Turchia , que significa "la tierra de los turcos", había comenzado a usarse en textos europeos para Anatolia a fines del siglo XII. [44] [45] [46] Como palabra en lenguas turcas , Turk puede significar "fuerte, fuerza, maduro" o "floreciente, en plena fuerza". [47] También puede significar maduro como en el caso de una fruta o "en la flor de la vida, joven y vigoroso" para una persona. [48] Como etnónimo , la etimología aún se desconoce. [49] Además del uso en idiomas como el chino en el siglo VI, [46] la primera mención de Turk ( 𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜 , türü̲k̲ ; o 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚 , türk/tẄrk ) en lenguas turcas proviene del Segundo Kanato Turco . [50]
En fuentes bizantinas del siglo X, el nombre Tourkia ( griego : Τουρκία ) se utilizó para definir dos estados medievales: Hungría ( Turkia occidental ); y Khazaria ( Turkia oriental ). [51] [52] El sultanato mameluco , con su élite gobernante de origen turco, fue llamado el "Estado de los turcos" ( Dawlat at-Turk , o Dawlat al-Atrāk , o Dawlat-at-Turkiyya ). [53] Turkestán, que también significa "tierra de los turcos", se utilizó para una región histórica en Asia Central . [54]
El uso del inglés medio de Turkye o Turkeye se encuentra en El libro de la duquesa (escrito entre 1369 y 1372) para referirse a Anatolia o al Imperio otomano . [55] La ortografía moderna Turkey se remonta al menos a 1719. [56] El ave llamada turkey recibió ese nombre debido al comercio de gallinas de guinea de Turquía a Inglaterra. [46] El nombre Turkey se ha utilizado en tratados internacionales que hacen referencia al Imperio otomano. [57] Con el Tratado de Alexandropol , el nombre Türkiye entró en documentos internacionales por primera vez. En el tratado firmado con Afganistán en 1921, se utilizó la expresión Devlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye ("Sublime Estado turco"), similar al nombre del Imperio otomano . [58]
En diciembre de 2021, el presidente Recep Tayyip Erdoğan pidió que se ampliara el uso oficial de Türkiye , diciendo que Türkiye "representa y expresa la cultura, la civilización y los valores de la nación turca de la mejor manera". [59] En mayo de 2022, el gobierno turco solicitó a las Naciones Unidas y otras organizaciones internacionales que utilizaran Türkiye oficialmente en inglés; la ONU estuvo de acuerdo. [60] [61] [62]
Historia
Prehistoria e historia antigua
La actual Turquía ha estado habitada por humanos modernos desde finales del Paleolítico y contiene algunos de los yacimientos neolíticos más antiguos del mundo . [65] [66] Göbekli Tepe tiene cerca de 12.000 años de antigüedad. [65] Algunas partes de Anatolia incluyen la Media Luna Fértil , un origen de la agricultura . [67] Otros yacimientos neolíticos importantes de Anatolia incluyen Çatalhöyük y Alaca Höyük . [68] Los agricultores neolíticos de Anatolia se diferenciaban genéticamente de los agricultores de Irán y el valle del Jordán . Estos primeros agricultores de Anatolia comenzaron a migrar a Europa hace unos 9.000 años, llegando a dominar la mayor parte del continente. [69] [70] [71]
Los registros históricos de Anatolia comienzan con tablillas de arcilla de aproximadamente el año 2000 a. C. que se encontraron en la actual Kültepe . [72] Estas tablillas pertenecían a una colonia comercial asiria . [72] Las lenguas de Anatolia en ese momento incluían el hattiano, el hurrita, el hitita , el luvita y el palaico . [73] El hattiano era una lengua autóctona de Anatolia, sin conexiones conocidas en la actualidad. [74] La lengua hurrita se usaba en el norte de Siria . [73] Las lenguas hitita, luvita y palaica estaban en el subgrupo anatolio de las lenguas indoeuropeas , [75] siendo el hitita la "lengua indoeuropea más antigua atestiguada". [76] Se desconoce el origen de las lenguas indoeuropeas. [77] Pueden ser nativas de Anatolia [78] o no nativas. [79]
Los gobernantes hititas fueron reemplazados gradualmente por gobernantes hititas . [72] El reino hitita era un gran reino en Anatolia central, con su capital en Hattusa . [72] Coexistió en Anatolia con los palaios y los luvitas , aproximadamente entre 1700 y 1200 a. C. [72] A medida que el reino hitita se desintegraba, nuevas oleadas de pueblos indoeuropeos migraron desde el sureste de Europa, a lo que siguió una guerra. [80]
Alrededor del 750 a. C., Frigia ya se había establecido, con sus dos centros en Gordium y la actual Kayseri . [83] Los frigios hablaban una lengua indoeuropea, pero era más cercana al griego que a las lenguas anatolias. [75] Los frigios compartían Anatolia con los neohititas y Urartu . La capital de Urartu estaba alrededor del lago Van . [83] Urartu a menudo estaba en conflicto con Asiria , [84] pero cayó con los ataques de los medos y los escitas en el siglo VII a. C. [83] Cuando los cimerios atacaron, Frigia cayó alrededor del 650 a. C. [85] Fueron reemplazados por carios , licios y lidios . [85] Estas tres culturas "pueden considerarse una reafirmación de la antigua cultura indígena de las ciudades hattianas de Anatolia". [85]
Antes de 1200 a. C., había cuatro asentamientos de habla griega en Anatolia, incluyendo Mileto . [87] Alrededor de 1000 a. C., los griegos comenzaron a migrar a la costa oeste de Anatolia. Estos asentamientos griegos orientales desempeñaron un papel vital en la conformación de la civilización griega arcaica; [83] [88] Las ciudades importantes incluyeron Mileto , Éfeso , Halicarnaso , Esmirna (ahora Esmirna ) y Bizancio (ahora Estambul ), esta última fundada por colonos de Megara en el siglo VII a. C. [89] Estos asentamientos se agruparon como Aeolis , Jonia y Doris , en honor a los grupos griegos específicos que los establecieron. [90] La colonización griega posterior en Anatolia fue liderada por Mileto y Megara en 750-480 a. C. [91] Las ciudades griegas a lo largo del Egeo prosperaron con el comercio y vieron logros científicos y académicos notables. [92] Tales y Anaximandro de Mileto fundaron la Escuela Jónica de filosofía , sentando así las bases del racionalismo y la filosofía occidental . [93]
Tras las victorias de Alejandro Magno en el 334 a. C. y el 333 a. C. , el Imperio aqueménida se derrumbó y Anatolia pasó a formar parte del Imperio macedonio . [85] Esto condujo a una creciente homogeneidad cultural y a la helenización del interior de Anatolia, [15] que encontró resistencia en algunos lugares. [18] Tras la muerte de Alejandro Magno, los seléucidas gobernaron grandes partes de Anatolia, mientras que los estados nativos de Anatolia surgieron en las áreas del Mármara y el Mar Negro. En Anatolia oriental, apareció el reino de Armenia . En el siglo III a. C., los celtas invadieron Anatolia central y continuaron siendo un grupo étnico importante en la zona durante unos 200 años. Eran conocidos como los gálatas . [97]
