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Sanskrit

El sánscrito ( / ˈ s æ n s k r ɪ t / ; atributivamente संस्कृत- , saṃskṛta- ; [15] [16] nominalmente संस्कृतम् , saṃskṛtam , AFI: [ˈsɐ̃skr̩tɐm] [17] [b] ) es una lengua clásica perteneciente a la rama indoaria de las lenguas indoeuropeas . [19] [20] [21] Surgió en el sur de Asia después de que sus lenguas predecesoras se hubieran difundido allí desde el noroeste a finales de la Edad del Bronce . [22] [23] El sánscrito es la lengua sagrada del hinduismo , la lengua de la filosofía hindú clásica y de los textos históricos del budismo y el jainismo . Fue una lengua de enlace en el sur de Asia antiguo y medieval, y tras la transmisión de la cultura hindú y budista al sudeste asiático, este asiático y Asia central en la era medieval temprana, se convirtió en una lengua de religión y alta cultura , y de las élites políticas en algunas de estas regiones. [24] [25] Como resultado, el sánscrito tuvo un impacto duradero en las lenguas del sur de Asia, el sudeste asiático y el este de Asia, especialmente en sus vocabularios formales y cultos. [26]

El sánscrito generalmente connota varias variedades de lenguas indoarias antiguas . [27] [28] El más arcaico de estos es el sánscrito védico que se encuentra en el Rigveda , una colección de 1.028 himnos compuestos entre 1500 a. C. y 1200 a. C. por tribus indoarias que migraron al este desde lo que hoy es Afganistán a través del norte de Pakistán y hacia el noroeste de la India. [29] [30] El sánscrito védico interactuó con las lenguas antiguas preexistentes del subcontinente, absorbiendo nombres de plantas y animales recién encontrados; además, las antiguas lenguas dravídicas influyeron en la fonología y la sintaxis del sánscrito. [31] El sánscrito también puede referirse más estrictamente al sánscrito clásico , una forma gramatical refinada y estandarizada que surgió a mediados del primer milenio a. C. y fue codificada en la más completa de las gramáticas antiguas, [c] el Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Ocho capítulos') de Pāṇini . [32] El mayor dramaturgo en sánscrito, Kālidāsa , escribió en sánscrito clásico, y los fundamentos de la aritmética moderna se describieron por primera vez en sánscrito clásico. [d] [33] Sin embargo , las dos principales epopeyas sánscritas, el Mahābhārata y el Rāmāyaṇa , se compusieron en una variedad de registros de narración oral llamados sánscrito épico que se utilizó en el norte de la India entre 400 a. C. y 300 d. C., y aproximadamente contemporáneo al sánscrito clásico. [34] En los siglos siguientes, el sánscrito quedó ligado a la tradición, dejó de aprenderse como primera lengua y, en última instancia, dejó de desarrollarse como lengua viva. [9]

Los himnos del Rigveda son notablemente similares a los poemas más arcaicos de las familias lingüísticas iraní y griega, los Gathas del antiguo Avestan y la Ilíada de Homero . [35] Como el Rigveda fue transmitido oralmente mediante métodos de memorización de excepcional complejidad, rigor y fidelidad, [36] [37] como un texto único sin variantes de lectura, [38] su sintaxis y morfología arcaicas preservadas son de vital importancia en la reconstrucción de la lengua ancestral común, el protoindoeuropeo . [35] El sánscrito no tiene una escritura nativa atestiguada: desde alrededor del cambio del primer milenio d.C., ha sido escrito en varias escrituras brahmicas , y en la era moderna más comúnmente en devanagari . [a] [12] [13]

El estatus, la función y el lugar del sánscrito en el patrimonio cultural de la India son reconocidos por su inclusión en la Octava Lista de Idiomas de la Constitución de la India . [ 39] [40] Sin embargo, a pesar de los intentos de resurgimiento, [8] [41] no hay hablantes nativos de sánscrito en la India. [8] [10] [42] En cada uno de los censos decenales recientes de la India, varios miles de ciudadanos han informado que el sánscrito es su lengua materna, [e] pero se cree que los números significan un deseo de estar alineado con el prestigio del idioma. [6] [7] [8] [43] El sánscrito se ha enseñado en gurukulas tradicionales desde la antigüedad; hoy en día se enseña ampliamente en el nivel de escuela secundaria. La universidad de sánscrito más antigua es el Benares Sanskrit College, fundada en 1791 durante el gobierno de la Compañía de las Indias Orientales . [44] El sánscrito continúa siendo ampliamente utilizado como idioma ceremonial y ritual en himnos y cánticos hindúes y budistas .

