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Guerra en Afganistán (2001-2021)

La Guerra de Afganistán fue un conflicto armado que tuvo lugar entre 2001 y 2021. Lanzada como respuesta directa a los ataques del 11 de septiembre , la guerra comenzó cuando una coalición militar internacional liderada por Estados Unidos invadió Afganistán , declarando la Operación Libertad Duradera como parte de la guerra contra el terrorismo declarada anteriormente , derrocando al Emirato Islámico gobernado por los talibanes y estableciendo la República Islámica tres años después. Los talibanes y sus aliados fueron expulsados ​​​​de los principales centros de población por las fuerzas lideradas por Estados Unidos que apoyaban a la Alianza del Norte antitalibán ; Osama bin Laden, mientras tanto, se trasladó al vecino Pakistán . El conflicto terminó oficialmente con la ofensiva talibán de 2021 , que derrocó a la República Islámica y restableció el Emirato Islámico. Fue la guerra más larga en la historia militar de los Estados Unidos , superando la duración de la Guerra de Vietnam (1955-1975) por aproximadamente seis meses.

Tras los ataques del 11 de septiembre, el presidente George W. Bush exigió que los talibanes extraditaran inmediatamente al líder de Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden , a los Estados Unidos; los talibanes se negaron a hacerlo sin pruebas de la participación de Bin Laden. Después de la expulsión de los talibanes y sus aliados, la coalición liderada por Estados Unidos permaneció en Afganistán, formando una misión de seguridad (ISAF) —sancionada por las Naciones Unidas— con el objetivo de crear una nueva autoridad democrática en el país que impidiera que los talibanes regresaran al poder. [74] Se estableció una nueva Administración Provisional afgana y se lanzaron esfuerzos internacionales de reconstrucción . [75] En 2003, los talibanes se habían reorganizado bajo su fundador, el mulá Omar , y comenzaron una insurgencia generalizada contra el nuevo gobierno afgano y las fuerzas de la coalición. Los insurgentes de los talibanes y otros grupos islamistas libraron una guerra asimétrica , luchando con guerra de guerrillas en el campo, ataques suicidas contra objetivos urbanos y represalias contra percibidos colaboradores afganos. En 2007, los talibanes habían recuperado grandes partes de Afganistán. [76] [77] En respuesta, la coalición envió una gran afluencia de tropas para operaciones de contrainsurgencia , con una estrategia de " despejar y mantener " para pueblos y ciudades; esta afluencia alcanzó su punto máximo en 2011, cuando aproximadamente 140.000 tropas extranjeras operaban bajo el mando de la ISAF en todo Afganistán. [78]

Una operación encubierta estadounidense en el vecino Pakistán condujo al asesinato de Osama bin Laden en mayo de 2011, y los líderes de la OTAN comenzaron a planificar una estrategia de salida de Afganistán. [79] [80] El 28 de diciembre de 2014, la OTAN puso fin formalmente a las operaciones de combate de la ISAF en Afganistán y transfirió oficialmente la responsabilidad total de la seguridad al gobierno afgano. Incapaces de eliminar a los talibanes por medios militares, las fuerzas de la coalición (y por separado, el gobierno afgano dirigido por Ashraf Ghani ) recurrieron a la diplomacia para poner fin al conflicto. [81] Estos esfuerzos culminaron en el acuerdo entre Estados Unidos y los talibanes en febrero de 2020, que estipuló la retirada de todas las tropas estadounidenses de Afganistán para 2021. [82] A cambio, los talibanes se comprometieron a impedir que cualquier grupo militante realizara ataques desde territorio afgano contra Estados Unidos y sus aliados. [83] Sin embargo, el gobierno afgano no fue parte del acuerdo y rechazó sus términos. [84] Coincidiendo con la retirada de las tropas, los talibanes lanzaron una amplia ofensiva durante todo el verano de 2021, restableciendo con éxito su control sobre Afganistán, incluida la capital, Kabul, el 15 de agosto . Ese mismo día, el último presidente de la República Islámica, Ashraf Ghani, huyó del país; los talibanes declararon la victoria y la guerra llegó a su fin formalmente. [85] El 30 de agosto, el último avión militar estadounidense partió de Afganistán , poniendo fin a la prolongada presencia militar liderada por Estados Unidos en el país. [86] [87]

En total, la guerra mató a unas 176.000-212.000 personas, incluidos 46.319 civiles. [88] Si bien más de 5,7 millones de antiguos refugiados regresaron a Afganistán después de la invasión de 2001, [89] cuando los talibanes regresaron al poder en 2021, 2,6 millones de afganos seguían siendo refugiados , [90] mientras que otros 4 millones estaban desplazados internamente . [91] [92]

Nombres

Este conflicto armado de veinte años (2001-2021) se conoce como la Guerra de Afganistán [93] para distinguirlo de las otras guerras del país, [94] en particular el conflicto afgano en curso del que fue parte, [95] y la Guerra Soviética-Afgana . [96] [ cita completa requerida ] Desde la perspectiva de Occidente , la guerra se divide entre 2001 y 2014 (la misión ISAF ), cuando la mayoría de las operaciones de combate fueron realizadas por fuerzas de la coalición, y de 2015 a 2021 (la Misión de Apoyo Decidido ), cuando las fuerzas armadas afganas hicieron la mayor parte de los combates contra los talibanes. [ cita requerida ] La guerra se denominó Operación Libertad Duradera de 2001 a 2014 [97] y Operación Centinela de la Libertad de 2015 a 2021 por los EE. UU. [98] Alternativamente, se la ha llamado la Guerra de los EE. UU. en Afganistán. [99] [100] [101] En el propio Afganistán, la guerra se conoce simplemente como la "Guerra en Afganistán" ( Dari : جنگ در افغانستان Jang dar Afganistán , Pashto : د افغانستان جګړه Da Afganistán Jagra ). [102] [103] [104]

Preludio

La situación militar de la guerra civil afgana de 1996 entre los talibanes (rojo) y la Alianza del Norte (azul)

El ascenso de los talibanes

Los talibanes surgieron de estudiantes religiosos conocidos como los talibanes que buscaban terminar con el caudillismo en Afganistán a través de una adhesión más estricta a la sharia . [105] [106] El 27 de septiembre de 1996, los talibanes, con el apoyo militar de Pakistán y el apoyo financiero de Arabia Saudita , tomaron Kabul y fundaron el Emirato Islámico de Afganistán . [107] Los talibanes impusieron su interpretación fundamentalista deobandi del Islam en las zonas bajo su control, emitiendo edictos que prohibían a las mujeres trabajar fuera del hogar, asistir a la escuela o salir de sus hogares a menos que estuvieran acompañadas por un pariente masculino. [108] Según las Naciones Unidas (ONU), los talibanes, mientras intentaban consolidar el control sobre el norte y el oeste de Afganistán, cometieron masacres sistemáticas contra civiles. Los funcionarios de la ONU declararon que se habían producido "15 masacres" entre 1996 y 2001, muchas de ellas dirigidas contra chiítas y hazaras . [109] [110]

En 2001, los talibanes controlaban hasta el 90% de Afganistán, y la Alianza del Norte se limitaba al extremo noreste del país. Junto a las fuerzas talibanes luchaban entre 28.000 y 30.000 paquistaníes (generalmente también pastunes) y entre 2.000 y 3.000 militantes de Al Qaeda. [111] [112] [113] [114]

Al Qaeda

La Comisión del 11-S de Estados Unidos concluyó que, bajo el régimen talibán, Al Qaeda pudo utilizar Afganistán como lugar para entrenar y enseñar a combatientes, importar armas, coordinarse con otros yihadistas y planear acciones terroristas. [115] Si bien Al Qaeda mantenía sus propios campamentos en Afganistán , también apoyaba los campos de entrenamiento de otras organizaciones. Se estima que entre 10.000 y 20.000 hombres pasaron por estas instalaciones antes del 11-S, la mayoría de los cuales fueron enviados a luchar por los talibanes contra el Frente Unido. Un número menor fue incorporado a Al Qaeda. [116]

Después de que los atentados con bombas en la embajada de Estados Unidos en agosto de 1998 se relacionaran con Bin Laden, el presidente Bill Clinton ordenó ataques con misiles contra campos de entrenamiento de militantes en Afganistán. Los funcionarios estadounidenses presionaron a los talibanes para que entregaran a Bin Laden. En 1999, la comunidad internacional impuso sanciones a los talibanes, exigiendo la entrega de Bin Laden. Los talibanes rechazaron repetidamente estas demandas. Los equipos paramilitares de la División de Actividades Especiales de la Agencia Central de Inteligencia (CIA) estuvieron activos en Afganistán en la década de 1990 en operaciones clandestinas para localizar y matar o capturar a Osama bin Laden. Estos equipos planearon varias operaciones, pero no recibieron la orden de proceder del presidente Clinton. Sus esfuerzos entablaron relaciones con los líderes afganos que resultaron esenciales en la invasión de 2001. [117]

Ataques del 11 de septiembre

La Zona Cero de Nueva York tras los atentados del 11 de septiembre , septiembre de 2001

En la mañana del martes 11 de septiembre de 2001, un total de 19 hombres afiliados a Al-Qaeda llevaron a cabo cuatro ataques coordinados en los Estados Unidos. Cuatro aviones comerciales de pasajeros fueron secuestrados. [118] [119] Los secuestradores estrellaron intencionalmente dos de los aviones contra las Torres Gemelas del World Trade Center en la ciudad de Nueva York, matando a todos a bordo y a más de 2.000 personas en los edificios. Ambos edificios se derrumbaron en dos horas por los daños relacionados con los choques, destruyendo y dañando los edificios cercanos. Los secuestradores estrellaron un tercer avión contra el Pentágono en Arlington , Virginia , en las afueras de Washington, DC . El cuarto avión se estrelló en un campo cerca de Shanksville , en la zona rural de Pensilvania , después de que algunos de sus pasajeros y la tripulación de vuelo intentaran retomar el control del avión, que los secuestradores habían redirigido hacia Washington, DC , para atacar la Casa Blanca o el Capitolio de los Estados Unidos . Nadie a bordo de los vuelos sobrevivió. En 2009, el número de muertos entre los socorristas, incluidos bomberos y policías, fue de 836. [120] El total de muertes fue de 2.996, incluidos los 19 secuestradores. [120]

Osama bin Laden planeó y coordinó los ataques, y el deseo de Estados Unidos de hacerlo responsable se convirtió en el casus belli para la invasión. El historiador Carter Malkasian escribe que "pocas veces en la historia un hombre ha provocado una guerra tan solo". Bin Laden intentó, con éxito, arrastrar a Estados Unidos a una guerra prolongada similar a la que libró contra los soviéticos. [121] : 62–64  Los talibanes condenaron públicamente los ataques del 11 de septiembre. [122] También subestimaron en gran medida la voluntad de Estados Unidos de ir a la guerra. Estados Unidos se equivocó al creer que los talibanes y Al Qaeda eran casi inseparables cuando, de hecho, tenían objetivos y líderes muy diferentes. [121] : 65–70 

El ultimátum de Estados Unidos a los talibanes

Inmediatamente después de los ataques del 11 de septiembre, el Consejo de Seguridad Nacional de los Estados Unidos acordó que probablemente habría que emprender acciones militares contra Al Qaeda y los talibanes. Sin embargo, Bush decidió lanzar un ultimátum a los talibanes primero, [121] : 54  exigiendo que los talibanes entregaran a Osama bin Laden, "cerraran inmediatamente todos los campos de entrenamiento terrorista, entregaran a todos los terroristas y sus partidarios, y dieran a los Estados Unidos acceso total a los campos de entrenamiento terrorista para inspección". [122] El mismo día, los eruditos religiosos se reunieron en Kabul, y decidieron que Bin Laden debía ser entregado; sin embargo, el mulá Omar decidió que "entregar a Osama sólo sería una desgracia para nosotros y el pensamiento y la creencia islámicos serían una debilidad", y que Estados Unidos seguiría haciendo demandas después de entregar a Bin Laden, quien, según él, era inocente. [121] : 56  Los talibanes rechazaron el ultimátum, diciendo que Osama bin Laden estaba protegido por las leyes tradicionales pastunes de hospitalidad . [123] [124]

En las semanas que siguieron y al comienzo de la invasión de Afganistán por parte de los Estados Unidos y la OTAN, los talibanes exigieron pruebas de la culpabilidad de Bin Laden, pero posteriormente ofrecieron entregarlo a un tercer país si los Estados Unidos detenían sus bombardeos y proporcionaban pruebas de su culpabilidad. [125] [126] Un funcionario de la administración Bush declaró más tarde que sus demandas "no estaban sujetas a negociación" y que era "hora de que los talibanes actúen ahora". [127] La ​​acción militar encubierta de los Estados Unidos comenzó poco después, y la guerra comenzó oficialmente el 7 de octubre de 2001. [121] : 58 

Historia

Resumen táctico

La guerra se dividió en dos facciones principales: la Coalición, que incluía a Estados Unidos y sus aliados (que finalmente apoyaron al gobierno de la República Islámica de Afganistán), que luchaba contra los talibanes, sus aliados y sus milicias. Para complicar la lucha, se sumaron grupos escindidos de los talibanes y otros grupos religiosos más radicales, como Al Qaeda y, más tarde, el Estado Islámico . Estos grupos radicales a veces luchaban por los talibanes, a veces luchaban por sus propios objetivos y, a veces, luchaban tanto contra los talibanes como contra el gobierno.