Cuando Pérgamo solicitó ayuda en su conflicto con los seléucidas, Roma intervino en Anatolia en el siglo II a. C. Sin un heredero, el rey de Pérgamo dejó el reino a Roma, que fue anexionado como provincia de Asia . La influencia romana creció en Anatolia después. [98] Después de la masacre de las Vísperas asiáticas y las guerras mitridáticas con el Ponto , Roma salió victoriosa. Alrededor del siglo I a. C., Roma se expandió a partes del Ponto y Bitinia , al tiempo que convertía el resto de los estados de Anatolia en satélites romanos. [99] Se produjeron varios conflictos con los partos , con paz y guerras alternadas. [100]
El Imperio bizantino, también conocido como el Imperio romano de Oriente, fue la continuación del Imperio romano centrado en Constantinopla durante la Antigüedad tardía y la Edad Media . La mitad oriental del Imperio sobrevivió a las condiciones que provocaron la caída de Occidente en el siglo V d. C. y continuó existiendo hasta la caída de Constantinopla ante el Imperio otomano en 1453. Durante la mayor parte de su existencia, el imperio siguió siendo la fuerza económica, cultural y militar más poderosa del mundo mediterráneo . El término Imperio bizantino solo se acuñó después de la desaparición del imperio; sus ciudadanos se referían a la entidad política como el "Imperio romano" y a sí mismos como romanos . Debido al traslado de la sede imperial de Roma a Bizancio , la adopción del cristianismo como religión estatal y el predominio del griego en lugar del latín , los historiadores modernos continúan haciendo una distinción entre el Imperio romano anterior y el Imperio bizantino posterior . [ cita requerida ]
En el período temprano del Imperio bizantino, las áreas costeras de Anatolia eran de habla griega. Además de los nativos, el interior de Anatolia tenía diversos grupos como godos , celtas , persas y judíos . Anatolia interior había sido "fuertemente helenizada". [104] Las lenguas anatolias finalmente se extinguieron después de la helenización de Anatolia. [105]
Según historiadores y lingüistas, la lengua proto-turca se originó en Asia central y oriental. [107] Inicialmente, los hablantes de proto-turco eran potencialmente cazadores-recolectores y agricultores; más tarde se convirtieron en pastores nómadas . [108] Los grupos turcos tempranos y medievales exhibieron una amplia gama de apariencias físicas y orígenes genéticos tanto de Asia oriental como de Eurasia occidental, en parte a través del contacto a largo plazo con pueblos vecinos como los pueblos iraníes , mongoles , tocarios , urálicos y yeniseianos . [109] Durante los siglos IX y X d.C., los oghuz eran un grupo turco que vivía en las estepas del Caspio y Aral . [110] En parte debido a la presión de los kipchaks , los oghuz emigraron a Irán y Transoxiana . [110] Se mezclaron con grupos de habla iraní en el área y se convirtieron al Islam . [110] Los turcos oghuz también eran conocidos como turcomanos . [110]
Los turcos selyúcidas derrotaron a los bizantinos en la batalla de Manzikert en 1071, y más tarde establecieron el Sultanato selyúcida de Rum . [115] Durante este período, también hubo principados turcos como los Danishmendids . [116] La llegada de los selyúcidas inició el proceso de turquificación en Anatolia; [21] [117] hubo migraciones turco/turco, matrimonios mixtos y conversiones al Islam. [118] [119] El cambio tardó varios siglos y se produjo de forma gradual. [120] [121] Los miembros de las órdenes de misticismo islámico , como la Orden Mevlevi , desempeñaron un papel en la islamización de los diversos pueblos de Anatolia. [122] [123] En el siglo XIII, hubo una segunda ola significativa de migración turca, ya que la gente huyó de la expansión mongola . [124] [125] El sultanato selyúcida fue derrotado por los mongoles en la batalla de Köse Dağ en 1243 y desapareció a principios del siglo XIV. Fue reemplazado por varios principados turcos. [23] [126]
Basado alrededor de Söğüt , el Beylik otomano fue fundado por Osman I a principios del siglo XIV. [127] Según los cronistas otomanos, Osman descendía de la tribu Kayı de los turcos Oghuz . [128] Los otomanos comenzaron a anexar los beyliks (principados) turcos cercanos en Anatolia y se expandieron hacia los Balcanes . [129] Mehmed II completó la conquista otomana del Imperio bizantino al capturar su capital, Constantinopla , el 29 de mayo de 1453. [130] Selim I unió Anatolia bajo el dominio otomano. [24] La turquificación continuó a medida que los otomanos se mezclaban con varios pueblos indígenas en Anatolia y los Balcanes. [128]
A medida que el imperio se reducía gradualmente en tamaño, poder militar y riqueza; especialmente después de la crisis económica otomana y el default en 1875 [133] que condujo a levantamientos en las provincias de los Balcanes que culminaron en la Guerra Ruso-Turca (1877-1878) ; muchos musulmanes balcánicos emigraron al corazón del imperio en Anatolia, [134] [135] junto con los circasianos que huían de la conquista rusa del Cáucaso . Según algunas estimaciones, 800.000 circasianos musulmanes murieron durante el genocidio circasiano en el territorio de la actual Rusia, cuyos sobrevivientes buscaron refugio en el Imperio Otomano , estableciéndose principalmente en las provincias de la actual Turquía. La decadencia del Imperio Otomano condujo a un aumento del sentimiento nacionalista entre sus diversos pueblos sometidos , lo que llevó a un aumento de las tensiones étnicas que ocasionalmente estallaron en violencia, como las masacres hamidianas de armenios , que se cobraron hasta 300.000 vidas. [136]
Los territorios otomanos en Europa ( Rumelia ) se perdieron en la Primera Guerra de los Balcanes (1912-1913). [139] Los otomanos lograron recuperar algún territorio en Europa, como Edirne , en la Segunda Guerra de los Balcanes (1913). En los siglos XIX y principios del XX, la persecución de los musulmanes durante la contracción otomana y en el Imperio ruso resultó en aproximadamente 5 millones de muertes, [140] [141] con más de 3 millones en los Balcanes; [142] las bajas incluyeron turcos. [141] De cinco a siete o de siete a nueve millones de refugiados emigraron a la actual Turquía desde los Balcanes , el Cáucaso , Crimea y las islas del Mediterráneo , [143] desplazando el centro del Imperio otomano a Anatolia. [144] Además de un pequeño número de judíos, los refugiados eran abrumadoramente musulmanes; eran personas tanto turcas como no turcas, como circasianos y tártaros de Crimea . [145] [146] Paul Mojzes ha calificado las guerras de los Balcanes de "genocidio no reconocido", en el que múltiples bandos fueron a la vez víctimas y perpetradores. [147]
El Gobierno Provisional Turco en Ankara , que se había declarado el gobierno legítimo del país el 23 de abril de 1920 , comenzó a formalizar la transición legal del antiguo sistema político otomano al nuevo sistema político republicano. El Gobierno de Ankara participó en la lucha armada y diplomática. En 1921-1923, los ejércitos armenio, griego, francés y británico habían sido expulsados. [160] [161] [162] [163] El avance militar y el éxito diplomático del Gobierno de Ankara dieron como resultado la firma del Armisticio de Mudanya el 11 de octubre de 1922. El 1 de noviembre de 1922, el Parlamento turco en Ankara abolió formalmente el Sultanato, poniendo así fin a 623 años de gobierno monárquico otomano.