Etimología y nomenclatura

Manuscritos sánscritos históricos: un texto religioso (arriba) y un texto médico

En sánscrito, el adjetivo verbal sáṃskṛta- es una palabra compuesta que consta de sáṃ ('juntos, bueno, bien, perfeccionado') y kṛta - ('hecho, formado, trabajo'). [45] [46] Connota una obra que ha sido "bien preparada, pura y perfecta, pulida, sagrada". [47] [48] [49] Según Biderman, la perfección a la que se hace referencia contextualmente en los orígenes etimológicos de la palabra son sus cualidades tonales, más que semánticas. El sonido y la transmisión oral eran cualidades muy valoradas en la antigua India, y sus sabios refinaron el alfabeto, la estructura de las palabras y su gramática exigente en una "colección de sonidos, una especie de molde musical sublime" como lenguaje integral al que llamaron sánscrito . [46] Desde el período védico tardío en adelante, afirman Annette Wilke y Oliver Moebus, el sonido resonante y sus fundamentos musicales atrajeron una "cantidad excepcionalmente grande de literatura lingüística, filosófica y religiosa" en la India. El sonido se visualizaba como "que impregnaba toda la creación", otra representación del mundo mismo; el "misterioso magnum" del pensamiento hindú. La búsqueda de la perfección en el pensamiento y el objetivo de la liberación estaban entre las dimensiones del sonido sagrado, y el hilo común que tejía todas las ideas e inspiraciones se convirtió en la búsqueda de lo que los antiguos indios creían que era un lenguaje perfecto, la "episteme fonocéntrica" ​​del sánscrito. [50] [51]

El sánscrito compitió como lengua con numerosas lenguas vernáculas indias menos exactas llamadas lenguas prakríticas ( prākṛta - ). El término prakrta significa literalmente "original, natural, normal, sin arte", afirma Franklin Southworth . [52] La relación entre el prácrito y el sánscrito se encuentra en textos indios que datan del primer milenio d. C. Patañjali reconoció que el prácrito es la primera lengua, una adoptada instintivamente por cada niño con todas sus imperfecciones y que más tarde conduce a los problemas de interpretación y malentendidos. La estructura purificadora del sánscrito elimina estas imperfecciones. El antiguo gramático sánscrito Daṇḍin afirma, por ejemplo, que gran parte de las lenguas prácritas tiene su raíz etimológica en el sánscrito, pero implica "pérdida de sonidos" y corrupciones que resultan de un "desprecio por la gramática". Daṇḍin reconoció que hay palabras y estructuras confusas en el prácrito que prosperan independientemente del sánscrito. Esta opinión se encuentra en los escritos de Bharata Muni , el autor del antiguo texto Natya Shastra . El erudito jainista temprano Namisādhu reconoció la diferencia, pero no estuvo de acuerdo en que el idioma prácrito fuera una corrupción del sánscrito. Namisādhu afirmó que el idioma prácrito era el pūrvam ('vino antes, origen') y que les llegaba de forma natural a los niños, mientras que el sánscrito era un refinamiento del prácrito a través de la "purificación por gramática". [53]

Historia

Origen y desarrollo

Izquierda: La hipótesis de Kurgan sobre las migraciones indoeuropeas entre 4000 y 1000 a. C.; derecha: La expansión geográfica de las lenguas indoeuropeas en el año 500 d. C., con el sánscrito en el sur de Asia.