Afganistán es un país rural; en 2020, alrededor del 80% de sus 33 millones de habitantes vivían en el campo. [121] : 12  Esto predispone a la guerra a las zonas rurales y proporciona amplios escondites para los guerrilleros. El país también tiene inviernos duros, lo que favorece las ofensivas militares de primavera o verano después de las pausas invernales en los combates. [128] [129] Afganistán es 99,7% musulmán , [130] lo que afectó a la ideología tanto de los talibanes como del gobierno afgano. El Islam ha permitido históricamente a los líderes afganos superar las diferencias tribales y los conflictos, y ha proporcionado un sentido de unidad, especialmente contra los extranjeros y los no musulmanes. Siglos de invasión extranjera por parte de no musulmanes cimentaron la naturaleza religiosa de la resistencia a los forasteros y la identidad afgana. [121] : 17–19  El impacto de los líderes religiosos locales ( mullahs ) es importante en Afganistán, y podrían influir en la población tanto como el gobierno. Los mulás han sido tradicionalmente importantes a la hora de prescribir la resistencia a los extranjeros mediante llamamientos a la guerra santa o la yihad. [121] : 23–24 

Afganistán es una sociedad en gran medida tribal, y esto influye significativamente en la sociedad y la política afganas. El tribalismo es en gran medida una fuente de división, a diferencia del Islam. Los pastunes son el grupo étnico más grande de Afganistán, y comprenden entre el 38% y el 50% de la población. [131] El pashtunwali , la forma de vida tradicional de los pastunes, guió la mayoría de la toma de decisiones tribales. La unidad tribal también fue a menudo débil debido al método pashtunwali de lidiar con las disputas. Tradicionalmente, los líderes afganos han dependido de las tribus para mantener el orden en las áreas rurales porque sin su cooperación el estado a menudo era ineficaz y débil. Los afganos eran más leales a su propia comunidad y tribu, no al estado, lo que significaba que las tribus se alinearían con los talibanes o el gobierno según fuera más beneficioso. [121] : 19–22 

La diferencia significativa de poder entre los ejércitos de alta tecnología de la Coalición y los guerrilleros talibanes condujo a una guerra asimétrica . Debido a sus raíces en los muyahidines antisoviéticos, los talibanes continuaron con las tácticas de guerrilla desarrolladas en la década de 1980. Los muyahidines operaban en pequeños grupos de 10 a 50 hombres, armados con una combinación de armas obsoletas y modernas (generalmente saqueadas). [121] : 31  Los talibanes utilizaron cada vez más tácticas de guerrilla como el suicidio, los coches bomba y las bombas al borde de la carretera ( IED ) y los asesinatos selectivos. [132] Para 2009, los IED se habían convertido en el arma preferida de los talibanes. [133] Los talibanes también utilizaron ataques internos a medida que avanzaba la guerra, colocando personal en las fuerzas militares y policiales afganas. [134]

2001: Invasión y primeras operaciones

Fuerzas especiales del ejército de los EE. UU. y controladores de combate de la fuerza aérea de los EE. UU. con tropas de la Alianza del Norte a caballo en la provincia de Samangan , 2001

Aunque Estados Unidos invadió oficialmente el país el 7 de octubre de 2001 con el lanzamiento de la Operación Libertad Duradera, las operaciones encubiertas habían comenzado varias semanas antes. Quince días después del ataque del 11 de septiembre, Estados Unidos introdujo de forma encubierta a miembros de la División de Actividades Especiales de la CIA en Afganistán, formando el Equipo de Enlace del Norte de Afganistán. [135] Se conectaron con la Alianza del Norte en el valle de Panjshir , al norte de Kabul. [136] En octubre, equipos de Fuerzas Especiales de 12 hombres comenzaron a llegar a Afganistán para trabajar con la CIA y la Alianza del Norte. [136] En pocas semanas, la Alianza del Norte, con la ayuda de las fuerzas terrestres y aéreas estadounidenses, capturó varias ciudades clave de los talibanes. [137] [138] Los talibanes se retiraron por todo el país, manteniéndose firmes solo en la provincia de Kunduz , superada por el apoyo aéreo estadounidense. En noviembre, los talibanes habían perdido el control de la mayor parte del país. [121] : 70–75 

Estados Unidos no invadió el país solo: comenzó con la ayuda del Reino Unido y, con el tiempo, de una docena de países más. [139] [140] [141] Estados Unidos y sus aliados expulsaron a los talibanes del poder y construyeron bases militares cerca de las principales ciudades del país. La mayoría de los miembros de Al Qaeda y los talibanes no fueron capturados, y escaparon al vecino Pakistán o se retiraron a regiones rurales o montañosas remotas. [142] El 20 de diciembre de 2001, las Naciones Unidas autorizaron una Fuerza Internacional de Asistencia para la Seguridad (ISAF), con el mandato de ayudar a los afganos a mantener la seguridad en Kabul y las zonas circundantes. [143] Su mandato no se extendió más allá de la zona de Kabul durante los primeros años. [144] Dieciocho países contribuían a la fuerza en febrero de 2002. [ cita requerida ]

La CIA creó equipos de persecución antiterrorista integrados por afganos al comienzo de la guerra. [145] [146] Esta fuerza creció a más de 3.000 en 2010 y fue considerada una de las "mejores fuerzas de combate afganas". [146] Estas unidades no sólo fueron eficaces en operaciones contra los talibanes y las fuerzas de Al Qaeda en Afganistán, [147] sino que también expandieron sus operaciones a Pakistán. [148]

La cuestión política de quién dirigiría el país se convirtió en una cuestión aguda. En la Conferencia de Bonn de diciembre de 2001, Hamid Karzai fue elegido para dirigir la Administración Provisional Afgana , que después de una Loya Jirga (gran asamblea) celebrada en Kabul en 2002 se convirtió en la Administración de Transición Afgana . El acuerdo establecía medidas que llevarían a la democracia al país. [149]

Poco después de que Karzai fuera nombrado presidente el 5 de diciembre, los talibanes pudieron haber intentado conseguir una rendición condicional ante Karzai. Hay dos versiones contradictorias. La primera es que se llegó a un acuerdo, posiblemente firmado por el mulá Omar, líder de los talibanes, en el que los talibanes se rendirían a cambio de inmunidad. La segunda es que el acuerdo se centraba más estrictamente en la rendición de Kandahar . Las fuentes talibanes, por otra parte, dicen que Omar no formaba parte del acuerdo y que no iba a entregar Kandahar. Sea como fuere, Estados Unidos vetó cualquier tipo de negociación, en lo que el historiador Malkasian llama "uno de los mayores errores" de la guerra. Omar desapareció, marchándose a otra parte de Afganistán o a Pakistán. Posteriormente, los talibanes se escondieron o huyeron a Pakistán, aunque muchos también entregaron las armas. La mayoría de los líderes y miles de combatientes se fueron a Pakistán. Se desconoce si los talibanes habían decidido en ese momento iniciar una insurgencia. [121] : 74–84  Los combatientes talibanes permanecieron escondidos en las regiones rurales de cuatro provincias del sur: Kandahar, Zabul , Helmand y Uruzgan. [150]

Soldados canadienses del 3PPCLI buscan combatientes de Al Qaeda y los talibanes después de un asalto aéreo y se acercan a un objetivo al norte de Qalati Ghilji , 2002

A finales de noviembre, Bin Laden se encontraba en un campo de entrenamiento fortificado en Tora Bora. La batalla de Tora Bora comenzó el 30 de noviembre. Los equipos de la CIA que trabajaban con las milicias tribales siguieron a Bin Laden hasta allí y comenzaron a solicitar ataques aéreos para despejar el campamento montañoso, y pronto llegaron fuerzas especiales para apoyarlo. Si bien la milicia tribal contaba con 1.000 miembros, no luchó con entusiasmo durante el Ramadán. Si bien la CIA solicitó que se enviaran a los Rangers del Ejército de los Estados Unidos y los Marines estaban listos para desplegarse, se les negó la solicitud. Bin Laden finalmente pudo escapar en algún momento de diciembre a Pakistán. [121] : 76–79 

La invasión fue un éxito militar sorprendente para la Coalición. Menos de 12 soldados estadounidenses murieron entre octubre y marzo, en comparación con unos 15.000 talibanes muertos o hechos prisioneros. Los equipos de fuerzas especiales y sus aliados afganos habían hecho la mayor parte del trabajo y se habían necesitado relativamente pocos soldados. Karzai era un líder respetado, legítimo y carismático. Sin embargo, según Malkasian, el fracaso en capturar a Bin Laden o negociar con los talibanes, o incluirlos de alguna manera en el nuevo gobierno, marcó el rumbo de la larga guerra en la que Bin Laden había soñado con involucrar a Estados Unidos. [121] : 86–88 

En los primeros años de la guerra, Pakistán había sido visto como un aliado firme y se había prestado poca atención a su apoyo a los talibanes. Pakistán también había ayudado a capturar a numerosos líderes de Al Qaeda, incluido Khalid Sheikh Mohammed . Pero internamente, Pakistán estaba proporcionando una financiación significativa, acceso a casas seguras y apoyo político a los talibanes. La opinión pública en Pakistán favorecía fuertemente a los talibanes y la invasión estadounidense fue vista muy negativamente. El gobierno no estaba en posición de expulsar a los talibanes, por temor a que iniciara un conflicto dentro de su ya frágil país. Por lo tanto, los talibanes continuaron utilizando Pakistán como base de operaciones y un refugio seguro para reconstruir su fuerza. [121] : 129–132 

2002-2005: resurgimiento de los talibanes

Errores de coalición, los talibanes comienzan a reorganizarse

Después del éxito inicial, Estados Unidos carecía de un objetivo claro en Afganistán más allá de los objetivos antiterroristas de encontrar a los líderes de alto rango de los talibanes y de Al Qaeda. La administración Bush se opuso inicialmente a la reconstrucción de la nación , pero a medida que Estados Unidos se quedaba, poco a poco se convirtió en una razón para quedarse. En abril de 2002, Bush pronunció un discurso en el que expresó su deseo de reconstruir Afganistán. Estados Unidos también trató de inculcar la democracia y los derechos de las mujeres como una cuestión moral. La comunidad internacional contribuyó a los esfuerzos de desarrollo en Afganistán, que se centraron en la ayuda y la creación de instituciones para dirigir el país. Los esfuerzos de reconstrucción de Estados Unidos también se centraron en mejorar la educación, la atención sanitaria y el desarrollo comunitario. Estados Unidos también apoyó y financió la creación de un ejército afgano a principios de 2002. Sin embargo, el ejército se construyó lentamente debido a los intereses en pugna y a la creencia de Estados Unidos de que los talibanes ya no eran una gran amenaza. Algunos miembros de la administración Bush prefirieron utilizar a la Alianza del Norte y a los caudillos como ejército en lugar de crear un nuevo ejército. El ejército pasó a ser una idea de último momento y estaba mal entrenado y equipado, lo que facilitó aún más el avance de los talibanes. [121] : 89–105 

El primer intento de crear una organización más amplia de grupos talibanes tras la invasión se produjo en abril de 2002 en el sur del país. Antiguos funcionarios talibanes de nivel medio establecieron una shura en Gardi Jangal, un campo de refugiados cerca de la frontera de Helmand. La shura operaba en las provincias meridionales de Kandahar, Helmand, Zabul y Uruzgan. Estaba compuesta por 23 grupos de unos 50 individuos cada uno, con un total de unos 1.200 miembros. En el distrito de Waziristán del Norte de Pakistán, Jalaluddin Haqqani había comenzado a organizar la red Haqqani después de exiliarse allí en 2001. A principios de 2002, se estimaba que contaba con 1.400 hombres y en la segunda mitad de 2002 tenía presencia en las provincias de Paktia y Khost , con una actividad limitada. A ellos se unieron miembros de Al Qaeda. La Operación Jacana y la Operación Cóndor , entre otras, intentaron expulsar a los talibanes con resultados variables. [151] : 25–29 

Mapa que detalla la expansión de la insurgencia talibán, 2002-2006

Algunos miembros de los talibanes intentaron en varias ocasiones, entre 2002 y 2004, abrir negociaciones con Karzai, pero Estados Unidos se opuso rotundamente a ello y se aseguró de que todos los dirigentes principales de los talibanes fueran incluidos en una lista negra, de modo que el gobierno afgano no pudiera negociar con ellos. El historiador Malkasian sostiene que las negociaciones con los talibanes habrían sido de bajo coste, pero muy eficaces en esa fase, y lo atribuye al exceso de confianza y arrogancia de Estados Unidos, y señala que toda la información de que los talibanes podían resurgir estaba disponible, pero se ignoró. [121] : 106–111  Algunos dirigentes talibanes consideraron unirse al proceso político, y se celebraron reuniones sobre el tema hasta 2004, aunque estas no dieron lugar a una decisión de hacerlo. [151] : 19 