El Tratado de Lausana del 24 de julio de 1923, que sustituyó al Tratado de Sèvres, [158] [159] condujo al reconocimiento internacional de la soberanía del nuevo Estado turco como Estado sucesor del Imperio otomano. El 4 de octubre de 1923, la ocupación aliada de Turquía terminó con la retirada de las últimas tropas aliadas de Estambul . La República Turca fue proclamada oficialmente el 29 de octubre de 1923 en Ankara, la nueva capital del país. [164] La Convención de Lausana estipuló un intercambio de población entre Grecia y Turquía . [165]
La transición del país a una democracia multipartidista fue interrumpida por golpes militares en 1960 y 1980 , así como por memorandos militares en 1971 y 1997. [170] [171] Entre 1960 y finales del siglo XX, los líderes destacados de la política turca que lograron múltiples victorias electorales fueron Süleyman Demirel , Bülent Ecevit y Turgut Özal . Tansu Çiller se convirtió en la primera mujer primera ministra de Turquía en 1993. Turquía solicitó la membresía plena de la CEE en 1987, se unió a la Unión Aduanera de la Unión Europea en 1995 e inició negociaciones de adhesión con la Unión Europea en 2005. [172] [173] La Unión Aduanera tuvo un impacto importante en el sector manufacturero turco. [174] [175]
Turquía tiene una estructura unitaria en términos de administración pública, y las provincias están subordinadas al gobierno central en Ankara . En los centros provinciales, el gobierno está representado por los gobernadores provinciales ( vali ) y en las ciudades por los gobernadores ( kaymakam ). Otros altos funcionarios públicos también son nombrados por el gobierno central, a excepción de los alcaldes ( belediye başkanı ) que son elegidos por los electores. [179] Los municipios turcos tienen órganos legislativos locales ( belediye meclisi ) para la toma de decisiones sobre cuestiones municipales.
Turquía se subdivide en 81 provincias ( il o vilayet ) para fines administrativos. Cada provincia se divide en distritos ( ilçe ), para un total de 973 distritos. [180] Turquía también se subdivide en 7 regiones ( bölge ) y 21 subregiones para mediciones, encuestas y clasificaciones geográficas, demográficas y económicas; esto no se refiere a una división administrativa.
El Parlamento tiene 600 escaños, distribuidos entre las provincias proporcionalmente a la población . El Parlamento y el presidente sirven por un período de cinco años, con elecciones el mismo día. El presidente es elegido por voto directo y no puede presentarse a la reelección después de dos mandatos, a menos que el parlamento convoque elecciones presidenciales anticipadas durante el segundo mandato. [ cita requerida ] El Tribunal Constitucional está compuesto por 15 miembros, elegidos por un solo período de 12 años. Están obligados a retirarse cuando tienen más de 65 años. [186] La política turca se ha asociado cada vez más con el retroceso democrático , siendo descrita como un sistema autoritario competitivo . [187] [188]
El Tribunal Constitucional puede despojar de la financiación pública a los partidos políticos que considere antiseculares o que tengan vínculos con el terrorismo , o prohibir su existencia por completo. [192] [193] El umbral electoral para los partidos políticos a nivel nacional es del siete por ciento de los votos. [194] Los partidos más pequeños pueden evitar el umbral electoral formando una alianza con otros partidos. Los candidatos independientes no están sujetos a un umbral electoral.
En Turquía, la aplicación de la ley está a cargo de varios organismos bajo la jurisdicción del Ministerio del Interior . Estos organismos son la Dirección General de Seguridad , el Comando General de Gendarmería y el Comando de la Guardia Costera . [199] En los años de gobierno del Partido de la Justicia y el Desarrollo y de Erdoğan, en particular desde 2013, las instituciones, los parlamentarios y los periodistas, tanto dentro como fuera de Turquía, han puesto cada vez más en duda la independencia e integridad del poder judicial turco, debido a la interferencia política en la promoción de jueces y fiscales y en el ejercicio de su deber público. [200] [201] [202]
Relaciones exteriores
Turquía es miembro de la OTAN desde 1952, tiene su segundo ejército más grande y es sede del cuartel general del Comando Terrestre Aliado .