El sánscrito pertenece a la familia de lenguas indoeuropeas . Es una de las tres primeras lenguas antiguas documentadas que surgieron de una lengua raíz común, hoy denominada protoindoeuropea : [19] [20] [21]

Otras lenguas indoeuropeas lejanamente relacionadas con el sánscrito incluyen el latín arcaico y clásico ( c. 600 a. C.-100 d. C., lenguas itálicas ), el gótico ( lengua germánica arcaica , c.  350 d. C. ), el nórdico antiguo ( c. 200 d. C. y después), el avéstico antiguo ( c.  finales del segundo milenio a. C. [55] ) y el avéstico joven ( c. 900 a. C.). [20] [21] Los parientes antiguos más cercanos del sánscrito védico en las lenguas indoeuropeas son las lenguas nuristaníes que se encuentran en la remota región del Hindu Kush del noreste de Afganistán y el noroeste del Himalaya, [21] [56] [57] así como el avéstico extinto y el persa antiguo , ambos son lenguas iraníes . [58] [59] [60] El sánscrito pertenece al grupo satem de las lenguas indoeuropeas.

Los estudiosos de la época colonial familiarizados con el latín y el griego se sorprendieron por la semejanza del idioma sánscrito, tanto en su vocabulario como en su gramática, con las lenguas clásicas de Europa. En The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World , Mallory y Adams ilustran la semejanza con los siguientes ejemplos de formas afines [61] (con la adición del inglés antiguo para una mayor comparación):

Las correspondencias sugieren una raíz común y vínculos históricos entre algunas de las principales lenguas antiguas y distantes del mundo. [f]

La teoría de las migraciones indoarias explica las características comunes que comparten el sánscrito y otras lenguas indoeuropeas al proponer que los hablantes originales de lo que se convirtió en sánscrito llegaron al sur de Asia desde una región de origen común, en algún lugar al noroeste de la región del Indo , durante principios del segundo milenio a. C. Las pruebas de esta teoría incluyen la estrecha relación entre las lenguas indoiraníes y las lenguas bálticas y eslavas , el intercambio de vocabulario con las lenguas urálicas no indoeuropeas y la naturaleza de las palabras indoeuropeas atestiguadas para la flora y la fauna. [63]

La prehistoria de las lenguas indoarias que precedieron al sánscrito védico no está clara y varias hipótesis la sitúan en un límite bastante amplio. Según Thomas Burrow, basándose en la relación entre varias lenguas indoeuropeas, el origen de todas ellas puede estar posiblemente en lo que hoy es Europa central u oriental, mientras que el grupo indoiraní posiblemente surgió en Rusia central. [64] Las ramas iraní e indoaria se separaron bastante pronto. Es la rama indoaria la que se trasladó al este de Irán y luego al sur de Asia en la primera mitad del segundo milenio a. C. Una vez en la antigua India, la lengua indoaria sufrió un cambio lingüístico rápido y se transformó en la lengua sánscrita védica. [65]

Sánscrito védico

Manuscrito del Rigveda ( padapatha ) en devanagari , principios del siglo XIX. Las líneas rojas horizontales y verticales marcan los cambios de tono graves y agudos en el canto.

La forma preclásica del sánscrito se conoce como sánscrito védico . El texto sánscrito más antiguo del que se tiene constancia es el Rigveda , una escritura hindú de mediados a fines del segundo milenio a. C. No sobreviven registros escritos de un período tan temprano, si es que alguna vez existieron, pero los eruditos generalmente confían en que la transmisión oral de los textos es confiable: son literatura ceremonial, donde la expresión fonética exacta y su preservación fueron parte de la tradición histórica. [66] [67] [68]

Sin embargo, algunos estudiosos han sugerido que el Ṛg-veda original difería en algunos aspectos fundamentales en cuanto a fonología en comparación con la única versión superviviente disponible para nosotros. En particular, que las consonantes retroflejas no existían como parte natural del idioma védico más antiguo, [69] y que se desarrollaron en los siglos posteriores a que se hubiera completado la composición, y como un proceso inconsciente gradual durante la transmisión oral por generaciones de recitadores. [ cita requerida ]

La fuente principal de este argumento es la evidencia interna del texto que delata una inestabilidad del fenómeno de la retroflexión, con las mismas frases teniendo retroflexión inducida por sandhi en algunas partes pero no en otras. [70] Esto se toma junto con la evidencia de controversia, por ejemplo, en pasajes del Aitareya-Āraṇyaka (700 a. C.), que presenta una discusión sobre si la retroflexión es válida en casos particulares. [71]