Entre 2002 y 2005, los talibanes se reorganizaron y planearon un resurgimiento. La presión sobre las fuerzas de la Coalición para que persiguieran a los terroristas condujo a excesos y generó cierto apoyo popular para los talibanes. Las tropas de la Coalición iban a misiones con información cuestionable, y en un momento dado eran víctimas de una pista falsa proporcionada por los oponentes políticos de un objetivo. Pocos líderes talibanes o de Al Qaeda de alto nivel fueron capturados. Los capturados eran predominantemente operativos talibanes de bajo nivel que tenían poca información sobre Al Qaeda. Numerosos civiles murieron en operaciones, incluida una boda que fue malinterpretada como una reunión talibán . Los errores repetidos de las fuerzas de la Coalición impulsaron el reclutamiento talibán. Muchos líderes talibanes que habían entregado las armas para irse pacíficamente, especialmente después de que el presidente Karzai les prometiera amnistía, fueron cada vez más acosados ​​por los EE. UU. y elementos del gobierno afgano. En 2004, la mayoría de los líderes talibanes en Afganistán habían huido de regreso a Pakistán, donde se escondían los remanentes de los talibanes. Malkasian sostiene que Estados Unidos dio un impulso significativo a los talibanes con sus propios errores, especialmente al centrarse en una lucha antiterrorista agresiva y en la venganza por el 11 de septiembre. Además, sostiene que estas acciones por sí solas no reiniciaron el conflicto porque los talibanes habrían resurgido de todas formas gracias a líderes como Mullah Omar y Jalaluddin Haqqani, que nunca habían depuesto las armas. [121] : 119–123 

Tropas estadounidenses suben a un helicóptero en la provincia de Zabul, 2003

Los talibanes llevaron a cabo relativamente pocas acciones hasta 2005. A principios de 2003 aparecieron panfletos de los talibanes y otros grupos esparcidos por las ciudades y el campo, instando a los fieles islámicos a levantarse contra las fuerzas estadounidenses y otros soldados extranjeros en una guerra santa. [ 152] La atención estadounidense se desvió de Afganistán cuando las fuerzas estadounidenses invadieron Irak en marzo de 2003. [153] En mayo de 2003, el presidente de la Corte Suprema talibán, Abdul Salam, proclamó que los talibanes habían regresado, se habían reagrupado, rearmado y estaban listos para una guerra de guerrillas para expulsar a las fuerzas estadounidenses de Afganistán. [154]

A medida que avanzaba el verano de 2003, los ataques talibanes fueron aumentando gradualmente en frecuencia. Decenas de soldados del gobierno afgano, trabajadores humanitarios de ONG y varios soldados estadounidenses murieron en las incursiones, emboscadas y ataques con cohetes. Además de los ataques guerrilleros, los combatientes talibanes comenzaron a acumular fuerzas en el distrito de Dey Chopan, en la provincia de Zabul. Los talibanes decidieron hacer frente allí. En el transcurso del verano, hasta 1.000 guerrilleros se trasladaron allí. Más de 220 personas, incluidas varias docenas de policías afganos, murieron en agosto de 2003. [155] El 11 de agosto, la OTAN asumió el control de la ISAF. [156]

El líder talibán, el mulá Omar, reorganizó el movimiento y en 2003 lanzó una insurgencia contra el gobierno y la ISAF. [157] [158] A partir de la segunda mitad de 2003 y durante 2004, las operaciones comenzaron a intensificarse, con ataques nocturnos seguidos de secuestros y asesinatos de funcionarios gubernamentales y ancianos de las aldeas que colaboraban en 2005, y los primeros abandonaron las aldeas atemorizados. También se quemaron escuelas y clínicas gubernamentales. [151] : 34 

En privado, los talibanes estaban preparando una gran ofensiva contra la Coalición. Se tardaría varios años en prepararla para reunir la fuerza suficiente. El mulá Dadullah fue puesto a cargo de la ofensiva. Sus tácticas resultaron en gran medida eficaces. Fue responsable de la introducción de los atentados suicidas en forma generalizada alrededor de 2004, ya que antes los talibanes no se habían enamorado del suicidio o de las muertes de civiles; esa había sido una táctica de Al Qaeda. Una red de madrasas en Pakistán que atendían a refugiados afganos proporcionó un flujo constante de reclutas extremistas dispuestos a morir. [121] : 125–127 

Un médico de la Marina estadounidense busca combatientes talibanes en Mihtarlam , 2005

La Operación Asbury Park expulsó a las fuerzas talibanes del distrito de Dey Chopan durante el verano de 2004. [159] A finales de 2004, el entonces líder talibán oculto Mullah Omar anunció una insurgencia contra Estados Unidos y las fuerzas del gobierno de transición afgano para "recuperar la soberanía de nuestro país". [160] Las elecciones presidenciales afganas de 2004 fueron un objetivo importante de los talibanes, aunque sólo se afirmó que se había impedido con éxito la votación en 20 distritos y 200 aldeas de otros lugares. Karzai fue elegido presidente del país, ahora llamado República Islámica de Afganistán . [151] : 40 

Estados Unidos comenzó a utilizar ataques con aviones no tripulados en Pakistán en 2004, empezando por las Áreas Tribales Federales contra militantes talibanes y de Al Qaeda . [161] [162]

En junio y julio de 2005, los Navy Seals de los Estados Unidos llevaron a cabo la Operación Red Wings como una operación militar conjunta en la provincia de Kunar . La misión pretendía desbaratar a los talibanes locales liderados por Ahmad Shah , con la esperanza de traer estabilidad y facilitar las elecciones al Parlamento afgano programadas para septiembre de 2005. La operación fue una victoria pírrica para la Coalición, con solo un sobreviviente (dramatizado en la película de 2013 Lone Survivor ) y 19 muertos. [163] [164] [165] La Operación Whalers terminaría el trabajo varias semanas después. La actividad de los talibanes disminuyó significativamente y Shah resultó gravemente herido. Shah no pudo emprender ninguna operación significativa posterior a la Operación Whalers en Kunar o provincias vecinas. [164] [166]

Los talibanes recuperaron el control de varias aldeas en el sur a finales de 2005, principalmente porque las aldeas estaban frustradas por la falta de ayuda del gobierno y esperaban que la vida fuera mejor bajo el mando de los talibanes. Años de planificación estaban dando frutos para los talibanes. En comparación, el gobierno estaba en una posición muy débil. La policía estaba muy subfinanciada y el distrito promedio tenía sólo 50 agentes. Algunos distritos no tenían presencia gubernamental en absoluto. La mayoría de las milicias del país (con una fuerza de ~100.000) habían sido desmovilizadas debido a la presión internacional para crear un ejército, pero éste seguía siendo débil. Combinado con un aumento de las disputas tribales, las condiciones eran perfectas para un regreso de los talibanes. [121] : 134–136 

2006-2007: La guerra se intensifica

Según se informa, los ataques insurgentes en el país se cuadriplicaron entre 2002 y 2006, [167] a fines de 2007 se dijo que Afganistán estaba en "serio peligro" de caer bajo el control de los talibanes a pesar de la presencia de 40.000 tropas de la ISAF. [168]

Un helicóptero Apache brinda protección desde el aire, Lwar Kowndalan en Kandahar, 2005

Desde enero de 2006, un contingente multinacional de la ISAF comenzó a reemplazar a las tropas estadounidenses en el sur de Afganistán. El Reino Unido formó el núcleo de la fuerza, junto con Australia, Canadá, los Países Bajos y Estonia. [169] [170] [171] [172] [173] En enero de 2006, el enfoque de la OTAN en el sur de Afganistán fue formar Equipos de Reconstrucción Provincial . Las figuras locales talibanes se comprometieron a resistir. [174] Dado que Canadá quería desplegarse en Kandahar, el Reino Unido obtuvo la provincia de Helmand. Helmand era un centro de producción de amapola, por lo que parecía una buena región para el Reino Unido centrado en la lucha contra los estupefacientes. En retrospectiva, el Reino Unido fue una mala elección. Los pastunes de Helmand nunca habían olvidado la Batalla de Maiwand de 1880 con los británicos, y resultó ser una fuente de resistencia significativa por parte de ellos. [121] : 138–142 

Los servicios de inteligencia locales indicaban que los talibanes iban a lanzar una campaña brutal en el verano de 2006. Los generales de la coalición enviaron esta información a la cadena de mando, pero los responsables de la toma de decisiones ignoraron las advertencias. Estados Unidos estaba distraído en Irak y el secretario de Estado Rumsfeld estaba más interesado en hacer que el ejército afgano fuera asequible que eficaz. De los 70.000 soldados que se suponía que tenía el ejército afgano, sólo 26.000 habían sido entrenados y retenidos. [121] : 138–142 

Médico del ejército sueco en la región de Mazar-e Sharif, 2006

Las acciones de la Coalición en la primavera y el verano de 2006 incluyeron la Operación Mountain Thrust , la Operación Medusa , una ofensiva holandesa/australiana , la Batalla de Panjwaii , la Operación Mountain Fury y la Operación Falcon Summit . La Coalición logró victorias tácticas y la negación de la invasión de una zona, pero los talibanes no fueron derrotados por completo.

El 29 de mayo de 2006, un camión militar estadounidense que formaba parte de un convoy en Kabul perdió el control y se estrelló contra vehículos civiles, matando a una persona e hiriendo a seis. La multitud que lo rodeaba se enfureció y se desató un motín que duró todo el día y terminó con 20 muertos y 160 heridos. Cuando una multitud de unos 400 hombres lanzó piedras y disparó, las tropas estadounidenses utilizaron sus armas "para defenderse" mientras abandonaban el lugar, dijo un portavoz militar estadounidense. Un corresponsal del Financial Times en Kabul sugirió que se trataba del estallido de "una oleada de resentimiento" y "una creciente hostilidad hacia los extranjeros" que había ido creciendo y acumulándose desde 2004. [175] [176]

Las acciones del Reino Unido a principios de 2007 incluyeron la Operación Volcán , la Operación Aquiles y la Operación Lastay Kulang . El Ministerio de Defensa del Reino Unido también anunció su intención de aumentar el número de tropas británicas en el país hasta 7.700. [177]

En marzo de 2007, Estados Unidos desplegó unos 3.500 soldados más, aunque el ritmo de despliegue fue lento debido a las prioridades estadounidenses en Irak. [178] [179] En los primeros cinco meses de 2008, el número de tropas estadounidenses en Afganistán aumentó en más del 80% con un aumento de 21.643 tropas más, lo que elevó el total de 26.607 en enero a 48.250 en junio. [180]

El 4 de marzo de 2007, los marines estadounidenses mataron al menos a 12 civiles e hirieron a 33 en el distrito de Shinwar, Nangarhar, [181] en respuesta a una emboscada con bombas. El suceso se conoció como la " masacre de Shinwar ". [182] Se ordenó a la unidad de 120 marines responsable del ataque que abandonara el país porque el incidente dañó las relaciones de la unidad con la población local. [183]

Durante el verano, las fuerzas de la OTAN lograron victorias tácticas en la batalla de Chora en Orūzgān, donde se desplegaron fuerzas de la ISAF holandesa y australiana . La batalla de Musa Qala tuvo lugar en diciembre. Las unidades afganas fueron la principal fuerza de combate, apoyadas por las fuerzas británicas. [184] Las fuerzas talibanes fueron obligadas a abandonar la ciudad.