Tras la Primavera Árabe , Turquía tuvo problemas con países como los Emiratos Árabes Unidos, Arabia Saudita y Egipto. [216] Las relaciones con estos países han mejorado desde entonces. [216] [217] [218] La excepción es Siria, con la que Turquía había cortado sus relaciones después del inicio de la guerra civil siria . [219] Existen disputas con Grecia sobre límites marítimos y con Chipre . [220]
En 2018, el ejército turco y las fuerzas respaldadas por Turquía comenzaron una operación en Siria destinada a expulsar al YPG respaldado por Estados Unidos (que Turquía considera una rama del ilegalizado PKK ) [221] [222] del enclave de Afrín . [223] [224] Turquía también ha llevado a cabo ataques aéreos en el Kurdistán iraquí , que fue criticado por Irak por violar su soberanía y matar civiles. [225] Las relaciones diplomáticas con Israel se dañaron después de la incursión de la flotilla de Gaza , [226] se normalizaron en 2016, [227] y se cortaron nuevamente después de la invasión israelí de la Franja de Gaza . [228] En 2024, Turquía dejó de comerciar con Israel. [228]
Turquía tiene la segunda fuerza militar permanente más grande de la OTAN, después de Estados Unidos , con una fuerza estimada de 890.700 efectivos militares a febrero de 2022. [240] Turquía es uno de los cinco estados miembros de la OTAN que forman parte de la política de intercambio nuclear de la alianza, junto con Bélgica, Alemania , Italia y los Países Bajos . [241] Un total de 90 bombas nucleares B61 están alojadas en la base aérea de Incirlik , 40 de las cuales están asignadas para su uso por la Fuerza Aérea Turca en caso de un conflicto nuclear, pero su uso requiere la aprobación de la OTAN. [242] Las Fuerzas Armadas turcas tienen una presencia militar relativamente sustancial en el extranjero, [243] con bases militares en Albania , [244] Irak , [245] Qatar , [246] y Somalia . [247] El país también mantiene una fuerza de 36.000 tropas en el norte de Chipre desde 1974. [248]
En la segunda mitad de la década de 1970, Turquía sufrió violencia política entre grupos militantes de extrema izquierda y extrema derecha, que culminó en el golpe militar de 1980. [ 257] El Partido de los Trabajadores del Kurdistán (PKK, designado como organización terrorista por Turquía, Estados Unidos, [258] y la Unión Europea [259] ) fue fundado en 1978 por un grupo de militantes kurdos liderados por Abdullah Öcalan , que buscaba la fundación de un estado kurdo independiente basado en la ideología marxista-leninista . [260] La razón inicial dada por el PKK para esto fue la opresión de los kurdos en Turquía. [261] [262] Una insurgencia a gran escala comenzó en 1984 , cuando el PKK anunció un levantamiento kurdo. Con el tiempo, el PKK modificó sus demandas en igualdad de derechos para los kurdos étnicos y autonomía provincial dentro de Turquía. [263] [264] [265] [266] Desde 1980, el Parlamento turco ha despojado a sus miembros de la inmunidad procesal, incluidos 44 diputados, la mayoría de ellos pertenecientes a partidos prokurdos. [267]
En 2013, estallaron protestas generalizadas , desencadenadas por un plan para demoler el parque Gezi , pero que pronto se convirtieron en una disidencia general contra el gobierno. [268] El 20 de mayo de 2016, el parlamento turco despojó a casi una cuarta parte de sus miembros de la inmunidad procesal, incluidos 101 diputados del prokurdo HDP y del principal partido de oposición CHP . [269] [270] Para 2020, con el pretexto de responder a un intento fallido de golpe de Estado en 2016, [271] [272] las autoridades habían arrestado o encarcelado a más de 90.000 ciudadanos turcos. [273] Según el Comité para la Protección de los Periodistas , el gobierno del AKP ha tomado medidas enérgicas contra la libertad de prensa . [274] [275] Muchos periodistas han sido arrestados bajo cargos de "terrorismo" y "actividades antiestatales". [276] [277] En 2020, el CPJ identificó a 18 periodistas encarcelados en Turquía (incluido el personal editorial de Cumhuriyet , el periódico más antiguo de Turquía que aún sigue en circulación). [278]
Derechos LGBT
El Orgullo de Estambul se organizó por primera vez en 2003. Desde 2015, el gobierno ha negado el permiso para realizar desfiles en Estambul. [279]
La actividad homosexual está despenalizada en Turquía desde 1858. [280] Las personas LGBT tienen derecho a solicitar asilo en Turquía en virtud de la Convención de Ginebra desde 1951. [281] Sin embargo, las personas LGBT en Turquía se enfrentan a discriminación, acoso e incluso violencia. [282] Las autoridades turcas han llevado a cabo muchas prácticas discriminatorias. [283] [284] [285] A pesar de esto, la aceptación LGBT en Turquía está creciendo. En una encuesta realizada en 2016, el 33% de los encuestados dijo que las personas LGBT deberían tener los mismos derechos, lo que aumentó al 45% en 2020. Otra encuesta en 2018 encontró que la proporción de personas que no querrían un vecino homosexual disminuyó del 55% en 2018 al 47% en 2019. [286] [287] Una encuesta de 2015 encontró que el 27% del público turco estaba a favor de legalizar el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo y el 19% apoyaba las uniones civiles . [288]
Turquía cubre un área de 783,562 kilómetros cuadrados (302,535 millas cuadradas). [290] Con los estrechos turcos y el mar de Mármara en el medio, Turquía une Asia occidental y el sudeste de Europa . [291] El lado asiático de Turquía cubre el 97% de su superficie, y a menudo se llama Anatolia . [292] Otra definición del límite oriental de Anatolia es una línea imprecisa desde el mar Negro hasta el golfo de Iskenderun . [293] Tracia Oriental , el lado europeo de Turquía, incluye alrededor del 10% de la población y cubre el 3% de la superficie. [294] El país está rodeado por mares en tres lados: el mar Egeo al oeste, el mar Negro al norte y el mar Mediterráneo al sur. [295] Turquía limita con Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaiyán e Irán al este. [295] Al sur, limita con Siria e Irak. [296] Al norte, su zona tracia limita con Grecia y Bulgaria. [295]
Los geógrafos han utilizado los términos meseta de Anatolia oriental, meseta iraní y meseta armenia para referirse a la zona montañosa alrededor de donde se fusionan las placas tectónicas árabe y euroasiática . Las definiciones de meseta de Anatolia oriental y meseta armenia se superponen en gran medida. [299] La región de Anatolia oriental contiene el monte Ararat , el punto más alto de Turquía a 5.137 metros (16.854 pies), [300] y el lago Van , el lago más grande del país. [301] El este de Turquía alberga las fuentes de ríos como el Éufrates , el Tigris y el Aras . La región de Anatolia sudoriental incluye las llanuras del norte de la Alta Mesopotamia .
