moved large quantities of arms and equipment from western and central Russia, and as far away as Siberia, into occupied Crimea and the Voronezh and Rostov oblasts of Russia.[525] A Janes intelligence specialist identified fourteen Russian military units from the Central Military District that had moved into the vicinity of the Russo-Ukrainian border, and called it the largest unannounced military movement since the 2014 invasion of Crimea.[526] Commander-in-Chief of the Ukrainian Armed Forces Ruslan Khomchak said that Russia had stationed twenty-eight battalion tactical groups along the border, and that it was expected that twenty-five more were to be brought in,[527] including in Bryansk and Voronezh oblasts in Russia's Western Military District. The following day, Russian state news agency TASS reported that fifty of its BTGs consisting of 15,000 soldiers were massed for drills in the Southern Military District, which includes occupied Crimea and also borders the Donbas conflict zone.[528] By April 9, the head of the Ukrainian border guard estimated that 85,000 Russian soldiers were already in Crimea or within 40 kilometres (25 mi) of the Ukrainian border.[529]

A Russian government spokesman said that the Russian military movements posed no threat,[530] but Russian official Dmitry Kozak warned that Russian forces could act to "defend" Russian citizens in Ukraine, and any escalation of the Donbas conflict would mean "the beginning of the end of Ukraine" – "not a shot in the leg, but in the face".[531][532] By this time, some half a million people in the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic had been issued Russian passports since fighting broke out in 2014.[533] Russia refused to participate when Ukraine requested a Vienna Document meeting with France, Germany, and the OSCE.[534][535] German chancellor Angela Merkel telephoned Russian president Vladimir Putin to demand a reversal of the buildup.[536] United States White House press secretary Jen Psaki announced in early April 2021 that a buildup of Russian troops on Ukrainian border was the largest since 2014.[537]

In April 2021, Ukraine performed the first operational rollout of Turkish-made Bayraktar TB2 military drones in the region.[538] In November, a Bayraktar drone on the Ukrainian-government-controlled side of the line of contact was used to destroy a separatist artillery piece on the other side, which was conducting a strike that levelled homes and wounded and killed Ukrainian soldiers.[539][540] In November, DNR leader Denis Pushilin said Ukrainian troops regained control of the village of Staromarivka in the grey zone.[541][better source needed] The use of Ukrainian and Russian drones was criticised by France and Germany, while the United States pointed out that the Russia-led side has repeatedly violated agreements by the use of drones and howitzer artillery.[542] Russian agencies reported unease from the development, warning that further usage of the Bayraktar TB2 in the Donbas could "destabilize the situation" in the region.[543]

In December 2021, Ukrainian authorities said that Russia was sending snipers and tanks to the region.[544] On 21 January 2022, the Chairman of the Russian State Duma, Vyacheslav Volodin, called for a discussion in the parliamentary body to recognize the independence of the Donbas region and its separation from Ukraine.[545] By February 2022, fighting had escalated.[546] There was a sharp increase in artillery shelling by the Russian-led militants in Donbas, which was considered by Ukraine and its allies to be an attempt to provoke the Ukrainian army or create a pretext for invasion.[547][548][549] For example, the Ukrainian military reported enduring 60 attacks along the line of contact on 17 February alone, including "one shell that struck a kindergarten near the front line, injuring three staff. There were two to five attacks per day over the first six weeks of this year".[546]

Amid increased tensions between Russia and Ukraine in February 2022, Russian president Vladimir Putin announced on 21 February that Russia would recognise the independence of the Donetsk and Luhansk people's republics.[550] This announcement was followed by an order to deploy Russian troops to the Donbas as "peacekeepers".[550] A number of western countries, including the US, UK, and the EU, announced that they would impose new sanctions on Russian-connected organisations in response.[551]

2022 full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine

On 24 February 2022, Russia launched a new, full-scale invasion of Ukraine.[552][553] The DPR and LPR joined the offensive; the separatists stated that an operation to capture the entirety of Donetsk Oblast and Luhansk Oblast had begun.[554] By 25 March 2022, Russian forces claimed control over 93 percent of Luhansk oblast and 54 percent of Donetsk oblast.[555] Having encountered heavy resistance to its operations in other parts of Ukraine, Russia announced on the same day that it would shift its focus to the complete "liberation" of the Donbas, and launched a campaign that would last through much of mid-2022.[555]

Combatants

List of combatants

Diverse forces of both foreign and domestic origin participated in the war in the Donbas.