El Ṛg-veda es una colección de libros, creados por múltiples autores. Estos autores representan diferentes generaciones, y los mandalas 2 a 7 son los más antiguos, mientras que los mandalas 1 y 10 son relativamente los más jóvenes. [72] [73] Sin embargo, el sánscrito védico en estos libros del Ṛg-veda "casi no presenta diversidad dialéctica", afirma Louis Renou , un indólogo conocido por su erudición sobre la literatura sánscrita y el Ṛg-veda en particular. Según Renou, esto implica que el idioma sánscrito védico tenía un "patrón lingüístico establecido" hacia la segunda mitad del segundo milenio a. C. [74] Más allá del Ṛg-veda, la literatura antigua en sánscrito védico que ha sobrevivido hasta la era moderna incluye el Samaveda , el Yajurveda , el Atharvaveda , junto con los textos védicos incrustados y estratificados como los Brahmanas , los Aranyakas y los primeros Upanishads . [66] Estos documentos védicos reflejan los dialectos del sánscrito que se encuentran en las diversas partes del subcontinente indio noroccidental, septentrional y oriental. [75] [76]

Según Michael Witzel, el sánscrito védico era una lengua hablada por los arios seminómadas que se asentaron temporalmente en un lugar, mantenían rebaños de ganado, practicaban una agricultura limitada y después de algún tiempo se desplazaban en caravanas de carretas a las que llamaban grama . [77] [78] El idioma sánscrito védico o una variante indoeuropea estrechamente relacionada fue reconocido más allá de la antigua India como lo demuestra el " Tratado de Mitanni " entre los antiguos pueblos hitita y mitanni, tallado en una roca, en una región que ahora incluye partes de Siria y Turquía. [79] [g] Partes de este tratado, como los nombres de los príncipes mitanni y los términos técnicos relacionados con el entrenamiento de caballos, por razones que no se entienden, se encuentran en formas tempranas del sánscrito védico. El tratado también invoca a los dioses Varuna, Mitra, Indra y Nasatya que se encuentran en las primeras capas de la literatura védica. [79] [81]

Oh Bṛhaspati, cuando estás dando nombres
Primero establecieron el comienzo del lenguaje,
Su secreto más excelente e inmaculado
quedó al descubierto a través del amor,
Cuando los sabios formaron el lenguaje con su mente,
purificándolo como el grano con un aventador,
Entonces los amigos conocieron la amistad.
una marca auspiciosa colocada en su lengua.

Rigveda 10.71.1–4
Traducido por Roger Woodard [82]

El sánscrito védico que se encuentra en el Ṛg-veda es claramente más arcaico que otros textos védicos y, en muchos aspectos, el lenguaje rigvédico es notablemente más similar a los que se encuentran en los textos arcaicos de los Gathas zoroastrianos del Avestan antiguo y la Ilíada y la Odisea de Homero . [83] Según Stephanie W. Jamison y Joel P. Brereton, indólogos conocidos por su traducción del Ṛg-veda, la literatura sánscrita védica "heredó claramente" de los tiempos indoiraníes e indoeuropeos las estructuras sociales como el papel del poeta y los sacerdotes, la economía de mecenazgo, las ecuaciones frasales y algunos de los metros poéticos. [84] [h] Si bien existen similitudes, afirman Jamison y Brereton, también hay diferencias entre el sánscrito védico, el Avestan antiguo y la literatura griega micénica. Por ejemplo, a diferencia de los símiles sánscritos del Ṛg-veda, los antiguos Gathas avésticos carecen por completo de símiles, y son poco frecuentes en la versión posterior del idioma. El griego homerio, al igual que el sánscrito Ṛg-védico, utiliza ampliamente los símiles, pero son estructuralmente muy diferentes. [86]

Sánscrito clásico

Un manuscrito del siglo XVII en corteza de abedul del tratado de gramática de Pāṇini de Cachemira

La forma védica temprana del idioma sánscrito era mucho menos homogénea en comparación con el sánscrito clásico tal como lo definieron los gramáticos alrededor de mediados del primer milenio a. C. Según Richard Gombrich, un indólogo y un erudito en sánscrito, pali y estudios budistas, el sánscrito védico arcaico que se encuentra en el Rigveda ya había evolucionado en el período védico, como se evidencia en la literatura védica posterior. Gombrich postula que el lenguaje en los primeros Upanishads del hinduismo y la literatura védica tardía se acerca al sánscrito clásico, mientras que el sánscrito védico arcaico se había vuelto ininteligible para todos, excepto para los antiguos sabios indios, en la época de Buda . [87]