La posición de Turquía en la encrucijada de las rutas terrestres, marítimas y aéreas entre los tres continentes del Viejo Mundo y la variedad de hábitats en sus regiones geográficas han producido una considerable diversidad de especies y un ecosistema vibrante. [310] De los 36 puntos críticos de biodiversidad del mundo, Turquía incluye 3 de ellos. [36] Estos son los puntos críticos del Mediterráneo , Irano-Anatolia y el Cáucaso . [36] En el siglo XXI, las amenazas a la biodiversidad incluyen la desertificación por el cambio climático en Turquía . [311]
Tipos climáticos de Köppen en Turquía durante el período 1980-2016 [320]
Las zonas costeras de Turquía que bordean los mares Egeo y Mediterráneo tienen un clima mediterráneo templado , con veranos cálidos y secos e inviernos suaves a frescos y húmedos. [321] Las zonas costeras que bordean el mar Negro tienen un clima oceánico templado con veranos cálidos y húmedos e inviernos frescos a fríos y húmedos. [321] La costa turca del mar Negro recibe la mayor cantidad de precipitaciones y es la única región de Turquía que recibe altas precipitaciones durante todo el año. [321] La parte oriental de la costa del mar Negro tiene un promedio de 2200 milímetros (87 pulgadas) anuales, que es la precipitación más alta del país. [321] Las zonas costeras que bordean el mar de Mármara, que conecta el mar Egeo y el mar Negro, tienen un clima de transición entre un clima mediterráneo templado y un clima oceánico templado con veranos cálidos a calurosos, moderadamente secos e inviernos frescos a fríos y húmedos. [321]
La nieve cae sobre las zonas costeras del mar de Mármara y del mar Negro casi todos los inviernos, pero normalmente se derrite en no más de unos pocos días. [321] Sin embargo, la nieve es rara en las zonas costeras del mar Egeo y muy rara en las zonas costeras del mar Mediterráneo. [321] Los inviernos en la meseta de Anatolia son especialmente severos. Se dan temperaturas de -30 a -40 °C (-22 a -40 °F) en el noreste de Anatolia, y la nieve puede permanecer en el suelo durante al menos 120 días al año, y durante todo el año en las cumbres de las montañas más altas. En Anatolia central las temperaturas pueden caer por debajo de los -20 °C (-4 °F) y las montañas son aún más frías. Las montañas cercanas a la costa impiden que las influencias mediterráneas se extiendan hacia el interior, lo que da a la meseta de Anatolia central un clima continental con estaciones muy contrastantes. [321]
Debido a factores socioeconómicos, climáticos y geográficos, Turquía es altamente vulnerable al cambio climático . [38] Esto se aplica a nueve de cada diez dimensiones de vulnerabilidad climática, como el "riesgo anual promedio para el bienestar". [38] La mediana de la OCDE es dos de cada diez. [38] Se necesita un crecimiento inclusivo y rápido para reducir la vulnerabilidad. [322] Turquía tiene como objetivo lograr emisiones netas cero para 2053. [323] El logro de los objetivos climáticos requeriría grandes inversiones, pero también resultaría en beneficios económicos netos, en gran medida debido a la reducción de las importaciones de combustible y debido a una mejor salud debido a la reducción de la contaminación del aire. [324]
Economía
Se espera que Turquía tenga un rápido crecimiento económico debido a la demografía y la rápida urbanización. La siguiente tabla es de las Proyecciones a Largo Plazo de la OCDE. [330]
Turquía es un país de ingresos medios-altos y un mercado emergente . [303] [331] Miembro fundador de la OCDE y el G20 , es la 18.ª economía más grande por PIB nominal y la 11.ª economía más grande por PIB ajustado por PPA en el mundo. Está clasificado entre los países recientemente industrializados . Los servicios representan la mayor parte del PIB, mientras que la industria representa más del 30%. [332] La agricultura contribuye con alrededor del 7%. [332] Según estimaciones del FMI , el PIB per cápita de Turquía por PPA es de $ 42.064 en 2023, mientras que su PIB per cápita nominal es de $ 12.849. [9] La inversión extranjera directa en Turquía alcanzó un máximo de $ 22.05 mil millones en 2007 y cayó a $ 13.09 mil millones en 2022. [333] El crecimiento potencial se ve debilitado por obstáculos estructurales y macroeconómicos de larga duración, como tasas lentas de crecimiento de la productividad y alta inflación. [303]
Turquía tiene una economía diversificada; las principales industrias incluyen automóviles, electrónica, textiles, construcción, acero, minería y procesamiento de alimentos. [332] Es un importante productor agrícola . [338] Turquía ocupa el octavo lugar en producción de acero crudo y el decimotercero en producción de vehículos de motor , construcción naval (por tonelaje ) e instalación anual de robots industriales en el mundo. [339] Las empresas automotrices turcas incluyen TEMSA , Otokar , BMC y Togg . Togg es la primera empresa de vehículos totalmente eléctricos de Turquía. Arçelik , Vestel y Beko son importantes fabricantes de productos electrónicos de consumo. [340] Arçelik es uno de los mayores productores de artículos para el hogar del mundo. [341] En 2022, Turquía ocupó el segundo lugar en el mundo en términos de número de contratistas internacionales en la lista de los 250 principales. [342] También es el quinto más grande del mundo en términos de exportaciones textiles. [343] Turkish Airlines es una de las aerolíneas más grandes del mundo .
Golfo de Antalya en la Riviera Turca . Antalya es la cuarta ciudad más visitada del mundo. [344]
Entre 2007 y 2021, la proporción de la población por debajo del umbral internacional de pobreza (6,85 dólares diarios en paridad de poder adquisitivo) disminuyó del 20% al 7,6%. [303] En 2023, el 13,9% de la población estaba por debajo de la tasa nacional de riesgo de pobreza. [345] En 2021, el 34% de la población estaba en riesgo de pobreza o exclusión social, según la definición de Eurostat . [346] El desempleo en Turquía fue del 10,4% en 2022. [347] En 2021, se estimó que el 47% del ingreso disponible total lo recibía el 20% superior de los asalariados, mientras que el 20% inferior recibía solo el 6%. [348]
Turquía ha hecho de la seguridad de su suministro energético una prioridad máxima, dada su fuerte dependencia de las importaciones de gas y petróleo. [357] Las principales fuentes de suministro de energía de Turquía son Rusia , Asia occidental y Asia central. [206] La producción de gas comenzó en 2023 en el yacimiento de gas de Sakarya recientemente descubierto . Cuando esté en pleno funcionamiento, suministrará alrededor del 30% del gas natural necesario a nivel nacional. [361] [362] Turquía aspira a convertirse en un centro de transporte de energía regional. [363] Varios oleoductos y gasoductos atraviesan el país, incluidos los oleoductos Blue Stream , TurkStream y Bakú-Tiflis-Ceyhan . [363]
El gasto de Turquía en investigación y desarrollo como porcentaje del PIB ha aumentado del 0,47% en 2000 al 1,40% en 2021. [374] Turquía ocupa el puesto 16 en el mundo en términos de producción de artículos en revistas científicas y técnicas, y el 35 en Nature Index . [375] [376] La oficina de patentes turca ocupa el puesto 21 a nivel mundial en solicitudes de patentes en general y el tercero en solicitudes de diseño industrial. La gran mayoría de los solicitantes de la oficina de patentes turca son residentes turcos. En todas las oficinas de patentes a nivel mundial, los residentes turcos ocupan el puesto 21 en solicitudes de patentes en general . [377] En 2023, Turquía ocupó el puesto 39 en el mundo y el cuarto entre su grupo de ingresos medios altos en el Índice de Innovación Global . [378] Fue uno de los países con un aumento notable en la última década. [40]
Turquía se considera una potencia importante en vehículos aéreos no tripulados . [386] Aselsan , Turkish Aerospace Industries , Roketsan y Asfat se encuentran entre las 100 principales empresas de defensa del mundo. [387] Las empresas de defensa turcas gastan una parte importante de sus presupuestos en investigación y desarrollo. [388] Aselsan también invierte en investigación en tecnología cuántica . [389]
Demografía
Estambul es la ciudad más grande de Turquía [390] y su centro económico y financiero.