Russian involvement

Rebel-held Donetsk in 2016. The Russian flag can be seen in the background.

Russian involvement in the Donbas war has taken a variety of forms since the beginning of the conflict in 2014.

The initial protests across southern and eastern Ukraine were largely native expressions of discontent with the new Ukrainian government.[76] Russian involvement at this stage was limited to voicing support for the demonstrations, and the emergence of the separatists in Donetsk and Luhansk began as a small fringe group of the protesters, independent of Russian control.[76][556] Russia would go on to take advantage of this, however, to launch a co-ordinated political and military campaign against Ukraine, as part of the broader Russo-Ukrainian War,[76][557] including several information campaigns and sporadic cyber attacks that started before Yanukovych's ouster in February.[76]: 50  Russian president Vladimir Putin gave legitimacy to the nascent separatist movement when he described the Donbas as part of the historic "New Russia" (Novorossiya) region, and said he did not understand how the region had ever become part of Ukraine in 1922, when the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was founded.[558] When the Ukrainian authorities cracked down on the pro-Russian protests and arrested local separatist leaders in early March, these were replaced by people with ties to the Russian security services and interests in Russian businesses, probably by order of Russian intelligence.[559] By April 2014, Russians citizens had taken control of the separatist movement, and were supported by volunteers and materiel from Russia, including Chechen and Cossack militants.[77][78][79][560] According to DPR insurgent commander Igor Girkin, without this support in April, the movement would have fizzled out, as in it did in Kharkiv and Odesa.[561]

As conflict between the separatists and the Ukrainian government escalated in May 2014, Russia began to employ a "hybrid approach", deploying a combination of disinformation tactics, irregular fighters, regular Russian troops, and conventional military support to support the separatists and destabilise the Donbas region.[80][81][82] The First Battle of Donetsk Airport in late May 2014 marked a turning point in conflict; it was the first battle between the separatists and the Ukrainian government that involved large amounts of Russian volunteers.[179][562]: 15  According to the Ukrainian government, at the height of the conflict in the summer of 2014, Russian paramilitaries were reported to make up between 15% and 80% of the combatants.[79] According to the RAND Corporation, "Russia has armed, trained, and led the separatist forces. But even by Kyiv's own estimates, the vast majority of rebel forces consist of locals—not soldiers of the regular Russian military."[563]

Damaged building July 25, 2014

By August 2014, the Ukrainian "Anti-Terrorist Operation" was able to vastly shrink the territory under the control of the pro-Russian forces, and came close to regaining control of the Russo-Ukrainian border.[32] Igor Girkin urged Russian military intervention, and said that the combat inexperience of his irregular forces, along with recruitment difficulties amongst the local population in Donetsk Oblast had caused the setbacks. He addressed Russian president Vladimir Putin, saying that: "Losing this war on the territory that President Vladimir Putin personally named New Russia would threaten the Kremlin's power and, personally, the power of the president".[308] In response to the deteriorating situation in the Donbas, Russia abandoned its hybrid approach, and began a conventional invasion of the region.[32][564] The first sign of this invasion was the 25 August 2014 capture of a group of Russian paratroopers on active service in Ukrainian territory by the Ukrainian security service (SBU).[565] The SBU released photographs of them, and their names.[566] On the following day, the Russian Defence Ministry said these soldiers had crossed the border "by accident".[567][568][569] According to Nikolai Mitrokhin [fr]'s estimates, by mid-August 2014 during the Battle of Ilovaisk, there were between 20,000 and 25,000 troops fighting in the Donbas on the separatist side, and only between 40% and 45% were "locals".[570]

Vladimir Putin (right) and his long-time confidant Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu.