En 2007, después de más de cinco años de guerra, los funcionarios y analistas occidentales calcularon que las fuerzas talibanas contaban con unos 10.000 combatientes desplegados en un momento dado. De esa cifra, sólo entre 2.000 y 3.000 eran insurgentes a tiempo completo y muy motivados. [185] El resto eran unidades de voluntarios, integradas por jóvenes afganos, indignados por las muertes de civiles afganos en ataques aéreos militares y por la detención por parte de Estados Unidos de prisioneros musulmanes que habían estado detenidos durante años sin ser acusados. [186] En 2007, según los funcionarios, llegaron a Afganistán más combatientes extranjeros que nunca antes. Aproximadamente entre 100 y 300 combatientes a tiempo completo eran extranjeros, muchos de ellos procedentes de Pakistán, Uzbekistán, Chechenia , tal vez Turquía y China occidental, y otros países. Se decía que eran más violentos e incontrolables, y que a menudo aportaban una experiencia superior en producción de vídeos o fabricación de bombas. [187] En 2010, los talibanes contaban con 25.000 soldados dedicados, casi tantos como antes del 11 de septiembre. [188]

El general McChrystal, recientemente nombrado comandante estadounidense en Afganistán, dijo que los talibanes habían ganado la partida. En una continuación de la estrategia habitual de los talibanes de ofensivas de verano, [189] los militantes extendieron agresivamente su influencia al norte y oeste de Afganistán e intensificaron sus ataques en un intento de perturbar las elecciones presidenciales. [190] Añadió que la estrategia estadounidense era detener su impulso y centrarse en proteger y salvaguardar a los civiles afganos, lo que calificó de "trabajo duro". [191]

2008-2009: la consolidación de la OTAN, enfrentamientos en Pakistán y la reelección de Karzai

El 13 de junio de 2008, los combatientes talibanes demostraron su fuerza y ​​liberaron a todos los prisioneros de la cárcel de Kandahar. La operación liberó a 1.200 prisioneros, 400 de los cuales eran talibanes, lo que supuso una gran vergüenza para la OTAN. [192] A finales de 2008, los talibanes aparentemente habían cortado los vínculos que les quedaban con Al Qaeda. [193] Según altos funcionarios de inteligencia militar de Estados Unidos, tal vez quedaban menos de 100 miembros de Al Qaeda en Afganistán. [194]

En el verano de 2008, el Presidente Bush emitió una orden que autorizaba las incursiones contra los militantes en Pakistán. Pakistán dijo que no permitiría la entrada de fuerzas extranjeras en su territorio y que protegería enérgicamente su soberanía. [195] En septiembre, el ejército pakistaní declaró que había dado órdenes de "abrir fuego" contra los soldados estadounidenses que cruzaran la frontera en persecución de las fuerzas militantes. [196]

En septiembre de 2008, el presidente Bush anunció la retirada de más de 8.000 soldados de Irak y un aumento adicional de hasta 4.500 en Afganistán. [197] Ese mismo mes, el Reino Unido perdió a su militar número 100. [198]

El 3 de septiembre de 2008, comandos estadounidenses aterrizaron en helicóptero y atacaron tres casas cercanas a un conocido bastión enemigo en Pakistán. Pakistán condenó el ataque, calificando la incursión de "grave violación del territorio de Pakistán". [199] [200] El 6 de septiembre, en una aparente reacción, Pakistán anunció una desconexión indefinida de las líneas de suministro a las fuerzas de la OTAN. [201] Se produjo otra división cuando los soldados paquistaníes dispararon contra aviones de la OTAN que habían cruzado la frontera el 25 de septiembre. [202] Sin embargo, a pesar de las tensiones, Estados Unidos aumentó el uso de aviones teledirigidos en las regiones fronterizas de Pakistán , en particular las Áreas Tribales Federales y Baluchistán ; en 2009, los ataques con aviones teledirigidos habían aumentado un 183% desde 2006. [203]

En 2009, en Afganistán había un amplio consenso sobre el fin de la guerra, pero la forma en que debía terminar era un tema importante para los candidatos a las elecciones presidenciales afganas de 2009 que reeligieron a Karzai. [204] En un discurso televisado después de ser elegido, Karzai hizo un llamamiento a "nuestros hermanos talibanes para que volvieran a casa y abrazaran su tierra" [205] y presentó planes para lanzar una loya jirga . Los esfuerzos se vieron socavados por el aumento de tropas estadounidenses en el país por parte de la administración Obama . [206] Karzai reiteró en una conferencia en Londres en enero de 2010 que quería acercarse a los talibanes para que depusieran las armas. [207] La ​​Secretaria de Estado de los EE. UU., Hillary Clinton, apoyó cautelosamente la propuesta. [208]

Desarrollo del número de tropas de la ISAF
Un soldado estadounidense y un intérprete afgano en Zabul, 2009

Enero de 2009 trajo un cambio en el liderazgo estadounidense, con la elección del presidente Barack Obama . Ese mes, los soldados estadounidenses, junto con la Guardia Federal Afgana, se trasladaron a las provincias de Logar , Wardak y Kunar. Las tropas fueron la primera ola de un aumento esperado de refuerzos originalmente ordenados por el presidente Bush y aumentados por el presidente Obama. [209] A mediados de febrero de 2009, se anunció que se desplegarían 17.000 tropas adicionales en dos brigadas y tropas de apoyo; la 2.ª Brigada Expedicionaria de Marines de unos 3.500 y la 5.ª Brigada, 2.ª División de Infantería , una brigada Stryker con unos 4.000. [210] El comandante de la ISAF, el general David McKiernan, había pedido hasta 30.000 tropas adicionales, duplicando efectivamente el número de tropas. [211] El 23 de septiembre, una evaluación clasificada del general McChrystal incluyó su conclusión de que una estrategia de contrainsurgencia exitosa requeriría 500.000 tropas y cinco años. [212]

Los ataques con aviones no tripulados paquistaníes contra militantes talibanes y de Al Qaeda aumentaron sustancialmente durante la presidencia de Obama. [213] Algunos medios de comunicación se refirieron a los ataques como una "guerra con aviones no tripulados". [214] [215] En agosto de 2009, Baitullah Mehsud , el líder del Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan , murió en un ataque con aviones no tripulados. [216]

En junio de 2009 se llevó a cabo la Operación Golpe de la Espada en Helmand. [217] Esta operación siguió a una operación liderada por los británicos llamada Operación Garra de la Pantera en la misma región, cuyo objetivo era asegurar varios cruces de canales y ríos para establecer una presencia de la ISAF a largo plazo. [218]

El 4 de septiembre de 2009, durante la campaña de la provincia de Kunduz , la OTAN llevó a cabo un devastador ataque aéreo a siete kilómetros al suroeste de Kunduz, donde combatientes talibanes secuestraron camiones de suministros civiles y mataron a 179 personas, entre ellas más de 100 civiles. [219]

Helicóptero Mil Mi-8 de fabricación rusa aterrizando en la Base de Operaciones Avanzada Aerotransportada para entregar correo y suministros, 2009

Después de la supuesta victoria de Karzai con un 54 por ciento en 2009, lo que hubiera impedido una segunda vuelta, más de 400.000 votos de Karzai tuvieron que ser anulados tras acusaciones de fraude. Algunas naciones criticaron las elecciones como "libres pero no justas". [220] [221] La afirmación de los talibanes de que los más de 135 incidentes violentos perturbaron las elecciones fue ampliamente cuestionada. Sin embargo, se pidió a los medios de comunicación que no informaran de ningún incidente violento. [222] En el sur de Afganistán, donde los talibanes tenían el mayor poder, la participación electoral fue baja y la violencia esporádica se dirigió a los votantes y al personal de seguridad. [223] Los talibanes publicaron un vídeo días después de las elecciones, filmando en la carretera entre Kabul y Kandahar, deteniendo vehículos y pidiendo ver sus dedos (los votantes fueron marcados mojando sus dedos en tinta para que no pudieran votar dos veces). El vídeo mostró a diez hombres que habían votado, escuchando a un militante talibán. Los talibanes perdonaron a los votantes debido al Ramadán . [224] Los talibanes atacaron ciudades con cohetes y otros disparos indirectos. En medio de acusaciones de fraude generalizado, los dos principales contendientes, Hamid Karzai y Abdullah Abdullah , proclamaron su victoria. Los informes sugirieron que la participación fue menor que en las elecciones anteriores. [221] El 26 de noviembre, Karzai hizo un llamado público a las negociaciones directas con los líderes talibanes, diciendo que había una "necesidad urgente" de negociaciones y dejó en claro que la administración Obama se había opuesto a tales conversaciones. No hubo una respuesta formal de Estados Unidos. [225] [226]

En diciembre de 2009, un ataque a la Base de Operaciones Avanzada Chapman , utilizada por la CIA para reunir información y coordinar ataques con aviones no tripulados contra líderes talibanes, mató a ocho personas que trabajaban para la CIA. [227]

El 1 de diciembre de 2009, Obama anunció que Estados Unidos enviaría 30.000 tropas más. [228] Las organizaciones contra la guerra en Estados Unidos respondieron rápidamente, y ciudades de todo el país vieron protestas el 2 de diciembre. [229] Muchos manifestantes compararon la decisión de desplegar más tropas en Afganistán con la expansión de la guerra de Vietnam bajo la administración de Johnson . [230]

2010-2011: Acuerdos estratégicos y muerte de Bin Laden

Miembros del servicio británico del Regimiento de la Real Fuerza Aérea se detienen en una carretera mientras realizan una misión de combate cerca del aeródromo de Kandahar, 2010

El despliegue de tropas estadounidenses adicionales continuó a principios de 2010, con 9.000 de las 30.000 previstas en su lugar antes de finales de marzo y otras 18.000 previstas para junio. [231] El aumento de tropas apoyó un aumento de seis veces en las operaciones de las Fuerzas Especiales. [232] El aumento de personal estadounidense que comenzó a finales de 2009 terminó en septiembre de 2012. [233] 700 ataques aéreos ocurrieron solo en septiembre de 2010 frente a 257 en todo 2009. [234]

Debido al aumento del uso de artefactos explosivos improvisados ​​por parte de los insurgentes, el número de soldados de la Coalición heridos, principalmente estadounidenses, aumentó significativamente. [235] A partir de mayo de 2010, las fuerzas especiales de la OTAN comenzaron a concentrarse en operaciones para capturar o matar a líderes talibanes específicos. En marzo de 2011, el ejército estadounidense afirmó que el esfuerzo había dado como resultado la captura o muerte de más de 900 comandantes talibanes de nivel bajo a medio. [236] [237] En general, en 2010 se produjeron la mayor cantidad de ataques insurgentes de cualquier año desde que comenzó la guerra, alcanzando un máximo en septiembre con más de 1.500. [238]

En febrero de 2010, las fuerzas de la Coalición y de Afganistán iniciaron planes muy visibles para una ofensiva, denominada en código Operación Moshtarak , contra un bastión talibán cerca de la aldea de Marjah . [239]

En junio de 2010 se celebró en Kabul la "Jirga de la Paz" , a la que asistieron 1.600 delegados. Sin embargo, los talibanes y el Hezb-i Islami Gulbuddin , ambos invitados por Karzai como gesto de buena voluntad, no asistieron a la conferencia. [240] El cofundador de los talibanes y entonces segundo al mando, Abdul Ghani Baradar , fue uno de los principales miembros talibanes que favorecieron las conversaciones con los gobiernos de Estados Unidos y Afganistán. Según se informa, la administración de Karzai mantuvo conversaciones con Baradar en febrero; sin embargo, más tarde ese mes, Baradar fue capturado en una redada conjunta de Estados Unidos y Pakistán en la ciudad de Karachi , en Pakistán. El arresto enfureció a Karzai e invocó sospechas de que fue capturado porque la comunidad de inteligencia paquistaní se oponía a las conversaciones de paz afganas. [241] [242] Karzai inició conversaciones de paz con grupos de la red Haqqani en marzo. [243]

En 2010, se produjo un cambio de mentalidad y estrategia dentro de la administración Obama , para permitir posibles negociaciones políticas para resolver la guerra. [244] Los propios talibanes se habían negado a hablar con el gobierno afgano, presentándolos como un "títere" estadounidense. Posteriormente se produjeron esfuerzos esporádicos para conversaciones de paz entre los EE. UU. y los talibanes, y se informó en octubre de 2010 que los comandantes de la dirección talibán (la " Shura de Quetta ") habían abandonado su refugio en Pakistán y habían sido escoltados de forma segura a Kabul por aviones de la OTAN para mantener conversaciones, con la seguridad de que el personal de la OTAN no los detendría. [245] Después de que concluyeron las conversaciones, se supo que el líder de esta delegación, que afirmaba ser Akhtar Mansour , el segundo al mando de los talibanes, era en realidad un impostor que había engañado a los funcionarios de la OTAN. [246]

El 25 de julio de 2010 se hizo pública la publicación de 91.731 documentos clasificados de la organización WikiLeaks . Los documentos cubren incidentes militares estadounidenses e informes de inteligencia desde enero de 2004 hasta diciembre de 2009. [247] Algunos de estos documentos incluían relatos "encubiertos" y "desinfectados" de víctimas civiles causadas por las Fuerzas de la Coalición . Los informes incluían muchas referencias a otros incidentes que implicaron víctimas civiles, como el ataque aéreo de Kunduz y el incidente de Nangar Khel . [248] Los documentos filtrados también contienen informes de colusión de Pakistán con los talibanes. Según Der Spiegel , "los documentos muestran claramente que la agencia de inteligencia paquistaní Inter-Services Intelligence (generalmente conocida como ISI) es el cómplice más importante que tienen los talibanes fuera de Afganistán". [249]

Un vehículo blindado ligero del servicio australiano atraviesa el valle de Tangi , 2011

El 2 de mayo de 2011, funcionarios estadounidenses anunciaron que el líder de Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, había muerto en la Operación Neptune Spear , llevada a cabo por los SEAL de la Marina estadounidense , en Abbottabad , Pakistán. [250] Pakistán quedó bajo un intenso escrutinio internacional después de la incursión. El gobierno paquistaní negó haber protegido a Bin Laden y dijo que había compartido información con la CIA y otras agencias de inteligencia sobre el complejo desde 2009. [251]