Según el Sistema de Registro de Población Basado en Direcciones , la población del país era de 85.372.377 en 2023, excluyendo a los sirios bajo protección temporal. [8] El 93% vivía en centros provinciales y distritales . [8] Las personas dentro de los grupos de edad de 15 a 64 y de 0 a 14 años correspondían al 68,3% y al 21,4% de la población total, respectivamente. Los de 65 años o más constituían el 10,2%. [8] Entre 1950 y 2020, la población de Turquía se cuadriplicó con creces, pasando de 20,9 millones a 83,6 millones; [391] sin embargo, la tasa de crecimiento de la población fue del 0,1% en 2023. [8] En 2023, la tasa de fecundidad total fue de 1,51 hijos por mujer, por debajo de la tasa de reemplazo de 2,10 por mujer . [392] En una encuesta de salud de 2018, el número ideal de hijos era de 2,8 hijos por mujer, cifra que aumentaba a 3 por mujer casada. [393]
El artículo 66 de la Constitución turca define a un turco como cualquier persona que sea ciudadano. [395] Se estima que hay al menos 47 grupos étnicos representados en Turquía. [396] No se dispone de datos fiables sobre la mezcla étnica de la población porque las cifras del censo no incluyen estadísticas sobre la etnicidad después del censo turco de 1965. [ 397] Según el World Factbook , entre el 70 y el 75% de los ciudadanos del país son de etnia turca. [5] Según una encuesta, la estimación de KONDA fue del 76% en 2006, y el 78% de los ciudadanos adultos se autoidentificaron como turcos . [398] En 2021, el 77% de los ciudadanos adultos se identificaron como tales en una encuesta. [399]
Los kurdos son la minoría étnica más grande. [400] Sus números exactos siguen siendo controvertidos, [400] con estimaciones que van del 12 al 20% de la población. [401] Según un estudio de 1990, los kurdos representaban alrededor del 12% de la población. [402] Los kurdos constituyen una mayoría en las provincias de Ağrı , Batman , Bingöl , Bitlis , Diyarbakır , Hakkari , Iğdır , Mardin , Muş , Siirt , Şırnak , Tunceli y Van ; una casi mayoría en Şanlıurfa (47%); y una gran minoría en Kars (20%). [403] Además, la migración interna ha dado lugar a comunidades de diáspora kurda en todas las principales ciudades del centro y oeste de Turquía. En Estambul, hay aproximadamente tres millones de kurdos, lo que la convierte en la ciudad con la mayor población kurda del mundo. [404] El 19% de los ciudadanos adultos se identificaron como kurdos étnicos en una encuesta en 2021. [399] Algunas personas tienen múltiples identidades étnicas, como turcas y kurdas. [405] [406] En 2006, se estimó que 2,7 millones de turcos y kurdos étnicos estaban relacionados por matrimonios interétnicos. [407]
Según el World Factbook, las minorías étnicas no kurdas representan entre el 7 y el 12% de la población. [5] En 2006, KONDA estimó que las minorías étnicas no kurdas y no zaza constituían el 8,2% de la población; se trataba de personas que daban descripciones generales como ciudadano turco, personas con otros antecedentes turcos , árabes y otros. [398] En 2021, el 4% de los ciudadanos adultos se identificaron como no étnicos turcos o no étnicos kurdos en una encuesta. [399] Según el Tribunal Constitucional, solo hay cuatro minorías oficialmente reconocidas en Turquía : las tres minorías no musulmanas reconocidas en el Tratado de Lausana ( armenios , griegos y judíos [c] ) y los búlgaros . [d] [411] [412] [413] En 2013, el Tribunal Administrativo del 13.º Circuito de Ankara dictaminó que las disposiciones sobre minorías del Tratado de Lausana también deberían aplicarse a los asirios en Turquía y al idioma siríaco . [414] [415] [416] Otros grupos étnicos no reconocidos incluyen a los albaneses , bosnios , circasianos , georgianos , laz , pomaks y romaníes . [417] [418] [419]
Excluding Syrians under temporary protection, there were 1,570,543 foreign citizens in Turkey in 2023.[8] Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during the Gulf War in 1991. Turkey's migrant crisis in the 2010s and early 2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants.[425] Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world as of April 2020.[426] The Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency manages the refugee crisis in Turkey. Before the start of the Syrian civil war in 2011, the estimated number of Arabs in Turkey varied from 1 million to more than 2 million.[427]
In November 2020, there were 3.6 million Syrian refugees in Turkey;[428] these included other ethnic groups of Syria, such as Syrian Kurds[429] and Syrian Turkmens.[430] As of August 2023, the number these refugees was estimated to be 3.3 million. The number of Syrians had decreased by about 200,000 people since the beginning of the year.[431] The government has granted citizenship to 238 thousand Syrians by November 2023.[432] As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainian refugees of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have sought refuge in Turkey.[433] In 2022, nearly 100,000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.[434]
Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience.[438][439] According to the World Factbook, Muslims constitute 99.8% of the population, most of them being Sunni.[5] Based on a survey, KONDA's estimate for Muslims was 99.4% in 2006.[440] According to Minority Rights Group International, estimates of share of Alevi are between 10% to 40% of the population.[441] KONDA's estimate was 5% in 2006.[440] 4% of adult citizens identified as Alevi in a survey in 2021, while 88% identified as Sunni.[399]
The percentage of non-Muslims in modern-day Turkey was 19.1% in 1914, but fell to 2.5% in 1927.[442] Currently, non-Muslims constitute 0.2% of the population according to the World Factbook.[5] In 2006, KONDA's estimate was 0.18% for people with non-Islam religions.[440] Some of the non-Muslim communities are Armenians, Assyrians, Bulgarian Orthodox, Catholics, Chaldeans, Greeks, Jews, and Protestants.[443] Sources estimate that the Christian population in Turkey ranges between 180,000 and 320,000.[444][445] Turkey has the largest Jewish community among the Muslim-majority countries.[446] Currently, there are 439 churches and synagogues in Turkey.[447]
In 2006, KONDA's estimate was 0.47% for those with no religion.[440] According to KONDA, share of adult citizens who identified as unbeliever increased from 2% in 2011 to 6% in 2021.[399] A 2020 Gezici Araştırma poll found that 28.5% of the Generation Zidentify as irreligious.[448][449]
Education
Istanbul University was restructured in 1933, after being established as a theological school in 1453.[450]
In the past 20 years, Turkey has improved quality of education and has made significant progress in increasing education access.[451] From 2011 to 2021, improvements in education access include "one of the largest increases in educational attainment for 25-34 year-olds at upper secondary non-tertiary or tertiary education", and quadrupling of pre-school institutions.[39] PISA results suggest improvements in education quality.[39] There is still a gap with OECD countries. Significant challenges include differences in student outcomes from different schools, differences between rural and urban areas, pre-primary education access, and arrival of students who are Syrian refugees.[39]
The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education.[453] Compulsory education is free at public schools and lasts 12 years, divided into three parts.[454][451] There are 208 universities in Turkey.[380] Students are placed to universities based on their YKS results and their preferences, by the Measuring, Selection and Placement Center.[455] All state and private universities are under the control of the Higher Education Board (Turkish: Yükseköğretim Kurulu, YÖK). Since 2016, the president of Turkey directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.[456]