La formalización del idioma sánscrito se le atribuye a Pāṇini , junto con el Mahābhāṣya de Patanjali y el comentario de Katyayana que precedieron a la obra de Patañjali. [88] Panini compuso Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Gramática de ocho capítulos'). El siglo en el que vivió no está claro y es objeto de debate, pero se acepta generalmente que su obra data de algún momento entre los siglos VI y IV a. C. [89] [90] [91]

El Aṣṭādhyāyī no fue la primera descripción de la gramática sánscrita, pero es la más antigua que ha sobrevivido en su totalidad, y la culminación de una larga tradición gramatical que, según Fortson, es "una de las maravillas intelectuales del mundo antiguo". [92] Pāṇini cita a diez eruditos sobre los aspectos fonológicos y gramaticales del idioma sánscrito antes que él, así como las variantes en el uso del sánscrito en diferentes regiones de la India. [93] Los diez eruditos védicos que cita son Āpiśali, Kaśyapa , Gārgya, Gālava, Cakravarmaṇa, Bhāradvāja , Śākaṭāyana, Śākalya, Senaka y Sphoṭāyana. [94] [95] El Aṣṭādhyāyī de Panini se convirtió en la base del Vyākaraṇa, un Vedānga . [93]

En el Aṣṭādhyāyī , el lenguaje se observa de una manera que no tiene paralelo entre los gramáticos griegos o latinos. La gramática de Pāṇini, según Renou y Filliozat, es un clásico que define la expresión lingüística y establece el estándar para el idioma sánscrito. [96] Pāṇini hizo uso de un metalenguaje técnico que consiste en una sintaxis, morfología y léxico. Este metalenguaje está organizado de acuerdo con una serie de metarreglas, algunas de las cuales se establecen explícitamente mientras que otras se pueden deducir. [97] A pesar de las diferencias en el análisis con respecto a la lingüística moderna, el trabajo de Pāṇini ha sido considerado valioso y el análisis más avanzado de la lingüística hasta el siglo XX. [92]

La teoría científica y exhaustiva de la gramática de Pāṇini se considera convencionalmente como el inicio del sánscrito clásico. [98] Su tratado sistemático inspiró y convirtió al sánscrito en la lengua india de aprendizaje y literatura por excelencia durante dos milenios. [99] No está claro si Pāṇini escribió él mismo su tratado o si creó oralmente el tratado detallado y sofisticado para luego transmitirlo a través de sus estudiantes. La erudición moderna generalmente acepta que conocía una forma de escritura, basándose en referencias a palabras como Lipi ('escritura') y lipikara ('escriba') en la sección 3.2 del Aṣṭādhyāyī . [100] [101] [102] [i]

El sánscrito clásico formalizado por Pāṇini, afirma Renou, no es "una lengua empobrecida", sino más bien "una lengua controlada y restringida de la que se excluyeron los arcaísmos y las alternativas formales innecesarias". [109] La forma clásica del idioma simplificó las reglas del sandhi pero conservó varios aspectos del idioma védico, al tiempo que añadía rigor y flexibilidad, de modo que tuviera los medios suficientes para expresar pensamientos y fuera "capaz de responder a las futuras demandas crecientes de una literatura infinitamente diversificada", según Renou. Pāṇini incluyó numerosas "reglas opcionales" más allá del marco bahulam del sánscrito védico , para respetar la libertad y la creatividad de modo que los escritores individuales separados por geografía o tiempo tuvieran la opción de expresar hechos y sus puntos de vista a su manera, donde la tradición seguía formas competitivas del idioma sánscrito. [110]

Las diferencias fonéticas entre el sánscrito védico y el sánscrito clásico, tal como se desprende del estado actual de la literatura superviviente, [71] son ​​insignificantes en comparación con el intenso cambio que debe haber ocurrido en el período prevédico entre el idioma protoindoario y el sánscrito védico. [111] Las diferencias notables entre el sánscrito védico y el clásico incluyen la gramática y las categorías gramaticales muy ampliadas, así como las diferencias en el acento, la semántica y la sintaxis. [112] También hay algunas diferencias entre cómo terminan algunos de los sustantivos y verbos, así como las reglas de sandhi , tanto internas como externas. [112] Muchas palabras que se encuentran en el sánscrito védico temprano nunca se encuentran en el sánscrito védico tardío o en la literatura sánscrita clásica, mientras que algunas palabras tienen significados diferentes y nuevos en el sánscrito clásico cuando se comparan contextualmente con la literatura sánscrita védica temprana. [112]