La batalla de Kandahar de 2011 fue parte de una ofensiva que siguió a un anuncio del 30 de abril de que los talibanes lanzarían su ofensiva de primavera. [252] El 7 de mayo, los talibanes lanzaron una gran ofensiva contra los edificios gubernamentales en Kandahar. [253] La BBC lo calificó como "el peor ataque en la provincia de Kandahar desde la caída del gobierno talibán, y una vergüenza para el gobierno [afgano]". [254]

Karzai confirmó en junio de 2011 que se estaban llevando a cabo conversaciones secretas entre Estados Unidos y los talibanes, [255] pero éstas fracasaron en agosto. [256]

El 22 de junio de 2011, el presidente Obama anunció que 10.000 soldados se retirarían antes de fin de año y que otros 23.000 regresarían antes del verano de 2012. Tras la retirada de 10.000 soldados estadounidenses, sólo quedaron 80.000. [257] En julio de 2011, Canadá retiró sus tropas de combate, pasando a desempeñar un papel de entrenamiento. Siguiendo su ejemplo, otros países de la OTAN anunciaron reducciones de tropas. [ cita requerida ] Los ataques talibanes continuaron al mismo ritmo que en 2011, alrededor de 28.000 en 2013. [258]

Un soldado de la Bundeswehr alemana , parte del Comando Regional Norte de la ISAF en el Campamento Marmal , 2011

Las tensiones entre Pakistán y Estados Unidos aumentaron a finales de septiembre de 2011 después de que varios soldados del Cuerpo Fronterizo de Pakistán resultaran muertos o heridos. Las tropas fueron atacadas por un avión pilotado por Estados Unidos que perseguía a las fuerzas talibanes cerca de la frontera entre Afganistán y Pakistán, pero por razones desconocidas abrieron fuego contra dos puestos fronterizos de Pakistán. En represalia por el ataque, Pakistán cerró el paso fronterizo terrestre de Torkham a los convoyes de suministro de la OTAN durante un período no especificado. Este incidente siguió a la publicación de un vídeo que supuestamente mostraba a soldados paquistaníes uniformados ejecutando a civiles desarmados. [259] Después del cierre de la frontera de Torkham, los talibanes paquistaníes atacaron los convoyes de la OTAN, matando a varios conductores y destruyendo alrededor de 100 camiones cisterna. [260] Las fuerzas de la ISAF se enfrentaron a las fuerzas armadas de Pakistán el 26 de noviembre, matando a 24 soldados paquistaníes. Cada bando afirmó que el otro disparó primero. Pakistán bloqueó las líneas de suministro de la OTAN y ordenó a los estadounidenses que abandonaran el aeródromo de Shamsi . [261] [262]

2012-2013: Incidentes con tropas estadounidenses, reuniones entre Obama y Karzai

Soldados estadounidenses pasan junto a niños afganos locales durante una patrulla en Gardez , 2012

A partir de enero de 2012 , ocurrieron incidentes que involucraron a tropas estadounidenses [263] [264] [265] [266] [267] [268] que fueron descritos por The Sydney Morning Herald como "una serie de incidentes y revelaciones perjudiciales que involucraron a tropas estadounidenses en Afganistán". [263] Estos incidentes crearon fracturas en la asociación entre Afganistán y la ISAF, [269] plantearon la pregunta de si la disciplina dentro de las tropas estadounidenses se estaba resquebrajando, [270] socavaron "la imagen de las fuerzas extranjeras en un país donde ya hay un profundo resentimiento debido a las muertes de civiles y una percepción entre muchos afganos de que las tropas estadounidenses carecen de respeto por la cultura y el pueblo afganos" [271] y tensaron las relaciones entre Afganistán y los Estados Unidos . [264] [265] Además de un incidente que involucró a tropas estadounidenses que posaron con partes del cuerpo de insurgentes muertos y un video que aparentemente mostraba a una tripulación de un helicóptero estadounidense cantando " adiós Miss American Pie " antes de bombardear a un grupo de hombres afganos con un misil Hellfire [271] [272] estos "incidentes militares estadounidenses de alto perfil en Afganistán" [267] también incluyeron las protestas de quema del Corán en Afganistán en 2012 y la ola de tiroteos de Panjwai .

Soldados del ejército estadounidense suben a bordo de un Black Hawk en el distrito de Nari , cerca de la frontera con Pakistán, 2012

Karzai visitó los EE.UU. en enero de 2012. En ese momento, el gobierno estadounidense manifestó su disposición a retirar todas sus tropas para finales de 2014. [273] El 11 de enero de 2012, Karzai y Obama acordaron transferir las operaciones de combate de la OTAN a las fuerzas afganas para la primavera de 2013 en lugar del verano de 2013. [274] [275] "Lo que va a pasar esta primavera es que los afganos estarán a la cabeza en todo el país", dijo Obama. "Ellos [las fuerzas de la ISAF] seguirán luchando junto a las tropas afganas... nosotros estaremos en un papel de entrenamiento, asistencia y asesoramiento". [275] También declaró que el motivo de las retiradas era que "hemos logrado nuestro objetivo principal, o hemos estado muy cerca... que es descapacitar a Al Qaeda" y asegurarnos de que "no puedan atacarnos de nuevo". [276] Añadió que cualquier misión estadounidense más allá de 2014 se centraría exclusivamente en operaciones y entrenamiento antiterroristas . [276] [277]

Tropas del 31.º y 33.º Kandak del Ejército Nacional Afgano realizan una salida para la Operación Inundación del Valle, 2012

En 2012, los líderes de los países miembros de la OTAN aprobaron una estrategia de salida durante la Cumbre de la OTAN. [149] Las fuerzas de la ISAF transferirían el mando de todas las misiones de combate a las fuerzas afganas a mediados de 2013, [278] mientras que pasarían del combate al asesoramiento, entrenamiento y asistencia a las fuerzas de seguridad afganas. [279] [280] La mayoría de los 130.000 soldados de la ISAF partirían a finales de diciembre de 2014. [278] Una nueva misión de la OTAN asumiría entonces el papel de apoyo. [279] [281]

En marzo de 2012 [282] y junio de 2013 se cancelaron otros intentos de reanudar las conversaciones tras una disputa entre el gobierno afgano y los talibanes en relación con la apertura de una oficina política por parte de estos últimos en Qatar . El presidente Karzai acusó a los talibanes de presentarse como un gobierno en el exilio . [283]

El 2 de mayo de 2012 , los presidentes Karzai y Obama firmaron un acuerdo de asociación estratégica entre los dos países, después de que el presidente estadounidense llegara sin previo aviso a Kabul. [284] El 7 de julio, como parte del acuerdo, Estados Unidos designó a Afganistán como un importante aliado no perteneciente a la OTAN después de que Karzai y Clinton se reunieran en Kabul. [285] Ambos líderes acordaron que Estados Unidos transferiría prisioneros y prisiones afganas al gobierno afgano [275] [286] y retiraría tropas de las aldeas afganas en la primavera de 2013. [286] [287]

El 18 de junio de 2013 se completó la transferencia de responsabilidades de seguridad de la OTAN a las fuerzas afganas. [288] La ISAF seguía teniendo previsto poner fin a su misión a finales de 2014. [289] Unos 100.000 efectivos de la ISAF permanecieron en el país. [290]

2014-2015: Retirada y aumento de la insurgencia

Los colores de Resolute Support se presentaron en Kabul el 28 de diciembre de 2014, después de que se colocaran los colores de la ISAF

El Reino Unido y los Estados Unidos finalizaron oficialmente sus operaciones de combate en Afganistán el 26 de octubre de 2014. El Reino Unido entregó su última base en Afganistán, Camp Bastion , y los Estados Unidos entregaron su última base, Camp Leatherneck , a las fuerzas afganas. [291] Alrededor de 500 tropas del Reino Unido permanecieron en funciones "no combatientes". [292] [293] El 28 de diciembre, la OTAN puso fin oficialmente a las operaciones de combate en una ceremonia celebrada en Kabul. [294] Las operaciones continuadas por las fuerzas estadounidenses en Afganistán se llevaron a cabo bajo la Operación Centinela de la Libertad ; [295] y la nueva misión de la OTAN fue la Operación Apoyo Resuelto . [296]

La retirada de las tropas no significó el retiro de la presencia militar. Cuando las tropas estadounidenses se retiraron de Afganistán, fueron reemplazadas por compañías de seguridad privadas contratadas por el gobierno de los Estados Unidos y las Naciones Unidas. Muchas de estas compañías de seguridad privadas (también llamadas contratistas militares ) estaban compuestas por ex militares de la Coalición. Esto permitió que los Estados Unidos y el Reino Unido siguieran participando en acciones terrestres sin la necesidad de estacionar sus propias fuerzas. [297]

Los talibanes comenzaron un resurgimiento debido a varios factores. La retirada de la mayoría de las fuerzas extranjeras de Afganistán redujo el riesgo que corrían los talibanes de ser bombardeados y atacados. En junio de 2014, la Operación Zarb-e-Azb del ejército paquistaní , lanzada en la zona tribal de Waziristán del Norte , desalojó a miles de militantes principalmente uzbekos, árabes y paquistaníes, que inundaron Afganistán y engrosaron las filas de los talibanes. El grupo se envalentonó aún más por la relativa falta de interés de la comunidad internacional, ya que la atención se centró en otras crisis mundiales, como Siria , Irak o Ucrania . Las fuerzas de seguridad afganas carecían, entre otras cosas, de poder aéreo y reconocimiento. Las luchas políticas internas en el gobierno central en Kabul y la aparente debilidad en la gobernanza a diferentes niveles fueron explotadas por los talibanes. [298] Los talibanes expandieron la gobernanza en las áreas bajo su control, tratando de construir legitimidad a nivel local. [299] Su estrategia de gobierno se basaba en particular en la impartición de justicia, que a menudo se consideraba menos corrupta que los tribunales del gobierno. [300] [301]

En la provincia de Kunduz [302] [303] , que fue escenario de enfrentamientos a partir de 2009, se produjeron intensos combates . En mayo de 2015, se suspendieron los vuelos a la ciudad norteña de Kunduz debido a semanas de enfrentamientos entre las fuerzas de seguridad afganas y los talibanes en las afueras de la ciudad. [304] La intensificación del conflicto en el distrito norteño de Char Dara, en la provincia de Kunduz, llevó al gobierno afgano a reclutar milicianos locales para reforzar la oposición a la insurgencia talibán. [305] En junio, los talibanes intensificaron los ataques en torno a la ciudad de Kunduz como parte de una importante ofensiva en un intento de capturarla; [306] [307] [308] decenas de miles de habitantes fueron desplazados internamente. El gobierno recuperó el distrito de Char Dara después de aproximadamente un mes de combates. [309]

A finales de septiembre, las fuerzas talibanes lanzaron un ataque contra la ciudad de Kunduz, tomaron varias aldeas periféricas y entraron en la ciudad. Los talibanes irrumpieron en el hospital regional y se enfrentaron con las fuerzas de seguridad en la cercana universidad. Los combates se produjeron desde cuatro distritos diferentes: Char Dara al oeste, Aliabad al suroeste, Khanabad al este e Imam Saheb al norte. [310] [311] Los talibanes tomaron las aldeas de Zakhel y Ali Khel en la carretera que conduce al sur, que conecta la ciudad con Kabul y Mazar-e Sharif a través del distrito de Aliabad. Al parecer, lograron sus mayores avances en el suroeste de Kunduz, donde algunas comunidades locales armadas habían comenzado a apoyar a los talibanes. [310] Los combatientes talibanes habrían bloqueado la ruta al aeropuerto para impedir que los civiles huyeran de la ciudad. [312] Un testigo informó de que la sede de la Dirección Nacional de Seguridad fue incendiada. [313] Kunduz fue reconquistada por fuerzas afganas y estadounidenses el 14 de octubre. [ cita requerida ]

A mediados de enero de 2015, el califato del Estado Islámico estableció una rama en Afganistán llamada Khorasan (ISKP, o ISIS-K) y comenzó a reclutar combatientes [314] y a enfrentarse a los talibanes. [315] [316] Fue creado después de jurar lealtad al autoproclamado califa mundial Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi . [317] El 18 de marzo, Hafiz Wahidi, el sustituto del emir adjunto del EI en Afganistán, fue asesinado por las Fuerzas Armadas afganas, junto con otros 9 militantes del EI que lo acompañaban. [318]

Soldado del ejército estadounidense en la provincia de Nangarhar, 2015

En 2015, los talibanes iniciaron una ofensiva que los llevó a tomar partes de la provincia de Helmand. En junio, habían tomado el control de Dishu y Baghran, matando a 5.588 miembros de las fuerzas de seguridad del gobierno afgano (3.720 de ellos eran agentes de policía). [319] A finales de julio, los talibanes habían invadido el distrito de Nawzad [320] y el 26 de agosto tomaron el control de Musa Qala . [321] En octubre, las fuerzas talibanes habían intentado tomar Lashkar Gah , la capital de la provincia de Helmand. El 215.º Cuerpo afgano y las fuerzas de operaciones especiales lanzaron una contraofensiva contra los talibanes en noviembre, [322] Si bien el asalto fue repelido, las fuerzas talibanes permanecieron atrincheradas en los suburbios de la ciudad en diciembre de 2015. [323]