The Ministry of Health has run a universal public healthcare system since 2003.[465] Known as Universal Health Insurance (Genel Sağlık Sigortası), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%.[465] Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures.[465] Despite the universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%.[465] There are many private hospitals in the country.[466] The government planned several hospital complexes, known as city hospitals, to be constructed since 2013.[466] Turkey is one of the top 10 destinations for health tourism.[467]
Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81 years.[465] Turkey has high rates of obesity, with 29.5% of its adult population having a body mass index (BMI) value of 30 or above.[468]Air pollution is a major cause of early death.[469]
Culture
In the 19th century, Turkish identity was debated in the Ottoman Empire, with three main views: Turkism, Islamism and Westernism.[470] In addition to Europe or Islam, Turkish culture was also influenced by Anatolia's native cultures.[471] After the establishment of the republic, Kemalism emphasized Turkish culture, attempted to make "Islam a matter of personal conviction", and pursued modernization.[472] Currently, Turkey has various local cultures. Things such as music, folk dance, or kebap variety may be used to identify a local area. Turkey also has a national culture, such as "national movie stars, rock bands, fashion trends, and soccer and basketball leagues".[473]
Turkish literature goes back more than a thousand years. The Seljuk and Ottoman periods include numerous works of literature and poetry. Turkic tales and poetry from Central Asia were also kept alive. Tales of Dede Korkut is an example of the oral narrative tradition. Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, contains Turkish linguistic information and poetry. Yunus Emre, influenced by Rumi, was one of the most important writers of Anatolian Turkish poetry. Ottoman Divan poetry used "refined diction" and complex vocabulary. It included Sufi mysticism, romanticism, and formal elements.[474]
Turkey has four "major theatrical traditions": "folk theatre, popular theatre, court theater, and Western theater." Turkish folk theatre goes back thousands of years and has survived among rural communities. Popular theatre includes plays by live actors, puppet and shadow plays, and storytelling performances. An example for shadow play is Karagöz and Hacivat. Court theatre was the refined version of popular theatre. Beginning in the 19th century, Western theatre tradition started appearing in Turkey. Following the establishment of Turkish Republic, a state conservatory and the State Theatre Company were formed.[476]
Turkey's visual arts scene can be categorized into two, as "decorative" and "fine" arts. Fine arts, or güzel sanatlar, includes sculpture and painting. Turkish artists in these areas have gained global recognition. Photography, fashion design, graphic arts, and graphic design are some of the other areas Turkish artists are known for in the world. The inaugural contemporary Turkish art sale by Sotheby's London was in 2009. Istanbul Modern and the Istanbul Biennial are examples of art galleries or exhibitions of contemporary Turkish art. Turkey has also seen a resurgence of traditional arts. This includes Ottoman-era traditional arts, such as ceramics and carpets. Textile and carpet design, glass and ceramics, calligraphy, paper marbling (ebru) are some of the art forms for which modern-day Turkish artists are recognized as leaders in the Islamic world.[477]
Turkish music can be described in a variety of ways, ranging from "globally marketed pop music with a little bit of local colour thrown in" to a custom that includes thousands of years of legacy of Anatolia's various civilizations.[478]
Many Turkish cities and towns have vibrant local music scenes which, in turn, support a number of regional musical styles. Despite this however, western music styles like pop music and kanto lost popularity to arabesque in the late 1970s and 1980s. It became popular again by the beginning of the 1990s, as a result of an opening economy and society. The resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such as Ajda Pekkan, Sezen Aksu, Erol Evgin, MFÖ, Tarkan, Sertab Erener, Teoman, Kenan Doğulu, Levent Yüksel and Hande Yener.[citation needed] Internationally acclaimed Turkish jazz and blues musicians and composers include Ahmet Ertegun[479] (founder and president of Atlantic Records), Nükhet Ruacan and Kerem Görsev.[citation needed]
Since 1918, Turkish architecture can be divided into three parts. From 1918 to 1950, the first one includes the First National Architectural Movement period, which transitioned into modernist architecture. Modernist and monumental buildings were preferred for public buildings, whereas "Turkish house" type vernacular architecture influenced private houses. From 1950 to 1980, the second part includes urbanization, modernization, and internationalization. For residential housing, "reinforced concrete, slab-block, medium-rise apartments" became prevalent. Since 1980, the third part is defined by consumer habits and international trends, such as shopping malls and office towers. Luxury residences with "Turkish house style" have been in demand.[490] In the 21st century, urban renewal projects have become a trend.[491] Resilience against natural disasters such as earthquakes is one of the main goals for urban renewal projects.[492]
Around one-third of Turkey's building stock, corresponding to 6.7 million units, were assessed risky and needing urban renewal.[493]
Turkey has a diverse and rich cuisine, varying geographically.[43] Turkish cuisine has been influenced by Anatolian, Mediterranean, Iranian, Central Asian, and East Asian cuisines.[496] Turkish and Ottoman cuisine have also influenced others. Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, documents "the ancient lineage of much of present-day Turkish cuisine".[496]Güveç, Bulgur, and Börek are some of the earliest recorded examples of Turkish cuisine. Even though kebab as a word comes from Persian, Turkic people had been familiar with using skewers to cook meat. Turkish cuisine can be distinguished by its various kinds of kebabs. Similarly, pilaf dishes were influenced by Turkish cuisine. Further information about cuisine during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods comes from the works of Rumi and Evliya Çelebi. The latter describes "food-related guilds of Istanbul".[496]
Food staples in Turkey include bread and yogurt. Some of bread varieties are lavash and pide (a type of pita bread). Ayran is a drink made of yoghurt. In western parts of Turkey, olive oil is used. Grains include wheat, maize, barley, oats, and millet. Beans, chickpeas, nuts, aubergines, and lamb are some of the commonly used ingredients.[496]Doner kebab, originally from Turkey, is marinated lamb slices cooked vertically.[497] Seafood includes anchovy and others. Dolma varieties and mantı are made by stuffing vegetables or pasta.[496]Sarma is made by rolling edible leaf over the filling.[498]Yahni dishes are vegetable stews.[496] Turkey is one of the countries with the meze tradition.[499] Honey, pekmez, dried fruit, or fruit are used for sweetening.[496] Filo is a dough "of Turkish origin", used to make baklava.[500]Turkish delight is a "delicate but gummy jelly".[501]