Beginning on 27 August 2014, vast amounts of military equipment and troops crossed the border from Russia into southern Donetsk Oblast, an area previously controlled by the Ukrainian government. Western officials described this new offensive as a "stealth invasion" by the Russian Federation. US State Department spokesman Jen Psaki said that "these incursions indicate a Russian-directed counteroffensive is likely underway", and Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko said "An invasion of Russian forces has taken place".[34][357][358] NATO commander Brig. Gen. Nico Tak said on 28 August 2014 that "well over" 1,000 Russian soldiers were operating in the Donbas conflict zone.[361] During the week prior to the invasion, Russia shelled Ukrainian units from across the border.[571] Cross-border shelling from Russia had been reported for six weeks from mid-July, during which the Russians launched 53 strikes at 40 different locations, severely impacting the Ukrainian military operation.[572][573][82] At the time, Russian government spokesmen denied Russian intervention in the Donbas.[574] These denials have been viewed as implausible, to the point where it seemed that the Russian government no longer cared about the appearance of propriety.[575] There was limited support for separatism in the Donbas before the outbreak of the war, and little evidence of support for an armed uprising.[576] Only Russian intervention prevented an immediate Ukrainian resolution to the conflict.[575][577][578] As a result, in the run up to the August 2014 invasion, Russia had also decided to replace many of the hardline leaders of the separatist movement, including Igor Girkin and DPR prime minister Alexander Borodai. These replacements, taken together with the subsequent invasion, represented another turning point in the nature of the conflict. Given the recent military failings of the DPR and the LPR, Russia decided that it could no longer rely on a patchwork of irregular fighters in the Donbas, and ordered a change in leadership.[328] It abandoned the hardline Russian citizen-led separatist project, which it had been unable to fully control, and replaced it with the idea of special status for Donbas within Ukraine, and a more obedient local-based DPR/LPR command.[329][579][580] This represented a Russian attempt at "indigenisation" of the conflict, using the militarily insignificant local pro-Russian political activists as political cover for the advancement of Russian interests in Ukraine.[570]

Russian forces and equipment participated in the Second Battle of Donetsk Airport and the Battle of Debaltseve.[581][582] A report released by the Royal United Services Institute in March 2015 said that "the presence of large numbers of Russian troops on Ukrainian sovereign territory" had become a "permanent feature" of the war in the Donbas since the August 2014 invasion.[583][584]

Following the Ukrainian defeat at Debaltseve, the parties to the conflict signed the Minsk II agreement to end the fighting on 15 February 2015.[585] These terms were highly favourable to Russia, in that they required Ukraine to grant "special status" to the separatist-held areas, and reintegrate them into Ukraine, similar to the federalisation espoused by pro-Russian protesters in early 2014.[585] This would establish a Russian "strategic hook" within Ukraine that could be used to prevent future integration of that country with the European Union or NATO.[585] In a press conference on 17 December 2015, Russian president Vladimir Putin acknowledged for the first time that there had been a Russian military presence in the Donbas region, though he said that this did not mean that there were "Russian troops" there.[586]

By September 2015, the separatist units, at the battalion level and up, were acting under direct command of officers of the Russian Armed Forces.[587] Ukraine, the United States, and some analysts consider them to be under the command of Russia's 8th Combined Arms Army, which was re-formed within the Russian Southern Military District for this specific task in 2017.[588][589]

As of February 2018, the number of separatist forces were estimated at 31,000 out of which 80% (25,000) were Donbas residents, 15% (≈5,000) were military contractors from Russia and other countries and 3% (900–1,000) were regular Russian armed forces personnel.[590] On 24 April 2019, President Putin issued an executive order fast-tracking the process for obtaining Russian citizenship for residents of the territories held by the DPR and the LPR. This "passportisation" is similar to what Russia has done in other pro-Russian protectorates established following post-Soviet conflicts, including in Transnistria, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia.[578]

Russia recognised the DPR and LPR as independent states on 21 February 2022, and subsequently ordered Russian troops into the Donbas conflict zone as "peacekeepers".[550] This was followed by the launch of a full-scale invasion of Ukraine.