On 22 June 2015, the Taliban detonated a car bomb outside the National Assembly in Kabul, and Taliban fighters attacked the building with assault rifles and RPGs.[324][325] The bombing highlighted differences within the Taliban in their approach to peace talks.[326][327]

In July 2015, Pakistan hosted the first official peace talks between Taliban representatives and the Afghan government. U.S. and China attended the talks brokered by Pakistan in Murree as two observers.[328] In January 2016, Pakistan hosted a round of four-way talks with Afghan, Chinese and American officials, but the Taliban did not attend.[329] The Taliban did hold informal talks with the Afghan government in 2016.[330] China's reason for the negotiation was that Afghan security situation affected its own separatist groups, and economic activity with Pakistan. The Taliban declined.[331][332]

On 11 November 2015, it was reported that infighting had broken out between different Taliban factions in Zabul Province. Fighters loyal to the new Taliban leader Mullah Akhtar Mansoor fought a pro-ISIL splinter faction led by Mullah Mansoor Dadullah. Even though Dadullah's faction enjoyed the support of foreign ISIL fighters, including Uzbeks and Chechens, it was reported that Mansoor's Taliban loyalists had the upper hand. According to Ghulam Jilani Farahi, provincial director of security in Zabul, more than 100 militants from both sides were killed since the fighting broke out.[333] The infighting stifled peace talks.[334][335]

As a result of the infighting, which has resulted in Mansour being consumed with a campaign to quell dissent against his leadership; Sirajuddin Haqqani, chief of the Haqqani Network was selected to become the deputy leader of the Taliban in the summer of 2015, during a leadership struggle within the Taliban. Sirajuddin and other Haqqani leaders increasingly ran the day-to-day military operations for the Taliban, in particular; refining urban terrorist attacks and cultivating a sophisticated international fund-raising network, they also appointed Taliban governors and began uniting the Taliban. As a result, the Haqqani Network is now closely integrated with the Taliban at a leadership level, and is growing in influence within the insurgency, whereas the network was largely autonomous before, and there are concerns that the fighting is going to be deadlier. Tensions with the Pakistani military have also been raised because American and Afghan officials accuse them of sheltering the Haqqanis as a proxy group.[336][337]

TAAC-E advisers in 2015

December 2015 saw a renewed Taliban offensive in Helmand focused on the town of Sangin. The Sangin district fell to the Taliban on 21 December after fierce clashes that killed more than 90 soldiers in two days.[338] It was reported that 30 members of the SAS alongside 60 US special forces operators joined the Afghan Army in the Battle to retake parts of Sangin from Taliban insurgents,[339] in addition, about 300 US troops and a small number of British remained in Helmand to advise Afghan commanders at the corps level.[340][341] Senior American commanders said that the Afghan troops in the province have lacked effective leaders as well as the necessary weapons and ammunition to hold off persistent Taliban attacks. Some Afghan soldiers in Helmand have been fighting in tough conditions for years without a break to see their family, leading to poor morale and high desertion rates.[340]

Numerous peace movements started arising in Afghanistan, including the Tabassum movement in 2015, the Enlightenment Movement during 2016–2017, Uprising for Change in 2017, and the People's Peace Movement in March 2018.[citation needed]

2016-2017: Collapse of peace talks, emergence of Islamic State

In January 2016, the US government sent a directive to the Pentagon which granted new legal authority for the US military to go on the offensive against Militants affiliated with the ISIL-KP, after the State Department announced the designation of ISIS in Afghanistan and Pakistan as a foreign terrorist organization. The number of militants started with around 60 or 70, with most of them coming over the border with Pakistan but eventually[when?] ranged between 1,000 and 3,000 militants.[342] They were mainly defectors from the Afghan and the Pakistani Taliban, and were generally confined to Nangarhar Province, and partially, Kunar province.[342][343]

In early February 2016, Taliban insurgents renewed their assault on Sangin, after previously being repulsed in December 2015, launching a string of ferocious attacks on Afghan government forces earlier in the month. As a result, the United States decided to send troops from the 2nd Battalion, 87th Infantry Regiment, 10th Mountain Division, in order to prop up the Afghan 215th Corps in Helmand province, particularly around Sangin, joining US special operations forces already in the area.[344][345][346][347][348] On 14 March 2016, Khanneshin District in Helmand Province fell to the Taliban; and district by district, Afghan troops were retreating back to urban centers in Helmand.[332][348] In early April 2016, 600 Afghan troops launched a major offensive to retake Taliban-occupied areas in and around Sangin.[349] An Afghan army offensive to retake the town of Khanisheen was repelled by the Taliban, and desertions from the army in the area were rife.[350]

Despite US airstrikes, militants besieged Lashkar Gah, reportedly controlling all roads leading to the city and areas a few kilometres away. The US stepped up airstrikes in support of Afghan ground forces. Afghan forces in the city were reported as "exhausted", whilst police checkpoints around the capital were falling one by one. Meanwhile, the Taliban sent a new elite commando force into Helmand called "Sara Khitta" in Pashto.[351][352][353] Afghan security forces beat back attacks by Taliban fighters encroaching on Chah-e-Anji nearby Lashkar Gah; Afghan special forces backed by US airstrikes battled increasingly well-armed and disciplined Taliban militants. An Afghan special forces commander said "The Taliban have heavily armed, uniformed units that are equipped with night vision and modern weapons."[354]

On 10 March 2016, officials said that the Taliban clashed with a Taliban splinter group (led by Muhammad Rasul) in the Shindand district of Herat, and up to 100 militants were killed.[334][335]

In April 2016, President Ashraf Ghani "pulled the plug" on the Afghan governments failing effort to start peace talks with the Taliban.[355] Additionally, due to the integration of Haqqani Networks into the Taliban leadership, it would become harder for peace talks to take place.[336][337] Although leader of the Taliban, Haibatullah Akhundzada, said a peace agreement was possible if the government in Kabul renounced its foreign allies.[356]

On 23 July 2016, Afghan and US forces began an offensive to clear Nangarhar province of Islamic State militants hours after the Kabul bombing, the operation was dubbed "Wrath of the Storm" involving both Afghan regular army and special forces and is the Afghan army's first major strategic offensive of the summer. The estimated size of the ISIL-KP in January 2016 was around 3,000, but by July, the number had been reduced to around 1,000 to 1,500, with 70% of its fighters coming from the TTP.[357][358][359]

As of July 2016, Time magazine estimated that at least 20% of Afghanistan was under Taliban control with southernmost Helmand Province as major stronghold,[360] while General Nicholson stated that Afghan official armed forces' casualties had risen 20 percent compared to 2015.[357] On 22 August, the US announced that 100 US troops were sent to Lashkar Gah to help prevent the Taliban from overrunning it, in what Brigadier General Charles Cleveland called a "temporary effort" to advise the Afghan police.[361]

On 22 September 2016, the Afghan government signed a draft peace deal with Hezb-i-Islami.[362][363]

Green Berets of the 10th SFG memorialize two comrades who were killed in action during the Battle of Boz Qandahari in 2016

On 31 December 2016, the Taliban continued their assault on the province with attacks on Sangin and Marjah districts.[364] Some estimated suggest the Taliban had retaken more than 80% of Helmand province.[365]

In early January 2017, the Marine Corps Times reported that Afghan forces seek to rebuild, following an exhausting 2016 fighting season; 33 districts, spread across 16 Afghan provinces, were under insurgent control whilst 258 were under government control and nearly 120 districts remained "contested."[365] According to an inspector general, the Afghan army comprises about 169,000 soldiers, but in 2016, they suffered a 33 percent attrition rate—a 7 percent increase from 2015.[365]

In early March 2017, American and Afghan forces launched Operation Hamza to "flush" ISIS-K from its stronghold in eastern Afghanistan, engaging in regular ground battles.[366] In April 2017, NATO spokesman Captain Bill Salvin said that Afghan and international forces had reduced ISIS-K controlled territory in Afghanistan by two-thirds and had killed around half their fighters in the previous two years. Since the beginning of 2017, 460 airstrikes against terrorists (with drone strikes alone killing more than 200 IS militants); he added that the affiliate has an estimated 600–800 fighters in two eastern Afghan provinces.[367]

On 23 March 2017, Sangin district was captured by the Taliban, as they had overrun the district center of the town of Sangin. During the earlier phase of the war, almost a quarter of British casualties were caused by fighting for the town, while more recently hundreds of Afghan troops died defending it.[368][369] On 29 April, the US deployed an additional 5,000 Marines to the Southern Helmand Province.[370]

USAF pilots fly a CH-47 Chinook in Nangarhar, 2017

On 21 April 2017, the Taliban attacked Camp Shaheen near Mazar-e-Sharif, killing over 140 Afghan soldiers.[371][372][373]

On 15 September 2017, the New York Times reported that the CIA was seeking authority to conduct its own drone strikes in Afghanistan and other war zones, according to current and former intelligence and military officials, and that the change in authority was being considered by the White House as part of the new strategy despite concerns by the Pentagon.[374] On 19 September, the Trump Administration deployed another 3,000 US troops to Afghanistan. They would add to the approximately 11,000 US troops already serving in Afghanistan, bringing the total to at least 14,000 US troops stationed in the country.[375] On 4 October, Defense Secretary Jim Mattis approved a change in rules of engagement as part of the new strategy so that there is no longer a requirement for US troops to be in contact with enemy forces in Afghanistan before opening fire.[376]

On 20 November 2017, General John Nicholson announced that US aircraft were targeting drug production facilities in Afghanistan under a new strategy aimed at cutting off Taliban funding, saying that the Taliban was "becoming a criminal organization" that was earning about $200 million a year from drug-related activities. President Ashraf Ghani strongly endorsed the new campaign of US and Afghan airstrikes against the Taliban-run narcotic centers.[377]

2018–2019: Peace overtures

Map showing insurgent (white) and government-controlled (red) areas of Afghanistan in January 2019.

In January 2018, the Taliban were openly active in 70% of the country (being in full control of 14 districts and have an active and open physical presence in a further 263) and the Islamic State was more active in the country than ever before. Following recent attacks by the Taliban (including the Kabul ambulance bombing on 27 January) and Islamic State that killed scores of civilians, President Trump and Afghan officials decided to rule out any talks with the Taliban.[378] However, on 27 February, following an increase in violence, Afghan President Ashraf Ghani proposed unconditional peace talks with the Taliban, offering them recognition as a legal political party and the release of the Taliban prisoners. The offer was the most favorable to the Taliban since the war started. It was preceded by months of national consensus building, which found that Afghans overwhelmingly supported a negotiated end to the war.[379][380] Two days earlier, the Taliban had called for talks with the US.[381] On 27 March, a conference of 20 countries in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, backed the Afghan government's peace offer.[382] The Taliban did not publicly respond to the offer.[citation needed]

Following Ghani's offer of unconditional peace talks with the Taliban, a growing peace movement arose in Afghanistan during 2018, particularly following a peace march by the People's Peace Movement,[383] which the Afghan media dubbed the "Helmand Peace Convoy."[384][385] The marchers walked several hundred kilometers from Lashkar Gah in Helmand Province, through Taliban-held territory,[386] to Kabul. There they met Ghani, and held sit-in protests outside the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan and nearby embassies.[387] Their efforts inspired further movements in other parts of Afghanistan.[388] Following the march, Ghani and the Taliban agreed a mutual, unprecedented, ceasefire during the Eid al-Fitr celebrations in June. During the ceasefire, Taliban members flocked into Kabul, where they met and communicated with locals and state security forces. Creating a mood of both hope and fear, many civilians welcomed the Taliban and spoke about peace.[389] Although civilians called for the ceasefire to be made permanent, the Taliban rejected an extension and resumed fighting after the ceasefire ended on 18 June, while the Afghan government's ceasefire ended a week later.[390][391][392]

US, British and Afghan security forces train together in an aerial reaction force exercise at Camp Qargha in Kabul, 2018

American officials had secretly met members of the Taliban's political commission in Qatar in July 2018.[393] In September 2018, Trump appointed Zalmay Khalilzad as special adviser on Afghanistan in the US State Department, with the stated goal of facilitating an intra-Afghan political peace process.[394] Khalilzad led further talks between the US and the Taliban in Qatar in October.[395] Russia hosted a separate peace talk in November between the Taliban and officials from Afghanistan's High Peace Council.[396] The talks in Qatar resumed in December,[397] though the Taliban refused to allow the Afghan government to be invited,[398] considering them a puppet government of the US.[399] The Taliban spoke with Afghans including former President Karzai at a hotel in Moscow in February 2019, but again these talks did not include the Afghan government.[400]