The traditional national sport of Turkey has been yağlı güreş (oil wrestling) since Ottoman times.[511] Edirne Province has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oil wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world.[512][513] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, oil wrestling champions such as Koca Yusuf, Nurullah Hasan and Kızılcıklı Mahmut acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed by FILA such as freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.[514]
Media and cinema
Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable national cinema and a rapid growth of broadband Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in Turkey.[515][516] The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public broadcaster TRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV, ATV and Star TV. The broadcast media have a very high penetration as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available.[517] The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.[517][518] By circulation, the most popular newspapers are Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk.[519]
^The Turkish government considers that, for the purpose of the Treaty of Lausanne, the language of Turkish Jews is Hebrew, even though the mother tongue of Turkish Jews was not Hebrew but historically Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) or other Jewish languages.[412][413]
References
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^"Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasası" (in Turkish). Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2020. 3. Madde: Devletin Bütünlüğü, Resmi Dili, Bayrağı, Milli Marşı ve Başkenti: Türkiye Devleti, ülkesi ve milletiyle bölünmez bir bütündür. Dili Türkçedir. Bayrağı, şekli kanununda belirtilen, beyaz ay yıldızlı al bayraktır. Milli marşı "İstiklal Marşı" dır. Başkenti Ankara'dır.
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^ a b c d e f g"The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2023". www.tuik.gov.tr. Turkish Statistical Institute. 6 February 2024. Archived from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
^ a b c d e"World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Türkiye)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 16 April 2024. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
^"Gini index (World Bank estimate) – Turkey". World Bank. 2019. Archived from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
^Leonard 2006, p. 1576: "Turkey’s diversity is derived from its central location near the world’s earliest civilizations as well as a history replete with population movements and invasions. The Hattite culture was prominent during the Bronze Age prior to 2000 BCE, but was replaced by the Indo-European Hittites who conquered Anatolia by the second millennium. Meanwhile, Turkish Thrace came to be dominated by another Indo-European group, the Thracians for whom the region is named."
^Howard 2016, pp. 24–28: "Göbekli Tepe’s close proximity to several very early sites of grain cultivation helped lead Schmidt to the conclusion that it was the need to maintain the ritual center that first encouraged the beginnings of settled agriculture—the Neolithic Revolution"
^ a bSteadman & McMahon 2011, pp. 3–11, 37
^Steadman & McMahon 2011, p. 327
^Steadman & McMahon 2011, pp. 233, 713: "By the time of the Old Assyrian Colony period in the early second millennium b.c.e . (see Michel, chapter 13 in this volume) the languages spoken on the plateau included Hattian, an indigenous Anatolian language, Hurrian (spoken in northern Syria), and Indo-European languages known as Luwian, Hittite, and Palaic"
^ a bHoward 2016, p. 29: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval." ... "statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth."
^ a bLeonard 2006, p. 1576: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region"
^Steadman & McMahon 2011, pp. 5, 16, 617
^ a b c dDavison 1990, pp. 3–4: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek."
^Howard 2016, pp. 33–44
^ a bHoward 2016, pp. 38–39
^ a b cHoward 2016, p. 45
^ a bSomel 2010, p. xcvii
^Heper & Sayari 2012, pp. 15–28
^Davison 1990, pp. 115–116
^
Kaser 2011, p. 336: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former “suppressors”. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons"
Gibney & Hansen 2005, p. 437: ‘Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, “only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land....Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease” (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of “Muslim migration.”’
Karpat 2001, p. 343: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries."
Karpat 2004, pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..."
Pekesen 2012: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51"
Biondich 2011, p. 93: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans"
Armour 2012, p. 213: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense."
Bosma, Lucassen & Oostindie 2012, p. 17: "In total, many millions of Turks (or, more precisely, Muslim immigrants, including some from the Caucasus) were involved in this ‘repatriation’ – sometimes more than once in a lifetime – the last stage of which may have been the immigration of seven hundred thousand Turks from Bulgaria between 1940 and 1990. Most of these immigrants settled in urban north-western Anatolia. Today between a third and a quarter of the Republic’s population are descendants of these Muslim immigrants, known as Muhacir or Göçmen"
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^Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2021). The Thirty-Year Genocide - Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674251434.
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Lee 2023, p. 4: "It should also be noted that even the early Turkic peoples, including the Tiele and the Türks, were made up of heterogeneous elements. Importantly, DNA studies demonstrate that the expansion process of the Turkic peoples involved the Turkicization of various non-Turkic-speaking groups. The “Turks” intermixed with and Turkicized various indigenous groups across Eurasia: Uralic hunter-gatherers in northern Eurasia; Mongolic nomads in Mongolia; Indo-European-speaking nomads and sedentary populations in Xinjiang, Transoxiana, Iran, Kazakhstan, and South Siberia; and Indo-European elements (the Byzantine subjects, among others) in Anatolia and the Balkans.11"
Findley 2005, p. 18: "Moreover, Turks do not all physically look alike. They never did. The Turks of Turkey are famous for their range of physical types. Given the Turks' ancient Inner Asian origins, it is easy to imagine that they once presented a uniform Mongoloid appearance. Such traits seem to be more characteristic in the eastern Turkic world; however, uniformity of type can never have prevailed there either. Archeological evidence indicates that Indo-Europeans, or certainly Europoid physical types, inhabited the oases of the Tarim basin and even parts of Mongolia in ancient times. In the Tarim basin, persistence of these former inhabitants' genes among the modern Uyghurs is both observable and scientifically demonstrable.32 Early Chinese sources describe the Kirghiz as blue-eyed and blond or red-haired. The genesis of Turkic ethnic groups from earliest times occurred in confederations of diverse peoples. As if to prove the point, the earliest surviving texts in Turkic languages are studded with terms from other languages."
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