In April 2023, Russia granted combat veteran status to separatist militants who had fought in the Donbas war since 2014.[28]

Military aid to Ukraine

In December 2017, the United States provided Ukraine with lethal aid for the first time, in the form of Javelin antitank missiles.[591] Initially, these were to be kept away from the front, but after a second delivery of similar weapon systems they were cleared for use anywhere.[592][593] In September 2021, Kyiv commanded military forces drill in a common exercise with US and NATO partners.[594] The use of Javelins on the front line was reported in November 2021.[595]

Casualties

The estimated number of fatalities in the Donbas war was 14,200–14,400 by the end of December 2021, including non-combat military deaths. According to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 6,500 were pro-Russian separatist forces, 4,400 were Ukrainian forces, and 3,404 were civilians.[17] The vast majority of deaths were in the first two years of the war (2014 and 2015).[596]

Civilians

According to the United Nations, 3,404 civilians were killed in the war and more than 7,000 were injured. The vast majority of civilian deaths were in the first two years of the war, while 365 civilians were killed in the six years from 2016 to 2021. In the year before Russia's full-scale invasion, 25 civilians were killed, over half of them from mines and unexploded ordnance.[17]

Of the civilian deaths, at least 312 were foreigners: 298 passengers and crew of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17,[17] 11 Russian journalists,[597] an Italian journalist,[598] a Lithuanian diplomat,[599] and one Russian civilian killed in cross-border shelling.[600]

Of the 3,106 conflict-related civilian deaths, not counting the fatalities from the shoot down of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17: 1,852 were men, 1,072 women, 102 boys, 50 girls and 30 adults whose sex is unknown.[17]

Ukrainian forces

A mural of Ukrainian soldiers who died during the war in Donbas in 2014

Ukraine reported that 4,647 of its servicemen had been killed by late February 2022, including 262 foreign-born Ukrainian citizens or foreigners.[13][14][15][d] Another 70 Ukrainian soldiers were missing.[16]

Pro-Russian sources claimed Ukrainian forces had 10,000 killed, 20,000 wounded and 13,500 deserted or missing, by late June 2015.[601]

Separatist forces

The separatists reported that they had lost 1,400 men at most by February 2015.[602] The UN estimated 6,500 separatists were killed by the end of December 2021.[17]

Ukraine claimed 7,577[603][604] separatists had been killed and 12,000 were missing[605] by early 2015. They claimed an additional 103 Russian servicemen were killed between January and April 2016.[606]

An image of a reported separatist graveyard in Donetsk in late February 2015,[607] showed numbers running up to at least 2,213.[608] In late August 2015, according to a reported leak by a Russian news site, Business Life (Delovaya Zhizn), 2,000 Russian soldiers had been killed in Ukraine by February 2015.[609][610] The US Department of State reported that 400–500 Russian soldiers had been killed by March 2015.[611]

Between January 2017 and late February 2022, DPR separatist authorities reported that a total of 677 separatist fighters had been killed in DPR-controlled territory.[612]

The Luhansk Media Centre reported four more LPR military deaths and four more civilian deaths in January-February 2022.[613] DNR reported 13 military and 8 civilian deaths in this period, leading to a total of 5,059 since 2014.[614]