In July 2018 the Taliban carried out the Darzab offensive and captured Darzab District following the surrender of ISIL-K to the Afghan Government. In August the Taliban launched a series of offensives, the largest being the Ghazni offensive. During the Ghazni offensive, the Taliban seized Ghazni, Afghanistan's sixth-largest city for several days but eventually retreated.[401][402]

On 25 January 2019, Ghani said that more than 45,000 members of the Afghan security forces had been killed since he became president in 2014. He also said that there had been fewer than 72 international casualties during the same period.[403] A January 2019 report by the US government estimated that 53.8% of Afghanistan's districts were controlled or influenced by the government, with 33.9% contested and 12.3% under insurgent control or influence.[404]

On 30 April 2019, Afghan government forces undertook clearing operations directed against both ISIS-K and the Taliban in eastern Nangarhar Province, after the two groups fought for over a week over a group of villages in an area of illegal talc mining. The National Directorate of Security claimed 22 ISIS-K fighters were killed and two weapons caches destroyed, while the Taliban claimed Afghan forces killed seven civilians.[405] On 28 July, Ghani's running mate Amrullah Saleh's office was attacked by a suicide bomber and a few militants. At least 20 people were killed, and 50 injured; Saleh was among those injured.[406]

By August, the Taliban controlled more territory than at any point since 2001.[407] Attempted peace negotiations between the US and the Taliban failed in September.[408]

On 25 February 2019, peace talks began between the Taliban and the United States in Qatar, with the Taliban co-founder Abdul Ghani Baradar notably present.[399] Peace negotiations had resumed in December.[409] This round of talks resulted in a seven-day partial ceasefire which began on 22 February 2020.[410]

2020: US-Taliban deal, beginning of US withdrawal

US representative Zalmay Khalilzad (left) and Taliban representative Abdul Ghani Baradar (right) sign the Agreement for Bringing Peace to Afghanistan on 29 February 2020

On 29 February, 2020, the United States and the Taliban signed a conditional peace deal in Doha, Qatar,[411] that called for a prisoner exchange within ten days and was supposed to lead to US troops withdrawal from Afghanistan within 14 months.[83][412] However, the Afghan government was not a party to the deal, and, in a press conference the next day, President Ghani criticized the deal for being "signed behind closed doors." He said the Afghan government had "made no commitment to free 5,000 Taliban prisoners" and that such an action "is not the United States' authority, but it is the authority of the government of Afghanistan."[413][414][84][415]

After signing the agreement with the United States, the Taliban resumed offensive operations against the Afghan army and police on 3 March, conducting attacks in Kunduz and Helmand provinces.[416] On 4 March, the United States retaliated by launching an air strike against Taliban fighters in Helmand.[417] Despite the peace agreement between the US and the Taliban, insurgent attacks against Afghan security forces were reported to have surged in the country. In the 45 days after the agreement (between 1 March and 15 April), the Taliban conducted more than 4,500 attacks in Afghanistan, which showed an increase of more than 70% as compared to the same period in the previous year.[418] More than 900 Afghan security forces were killed in the period, up from about 520 in the same period a year earlier. Because of a significant reduction in the number of offensives and airstrikes by Afghan and US forces against the Taliban due to the agreement, Taliban casualties dropped to 610 in the period down from about 1,660 in the same period a year earlier.[418] Meanwhile, ISIS-K continued to be a threat on its own, killing 32 people in a mass shooting in Kabul on 6 March,[419] killing 25 Sikh worshippers in Kabul on 25 March,[420] and a series of attacks in May most notably killing 16 mothers and newborn babies in Kabul.[421]

On the diplomatic front, on 31 March 2020 a three-person Taliban delegation arrived in Kabul to discuss the release of prisoners,[422][423] the first Taliban representatives to visit Kabul since 2001.[422] On 7 April, the Taliban departed from the prisoner swap talks, which Taliban spokesman Suhail Shaheen said was unsuccessful.[424][425] Shaheen also stated in a tweet that hours after walking out of the talks, the Taliban's negotiating team was recalled from Kabul.[425] The Taliban failed to secure the release of any of the 15 commanders they sought to be released.[424] Arguments over which prisoners to swap resulted in a delay of the planned prisoner swap.[424] After a long delay due to disputes regarding prisoners' releases, the Afghan government had by August released 5,100 prisoners,[426] and the Taliban had released 1,000.[427] However, the Afghan government refused to release 400 prisoners from the list of those the Taliban wanted to be released, because those 400 were accused of serious crimes.[428] President Ghani stated that he did not have the constitutional authority to release them, so he convened a loya jirga from 7 to 9 August to discuss the issue.[429] The jirga agreed to free the 400 remaining prisoners.[428] Talks between the Afghan government and the Taliban began in Doha on 12 September.[430]

On 22 June, Afghanistan reported its "bloodiest week in 19 years", during which 291 members of the Afghan National Defense and Security Forces (ANDSF) were killed and 550 others wounded in 422 attacks carried out by the Taliban. At least 42 civilians, including women and children, were also killed and 105 others wounded.[431] During the week, the Taliban kidnapped 60 civilians in the central province of Daykundi.[432]

2021: End of US withdrawal, last Taliban offensive

The Taliban insurgency intensified considerably in 2021 coinciding with the withdrawal of United States and allied troops from Afghanistan.[433] Since the US withdrawal, the number of casualties of women in the Afghanistan conflict rose by almost 40% in the first quarter of 2021 alone.[434]

On March 6, Afghanistan's President Ghani expressed that his government would be taking forward peace talks with the Taliban, discussing with the insurgent group about holding fresh elections and forming a government in a democratic manner.[435] On April 13, the Biden administration announced that it would withdraw its remaining 2,500 troops from Afghanistan by September 11, on the twentieth anniversary of the September 11 attacks.[436] The US government also reiterated support for the Afghan government regarding a possible Taliban military victory.[437]

A map of Afghanistan showing the 2021 Taliban offensive

The Taliban began its last major offensive on 1 May, culminating in the fall of Kabul, a Taliban victory, and the end of war.[438][439][440] In the first three months of the offensive, the Taliban made significant territorial gains in the countryside, increasing the number of districts it controlled from 73 to 223.[441]

On July 5, the Taliban announced their intention to present a written peace plan to the Afghan Government in August but as of August 13, this had not been done.[442][443] Sources claimed that on August 12, Abdullah Abdullah, the Chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation, handed in a plan titled "exiting the crisis" which was shared with the Taliban; it called for the creation of a "joint government."[444] On August 15, following the Taliban offensive and the fall of the capital Kabul, the Taliban occupied the Presidential Palace after the incumbent President Ashraf Ghani fled the country to Tajikistan.[445][446] NATO forces maintain a presence in Kabul.[446][447]

The Taliban gained control of various towns throughout June and July. On 6 August, they captured the first provincial capital of Zaranj. Over the next ten days, they swept across the country, capturing capital after capital. On 14 August, Mazar-i-Sharif was captured as commanders Rashid Dostum and Atta Nur fled across the border to Uzbekistan, cutting Kabul's vital northern supply route.[448]

Taliban fighters in Kabul, 17 August 2021

On 15 August, Jalalabad fell, cutting the only remaining international route through the Khyber Pass.[448] By noon, Taliban forces advanced from the Paghman district reaching the gates of Kabul; Ghani discussed the city's protection with security ministers, while sources claimed a unity peace agreement with the Taliban was imminent. However, Ghani was unable to reach top officials in the interior and defense ministries, and several high-profile politicians had already hurried to the airport. By 2 p.m., the Taliban had entered the city facing no resistance; the president soon fled by helicopter from the Presidential Palace, and within hours Taliban fighters were pictured sitting at Ghani's desk in the palace.[449] With the virtual collapse of the republic, the war was declared over by the Taliban on the same day.[450]

As the Taliban seized control, the need to evacuate populations vulnerable to the Taliban, including the interpreters and assistants who had worked with the coalition forces, ethnic minorities, and women, became urgent. For more than two weeks, international diplomatic, military and civilian staff, as well as Afghan civilians, were airlifted out the country from Hamid Karzai International Airport. On 16 August Major General Hank Taylor confirmed that US air strikes had ended at least 24 hours earlier and that the focus of the US military at that point was maintaining security at the airport as evacuations continued.[451] The final flight, a US Air Force C-17, departed at 3:29 p.m. ET, 11:59 p.m. in Kabul time, on 30 August, marking the end of the American campaign in Afghanistan.[452] This marked the end of America's longest war.[87][453][454][455]

Impact

Casualties

Victims of the Narang night raid that killed at least 10 Afghan civilians, December 2009

According to the Costs of War Project at Brown University, the war killed 46,319 Afghan civilians in Afghanistan. However, the death toll is possibly higher due to unaccounted deaths by "disease, loss of access to food, water, infrastructure, and/or other indirect consequences of the war."[88] A report titled Body Count put together by Physicians for Social Responsibility, Physicians for Global Survival and International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians have been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.[456]

The majority of civilian casualties were attributed to anti-government elements each year, though the figure varied from 61% to 80%, with the average hovering around 75% due to the Taliban and other anti-government elements.[457][458][459][460][461] The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) started publishing civilian casualty figures in 2008. These figures attribute approximately 41% of civilian casualties to government aligned forces in 2008; this percentage lowers to approximately 18% in 2015.[462]

A prospective study of injuries caused by anti-personnel IEDs was reported in BMJ Open. It showed the injuries to be far worse with IEDs than with landmines, causing multiple limb amputations and lower body mutilation.[463] In an accompanying press release, BMJ considered the anti-personnel IED to cause 'superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering'. Use of weapons that cause superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering is considered a war crime.[464]

Civilian deaths caused by non-Afghan Coalition forces were low later in the war after most foreign troops were withdrawn and the coalition shifted to airstrikes. For example, in 2015 pro-government forces caused 17% of civilian deaths and injuries – including United States and NATO troops, which were responsible for only 2% of the casualties.[465] 2016 had a similar 2% figure. Civilian deaths were higher as well in the latter part of the war, with 2015 and 2016 both consecutively breaking the record of annual civilian deaths according to the UN.[466]As for the Taliban losses, the movement also suffered heavy losses, more than 80,000 killed.[467]

Refugees

Foreign donated clothing being handed out by an Afghan civil officer to children at a refugee camp, 2011

Millions of Afghans have been internally displaced or become refugees as a result of decades of conflict in Afghanistan since 1979. From 2002 to 2012, more than 5.7 million former refugees returned to Afghanistan, increasing the country's population by 25%.[468][469] 2.6 million Afghans remained refugees in 2021 when the Taliban took over,[90][470] while another 4 million were internally displaced.[90] Following the Taliban takeover, over 122,000 people were airlifted abroad from Kabul airport, during the evacuation from Afghanistan, including Afghans, American citizens, and other foreign citizens.[471]

War crimes

Afghan boy murdered on 15 January 2010 by a group of US Army soldiers called the Kill Team

War crimes have been committed by both sides including civilian massacres, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, use of torture and the murder of prisoners of war. Additional common crimes include theft, arson, and destruction of property not warranted by military necessity.

The Taliban committed war crimes during the war including massacres, suicide bombing, anti-personnel IED use, terrorism, and targeting civilians (such as using human shields).[472][473] In 2011, The New York Times reported that the Taliban was responsible for 34 of all civilian deaths in the war in Afghanistan.[474][475] United Nations reports have consistently blamed the Taliban and other anti-government forces for the majority of civilian deaths in the conflict.[466][457][476] Other crimes include mass rape and executing surrendered soldiers.[477][478]

War crimes committed by the Coalition, Afghan security forces, and Northern Alliance included massacres, prisoner mistreatment, and killings of civilians. Amnesty International accused the Pentagon of covering up evidence related to war crimes, torture and unlawful killings in Afghanistan.[479] Notable incidents include the Dasht-i-Leili massacre,[480] Bagram torture and prisoner abuse,[481] Kandahar massacre,[482] among others.

In 2020, the International Criminal Court investigation in Afghanistan formally commenced, investigating war crimes and crimes against humanity committed by all parties in Afghanistan since 1 May 2013.[483] On 22 March 2023, the British government launched a public inquiry to investigate reports of alleged unlawful killings by UKSF personnel during the War in Afghanistan.[484] Judge Charles Haddon-Cave chairs the public inquiry.[485]

Drug trade

In 2000, Afghanistan accounted for an estimated 75% of the world's opium supply,[486] which was the Taliban's largest source of revenue through taxes on opium exports.[487] Mullah Omar banned opium cultivation in 2001,[488] which observers said was an attempt to gain international recognition, raise opium prices and increase profit from the sale of large existing stockpiles.[487] Opium production increased in the years following the October 2001 invasion, with Afghanistan producing 90% of the world's opium by 2005.[489] According to a 2018 SIGAR report, the US had spent $8.6 billion since 2002 to stop Afghanistan's drug trade. A May 2021 SIGAR report estimated that the Taliban earned 60% of their revenue from the trade, while UN officials estimated more than $400 million was earned by the Taliban between 2018 and 2019, however other experts estimated that the Taliban earned at most $40 million annually.[490]

NATO's inability to stabilize Afghanistan

Observers have argued that the mission in Afghanistan was hampered by a lack of agreement on objectives, a lack of resources, lack of coordination, too much focus on the central government at the expense of local and provincial governments, and too much focus on the country instead of the region.[491]

Environment and drug trade

According to Cara Korte, climate change played a significant role in increasing instability in Afghanistan and strengthening the Taliban. More than 60% of the Afghan population depend on agriculture and Afghanistan is the sixth most vulnerable country to climate change in the world according to the United Nations Environment Program and Afghanistan's National Environmental Protection Agency. The Taliban used resentment over government inaction to climate change-induced drought and flooding to strengthen its support and Afghans were able to earn more money supporting the Taliban than from farming.[492]

Despite efforts to eradicate poppy, Afghanistan remained the world's largest producer of illicit opiate by the end of the war. The Taliban profited at least tens of millions of dollars from opium and heroin annually as of 2018.[493]

Early mistakes and the US's other war

Journalist Jason Burke notes "strategic mistakes by the US and allies in the immediate aftermath of the 2001 invasion" as being a reason why the war went on for so long. He also noted "missed early opportunities" to "construct a stable political settlement."[494]

Steve Coll believes that "No small part of N.A.T.O.'s ultimate failure to stabilize Afghanistan flowed from the disastrous decision by George W. Bush to invade Iraq in 2003. ... The Taliban's comeback, America's initial inattention to it, and the attraction for some Afghans and Pakistanis of the Taliban's ideology of national resistance under Islamic principles—all these sources of failure cannot be understood in isolation from the Iraq war." Coll further notes that neither the Bush nor the Obama administrations achieved consensus on key questions such as the relative importance of nation-building versus counterterrorism, whether the stability of Afghanistan took priority over that of Pakistan, or the role of the drug trade, although "the failure to solve the riddle of ISI and to stop its covert interference in Afghanistan became ... the greatest strategic failure of the American war."[495]

Domestic corruption and politics

Presidents Hamid Karzai and Barack Obama in 2009

In 2009, Afghanistan was ranked as the world's second most-corrupt country.[496] A lengthy report by SIGAR, and other findings, found that spiraling corruption in Afghanistan during the 2000s was not halted by the United States. During this time, many elite figures in the country had effectively become kleptocrats, while ordinary Afghans were struggling.[493]

It has been argued that the restoration of monarchy in Afghanistan should not have been vetoed, as this may have provided stability to the country.[497][498][499][500]

Influence of non-NATO actors

Pakistan played a central role in the conflict. A 2010 report published by the London School of Economics says that Pakistan's ISI has an "official policy" of support to the Taliban.[501] "Pakistan appears to be playing a double-game of astonishing magnitude", the report states.[501] Regarding the Afghan War documents leak, Der Spiegel wrote that "the documents clearly show that the Pakistani intelligence agency Inter-Services Intelligence (usually known as the ISI) is the most important accomplice the Taliban has outside of Afghanistan."[502] Amrullah Saleh, former director of Afghanistan's intelligence service, stated, "We talk about all these proxies [Taliban, Haqqanis] but not the master of proxies, which is the Pakistan army. The question is what does Pakistan's army want to achieve ...? They want to gain influence in the region."[503] Pakistan's role can be traced back to the Soviet war in which they funded the Mujahideen against the Soviets. Pakistan's objective then as it is now is to ensure that Afghanistan has a regime friendly to their interests and will provide "geopolitical depth in any future conflict with India."[504]

Iran also sought to influence the war. During the course of the war, the US took out two of Iran's regional enemies: Saddam Hussein through the Iraq War as well as the Taliban. Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are other 'dominant players' that influenced the war. Iran and the Taliban formed ties, with Russian assistance as well, to 'bleed' the American force. Iran and Russia, emboldened by their alliance in the Syrian Civil War, initiated a 'proxy war' in Afghanistan against the US. The Taliban received economic support from Dubai, United Arab Emirates and Bahrain. Pakistan has given economic support and encouraged increased Iran-Taliban ties.[505]

China has been quietly expanding its influence. Since 2010 China has signed mining contracts with Kabul[506] and is building a military base in Badakshan to counter regional terrorism (from the ETIM).[507] China has donated billions of dollars in aid over the years to Afghanistan, which plays a strategic role in the Belt and Road Initiative.[507] Additionally, after 2011 Pakistan expanded its economic and military ties to China as a hedge against dependency on the US. Coll observes that "Overall, the war left China with considerable latitude in Central Asia, without having made any expenditure of blood, treasure, or reputation."[508]

American public misleading

In December 2019 The Washington Post published 2,000 pages of government documents, mostly transcripts of interviews with more than 400 key figures involved in prosecuting the Afghanistan war. According to the Post and The Guardian, the documents (dubbed the Afghanistan Papers) showed that US officials consistently and deliberately misled the American public about the unwinnable nature of the conflict,[509] and some commentators and foreign policy experts subsequently drew comparisons to the release of the Pentagon Papers.[509][510]

Foreign support for the Taliban

Pakistan

The Taliban's victory was facilitated in support from Pakistan. Although Pakistan was a major US ally before and after the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, elements of the Pakistan government (including the military and intelligence services) have for decades maintained strong logistical and tactical ties with Taliban militants, and this support helped support the insurgency in Afghanistan.[511][512] For example, the Haqqani Network, a Taliban affiliate based on Pakistan, had strong support from Inter-Services Intelligence, the Pakistan intelligence agency.[511] Taliban leaders found a safe haven in Pakistan, lived in the country, transacted business and earned funds there, and received medical treatment there.[511][512] Some elements of the Pakistani establishment sympathized with Taliban ideology, and many Pakistan officials considered the Taliban as an asset against India.[511][512] Bruce Riedel noted that "The Pakistan Army believes Afghanistan provides strategic depth against India, which is their obsession."[512]

Russia and Iran

In the initial aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, Iranian forces, led by Revolutionary Guard Commander Qassem Suleimani initially cooperated, secretly, with American officials against Al-Qaeda operatives and the Taliban, but that cooperation ended after the Axis of Evil Speech on January 29, 2002, which included calling Iran a major state sponsor of terror and threat to peace in the region. Afterwards, Iranian forces became increasingly hostile to American forces in the region.[141]

Antonio Giustozzi, a senior research fellow at Royal United Services Institute on terrorism and conflict, wrote, "Both the Russians and the Iranians helped the Taliban advance at a breakneck pace in May–August 2021. They contributed to funding and equipping them, but perhaps even more importantly they helped them by brokering deals with parties, groups, and personalities close to either country, or even both. […] The Revolutionary Guards helped the Taliban's advance in western Afghanistan, including by lobbying various strongmen and militia commanders linked to Iran not to resist the Taliban."[513]

Reactions

Domestic reactions

A US marine interacting with Afghan children in Helmand Province

In November 2001, the CNN reported widespread relief amongst Kabul's residents after the Taliban fled the city, with young men shaving off their beards and women taking off their burqas.[514] Later that month the BBC's longtime Kabul correspondent Kate Clark reported that "almost all women in Kabul are still choosing to veil" but that many felt hopeful that the ousting of the Taliban would improve their safety and access to food.[515]

A 2006 WPO opinion poll found that the majority of Afghans endorsed America's military presence, with 83% of Afghans stating that they had a favorable view of the US military forces in their country. Only 17% gave an unfavorable view. 82% of Afghans, among all ethnic groups including Pashtuns, stated that the overthrowing of the Taliban was a good thing. However, the majority of Afghans held negative views on Pakistan and most Afghans also stated that they believe that the Pakistani government was allowing the Taliban to operate from its soil.[516]

A 2015 survey by Langer Research Associates found that 80% of Afghans held the view that it was a good thing for the United States to overthrow the Taliban in 2001. More Afghans blamed the Taliban or al-Qaeda for the country's violence (53%) than those who blame the US (12%).[517] A 2019 survey by The Asia Foundation found that 13.4% of Afghans had sympathy for the Taliban while 85.1% of respondents had no sympathy for the group. 88.6% of urban residents had no sympathy compared to 83.9% of rural residents.[518]

International public opinion

22 June 2007 demonstration in Québec City against the Canadian military involvement in Afghanistan

In October 2001 when the invasion began, polls indicated that about 88% of Americans and about 65% of Britons backed military action.[519] An Ipsos-Reid poll conducted between November and December 2001 showed that majorities in Canada (66%), France (60%), Germany (60%), Italy (58%), and the UK (65%) approved of US airstrikes while majorities in Argentina (77%), China (52%), South Korea (50%), Spain (52%), and Turkey (70%) opposed them.[520]

In 2008 there was a strong opposition to war in Afghanistan in 21 of 24 countries surveyed. Only in the US and Great Britain did half the people support the war, with a larger percentage (60%) in Australia.[521] Of the seven NATO countries in the survey, not one showed a majority in favor of keeping NATO troops in Afghanistan – one, the US, came close to a majority (50%). Of the other six NATO countries, five had majorities of their population wanting NATO troops removed from Afghanistan as soon as possible.[521] An April 2011 Pew Research Center poll showed little change in American views, with about 50% saying that the effort was going very well or fairly well and only 44% supporting NATO troop presence in Afghanistan.[522]

Protests, demonstrations and rallies

The war was the subject of large protests around the world, starting with the large-scale demonstrations in the days leading up to the invasion and every year since. Many protesters considered the bombing and invasion of Afghanistan to be unjustified aggression.[523] Dozens of organizations held a national march for peace in Washington, D.C., on 20 March 2010.[524]

Aftermath

Formation of the Taliban government and international recognition

Taliban fighters at a market in Kabul, September 2021. A vendor selling Islamic Emirate flags can be seen.

On 7 September 2021, an interim government headed by Mohammad Hassan Akhund as Prime Minister was declared by the Taliban.[525]

Republican insurgency

On 17 August 2021, Vice President Saleh, citing provisions of the Constitution of Afghanistan, declared himself President of Afghanistan from a base of operations in the Panjshir Valley, which had not been taken by Taliban forces, and vowed to continue military operations against the Taliban from there.[526] His claim to the presidency was endorsed by Ahmad Massoud and Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Minister of Defence Bismillah Khan Mohammadi.[526] By 6 September the Taliban had regained control over most of the valley, but armed resistance continued in the upper valleys. Clashes in the valley mostly ceased by mid-September.[527] The leaders of the resistance, Saleh and Massoud reportedly fled to neighboring Tajikistan in late September.[528] However, fighting between Taliban and pro-republican forces continued in other provinces. Several regions had become the site of a guerrilla campaign by early 2022.[529] The NRF launched an offensive in May 2022, reportedly retaking territory in Panjshir.[530] Other pro-republican rebel groups also emerged, including the "Ahmad Khan Samangani Front",[531] "Afghan Freedom Front",[532] "Afghanistan Islamic National & Liberation Movement", and several smaller factions.[533]

Islamic State activity

Following the 2021 Kabul airport attack conducted by the terrorist group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant – Khorasan Province (a branch of the ISIL), the US said it could work with the Taliban to fight against the ISIS terrorists as part of the International military intervention against ISIL.[534]

Abandonment of Afghan allies

As many as 150,000 Afghans who assisted the United States remained in Afghanistan, including individuals who worked closely with US military forces.[535] Hundreds of former Afghan special forces who fought alongside British troops in Afghanistan have been barred from resettling in the UK.[536][537] One former UK Special Forces officer told the BBC that "At a time when certain actions by UK Special Forces are under investigation by a public inquiry, their headquarters also had the power to prevent former Afghan Special Forces colleagues and potential witnesses to these actions from getting safely to the UK."[538]

Humanitarian crisis

Following the Taliban takeover, western nations suspended humanitarian aid and the World Bank and International Monetary Fund also halted payments to Afghanistan.[539][540] The Biden administration froze about $9 billion in assets belonging to the Afghan central banks, blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in US bank accounts.[541] In October 2021, the UN stated that more than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute food shortage.[542] On 11 November 2021, the Human Rights Watch reported that Afghanistan is facing widespread famine due to collapsed economy and broken banking system.[540] World leaders pledged $1.2 billion in humanitarian aid to Afghanistan.[541] On 22 December 2021, The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted a US-proposed resolution to help humanitarian aid reach desperate Afghans, while seeking to keep funds out of Taliban hands.[543]

On 29 August 2022, U.N. humanitarian chief, Martin Griffiths, warned about Afghanistan's deepening poverty with 6 million people at risk of famine. He stated that conflict, poverty, climate shocks and food insecurity "have long been a sad reality" in Afghanistan, but almost a year after the Taliban takeover, halt to large-scale development aid have made the situation critical.[544]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Bordering areas of Pakistan were also affected (War in North-West Pakistan), and was considered for some time to be a single theater of operations by the United States (AfPak)

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Sources

Further reading

External links