Humanitarian concerns

A damaged building in Lysychansk, 4 August 2014

The United Nations observed in May 2014 an "alarming deterioration" in human rights in territory held by insurgents affiliated with the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic.[615] The UN reported growing lawlessness in the region, documenting cases of targeted killings, torture, and abduction, primarily carried out by the forces of the Donetsk People's Republic.[616] The UN also reported threats against, attacks on, and abductions of journalists and international observers, as well as beatings and attacks on supporters of Ukrainian unity.[616] Russia criticised these reports, and said that they were "politically motivated".[617]

A report by Human Rights Watch in 2014 said "Anti-Kyiv forces in eastern Ukraine are abducting, attacking, and harassing people they suspect of supporting the Ukrainian government or consider undesirable...anti-Kyiv insurgents are using beatings and kidnappings to send the message that anyone who doesn't support them had better shut up or leave".[618] There were also multiple instances of beatings, abductions, and possible executions of local residents by Ukrainian troops,[619] such as Oleh Lyashko's militia and the Aidar territorial defence battalion.[620] In August, Igor Druz, a senior advisor to pro-Russian insurgent commander Igor Girkin, said that "On several occasions, in a state of emergency, we have carried out executions by shooting to prevent chaos. As a result, our troops, the ones who have pulled out of Sloviansk, are highly disciplined".[621] By the end of 2015, there were 79 places in the combined DPR and LPR territory where abducted civilians and prisoners of war were held.[622]

After the first Minsk Protocol ceasefire, warlords took control of districts on the separatist side.[623]

A report by the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) released on 28 July 2014 said that at least 750 million US dollars worth of damage has been done to property and infrastructure in Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts.[624][625] Human Rights Watch said that Ukrainian government forces, pro-government paramilitaries, and the insurgents had used unguided Grad rockets in attacks on civilian areas, stating that "The use of indiscriminate rockets in populated areas violates international humanitarian law, or the laws of war, and may amount to war crimes".[626][627] The New York Times reported that the high rate of civilian deaths had "left the population in eastern Ukraine embittered toward Ukraine's pro-Western government", and that this sentiment helped to "spur recruitment" for the insurgents.[628]

As consequence of the conflict, large swathes of the Donbas region, on both sides of the "contact line", have become contaminated with landmines and other explosive remnants of war (ERW).[629] According to the UN Humanitarian Coordinator in Ukraine, in 2020 Ukraine was one of the most mine-affected countries in the world, with nearly 1,200 mine/ERW casualties since the beginning of the conflict in 2014.[630] A report by UNICEF released in December 2019 said that 172 children had been injured or killed due to landmines and other explosives, over 750 educational facilities had been damaged or destroyed, and 430,000 children lived with psychological traumas associated with war.[631][632]

Displaced population

The ruins of the Iversky Monastery near Donetsk airport, May 2015

By early August 2014, at least 730,000 had fled fighting in the Donbas and left for Russia.[633] This number, much larger than earlier estimates, was given by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The number of internal refugees rose to 117,000.[633] By the start of September, after a sharp escalation over the course of August, the number of people displaced from Donbas within Ukraine more than doubled to 260,000.[634] The number of temporary asylum seekers and refugee applicants from Ukraine in Russia rose to 121,000.[635] Despite two months of a shaky ceasefire established by the Minsk Protocol, the number of refugees displaced from Donbas in Ukraine escalated sharply to 466,829 in mid November.[636]

By April 2015, the war had caused at least 1.3 million people to become internally displaced within Ukraine.[637] In addition, more than 800,000 Ukrainians had sought asylum, residence permits, or other forms of legal stay in neighbouring countries, with over 659,143 in Russia, 81,100 in Belarus, and thousands more elsewhere.[638][639]

According to another report by the UN OHCHR, over three million people continued to live in the Donbas conflict zone as of March 2016.[18] This was said to include 2.7 million who lived in DPR and LPR-controlled areas, and 200,000 in Ukrainian-controlled areas adjacent to the line of contact. In addition, the Ukrainian government was said to have registered a total of 1.6 million internally displaced people within Ukraine who had fled the conflict. Over one million were reported to have sought asylum elsewhere, with most having gone to Russia.[18] The report also said that people that lived in separatist-controlled areas were experiencing "complete absence of rule of law, reports of arbitrary detention, torture and incommunicado detention, and no access to real redress mechanisms".[18][640]

By November 2017, the UN had identified 1.8 million internally displaced and conflict-affected persons in Ukraine, while another 427,240 who had sought asylum or refugee status in the Russian Federation, plus 11,230 in Italy, 10,495 in Germany, 8,380 in Spain, and 4,595 in Poland.[641]

Reactions

Ukrainian public opinion

A national survey held in March-April 2014 by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology found that 31% of respondents in the Donbas wanted the region to separate from Ukraine, while 58% wanted autonomy within Ukraine.[64] A September 2014 International Republican Institute poll of the Ukrainian public (excluding those in Russian-annexed Crimea) had 89% of respondents opposing Russian intervention in Ukraine.[642] As broken down by region, 78% of those polled from Eastern Ukraine (including Dnipropetrovsk Oblast) opposed the intervention, along with 89% in Southern Ukraine, 93% in Central Ukraine, and 99% in Western Ukraine.[642] As broken down by native language, 79% of Russian speakers and 95% of Ukrainian speakers opposed the intervention. 80% of those polled said that Ukraine should remain a unitary country.[642]

56% of those polled said that Russia should pay for the reconstruction of the Donbas, whereas 32% said Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts should pay. 59% of those polled said that they supported the government military operation in the Donbas, whereas 33% said that they opposed it. 73% of respondents said that the war in the Donbas was one of the three most important issues facing Ukraine.[642]

A poll conducted by the same institute in 2017 showed that 80% of Ukrainians nationally and 73% of people from the Ukrainian-controlled areas of Donbas believed the separatist republics should remain as part of Ukraine. Around 60% of the people polled did not believe Ukraine was doing enough to regain the lost territories because of the Minsk agreements.[643]

A joint poll done by Levada and the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology from September to October 2020 found that in the breakaway regions controlled by the DPR/LPR, over half of the respondents wanted to join Russia (either with or without some autonomous status) while less than one-tenth wanted independence and 12% wanted reintegration into Ukraine. It contrasted with respondents in Kyiv-controlled Donbas, where a vast majority felt the separatist regions should be returned to Ukraine.[644] According to results from Levada in January 2022, roughly 70% of those in the breakaway regions said their territories should become part of Russia.[645]

Russia

March for the peace and freedom in Moscow was one of the anti-war protests in Russia.

A series of anti-war demonstrations took place in Russia in 2014. Protesters held two protest rallies on 2 and 15 March 2014. The latter, known as the March of Peace (Russian: Марш Мира, Marsh Mira), took place in Moscow a day before the Crimean referendum. The protests were the largest in Russia since the 2011–13 Russian protests.

Boris Nemtsov said that the public opinion was being manipulated by means of agitation and propaganda, with those who opposed the government's policy denied access to the media.[646][647]

International reactions

Ukrainian President Poroshenko speaks with Barack Obama and other Western leaders during the NATO Summit in Newport, 4 September 2014

Labelling of the conflict

Displaced people from the occupied territories of Kharkiv and Luhansk during the Russian invasion of Ukraine in Donbas

The understanding of the nature of the conflict in the Donbas has evolved over time.

Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada Oleksandr Turchynov said in June 2014 that he considered the conflict a direct war with Russia.[648] According to Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko, the war will be known in history of Ukraine as the "Patriotic War".[649]

NATO said in July 2014 that it considered the conflict a war with Russian irregulars,[650] and others considered it to be a war between Russian proxies and Ukraine.[651] The International Committee of the Red Cross described the events in the Donbas region as a "non-international armed conflict" in July 2014.[652][653] Some news agencies, such as the Information Telegraph Agency of Russia and Reuters, interpreted this statement as meaning that Ukraine was in a state of "civil war".[654] Following the August 2014 invasion by Russian forces, in early September 2014, Amnesty International said that it considered the war to be "international", as opposed to "non-international".[655]

According to a VTSIOM survey taken in August 2014, 59% of the Russian citizens polled viewed the war in the Donbas as a civil war. Most of those polled said that direct war with Ukraine was either "absolutely impossible" or "extremely unlikely". 28% said that such a conflict could happen in the future.[656]

Secretary General of Amnesty International Salil Shetty said that "satellite images, coupled with reports of Russian troops captured inside Ukraine and eyewitness accounts of Russian troops and military vehicles rolling across the border leave no doubt that this is now an international armed conflict".[655] The conflict has also been classified as part of a "hybrid war" waged by Russia against Ukraine.[657]

Until early 2015, the European Union tended to label the participants of the conflict as "foreign armed formations" or Russian-supported separatists. After the delivery of an IntCen classified report in January 2015, the official EU documents acknowledged the presence of the Russian military in the area and started openly referring to "Russian troops in Ukraine".[658]

A 2015 paper released by the Royal United Services Institute and a 2017 report by the RAND Corporation document how the conflict evolved from a localised proxy conflict in its early stages to a hybrid war between Russian and Ukraine, and then to a limited conventional war with the August 2014 direct invasion by Russian troops.[584][76]

The Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court issued a report in November 2016 as part of its preliminary examination. The report stated that by 30 April 2014, it seemed that the high intensity of military conflict had triggered the law of armed conflict with the "DPR" and "LPR" as parties.[659] It further stated that engagements between Ukrainian and Russian armed forces in eastern Ukraine suggested the existence of a parallel international armed conflict by 14 July 2014.[660] It observed that, if it were determined that Russia had exercised overall control over the militant groups, this would comprise only a single international armed conflict that would trigger application of the Rome Statute.[661] [e] The day following the release of the report, Russia announced its intention to withdraw from joining the International Criminal Court (ICC).[663][f]

In December 2021, the French newspaper Le Monde analyzed a shift in the Russian diplomatic label on the conflict. It was no longer about Ukraine membership in NATO, but about NATO expansion in Ukraine.[665]

The District Court of The Hague delivered a judgment in the Malaysia Airlines Flight MH17 murder trial on 17 November 2022, including the conclusion that Russia exercised overall control over the DPR from mid-May 2014 onwards, and that therefore an international armed conflict was taking place (although the DPR defendants lacked combatant immunity due to their and Russia's denials of membership in the Russian Armed Forces).[666][667] The European Court of Human Rights ruled on 25 January 2023 that from 11 May 2014 and at least up to 26 January 2022, separatist-controlled areas in eastern Ukraine were under the "spatial jurisdiction" of Russia, because it had effective control over these areas through its presence, and through its influence on the "DPR" and "LPR".[668][669]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b The Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic, which were Russian-controlled puppet states, declared their independence from Ukraine in May 2014. Amid the full-scale invasion of Ukraine, Russia formally announced the annexation of both entities on September 30, 2022.
  2. ^ Major combat operations phase ended on 20 February 2015.
  3. ^ Ukrainian: Війна на Донбасі, romanizedViina na Donbasi
    Russian: Война в Донбассе, romanizedVoyna v Donbasse
  4. ^ The number of Ukrainian soldiers killed includes the deaths of two servicemen during the Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation.
  5. ^ The report stated that its ongoing investigation would focus on determining whether or not it could assert that an international armed conflict existed between Ukraine and Russia in eastern Ukraine.[662]
  6. ^ While Russia was a signatory to the Rome Statute, this had not been ratified, i.e. Russian laws had not been amended to acknowledge the authority of the statute. Russia formally notified the UN of its withdrawal on 30 November 2016.[664]

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Further reading

External links