Arthur Macdonell fue uno de los primeros eruditos de la era colonial que resumió algunas de las diferencias entre el sánscrito védico y el clásico. [112] [113] Louis Renou publicó en 1956, en francés, un análisis más extenso de las similitudes, las diferencias y la evolución del sánscrito védico dentro del período védico y luego hacia el sánscrito clásico junto con sus puntos de vista sobre la historia. Esta obra ha sido traducida por Jagbans Balbir. [114]

Idiomas sánscrito y pracrito

Un uso temprano de la palabra "sánscrito" en la escritura Brahmi tardía (también llamada escritura Gupta ):
Sam-skr-ta

Inscripción en piedra de Mandsaur de Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana , 532 d.C. [115]

El uso más antiguo conocido de la palabra Saṃskṛta (sánscrito), en el contexto de un discurso o idioma, se encuentra en los versos 5.28.17–19 del Ramayana . [16] Fuera de la esfera culta del sánscrito clásico escrito, los dialectos coloquiales vernáculos ( prakrits ) continuaron evolucionando. El sánscrito coexistió con numerosas otras lenguas prácritas de la antigua India. Las lenguas prácritas de la India también tienen raíces antiguas y algunos eruditos sánscritos las han llamado Apabhramsa , literalmente 'estropeadas'. [116] [117] La ​​literatura védica incluye palabras cuyo equivalente fonético no se encuentra en otras lenguas indoeuropeas pero que sí se encuentran en las lenguas prácritas regionales, lo que hace probable que la interacción, el intercambio de palabras e ideas comenzara temprano en la historia de la India. A medida que el pensamiento indio se diversificó y desafió las creencias anteriores del hinduismo, particularmente en la forma del budismo y el jainismo , las lenguas prácritas como el pali en el budismo theravada y el ardhamagadhi en el jainismo compitieron con el sánscrito en la antigüedad. [118] [119] [120] Sin embargo, afirma Paul Dundas , un erudito del jainismo, estas antiguas lenguas prácritas tenían "aproximadamente la misma relación con el sánscrito que el italiano medieval con el latín". [120] La tradición india afirma que Buda y Mahavira prefirieron el idioma prácrito para que todos pudieran entenderlo. Sin embargo, eruditos como Dundas han cuestionado esta hipótesis. Afirman que no hay evidencia de esto y cualquier evidencia disponible sugiere que al comienzo de la era común, casi nadie más que los monjes eruditos tenía la capacidad de entender las antiguas lenguas prácritas como el ardhamagadhi . [120]

Los eruditos de la era colonial cuestionaron si el sánscrito fue alguna vez una lengua hablada, o solo una lengua literaria. [121] Los eruditos no están de acuerdo en sus respuestas. Una sección de eruditos occidentales afirma que el sánscrito nunca fue una lengua hablada, mientras que otros y particularmente la mayoría de los eruditos indios afirman lo contrario. [122] Aquellos que afirman que el sánscrito ha sido una lengua vernácula señalan la necesidad de que el sánscrito sea una lengua hablada para la tradición oral que preservó la gran cantidad de manuscritos sánscritos de la antigua India. En segundo lugar, afirman que la evidencia textual en las obras de Yaksa, Panini y Patanajali afirma que el sánscrito clásico en su era era una lengua que se hablaba ( bhasha ) por la gente culta y educada. Algunos sutras exponen las formas variantes del sánscrito hablado versus el sánscrito escrito. [122] El peregrino budista chino del siglo VII Xuanzang mencionó en sus memorias que los debates filosóficos oficiales en la India se llevaban a cabo en sánscrito, no en la lengua vernácula de esa región. [122]

Diagrama de árbol que muestra las relaciones genéticas entre las lenguas
El vínculo del sánscrito con las lenguas prácritas y otras lenguas indoeuropeas

Según el profesor de lingüística sánscrita Madhav Deshpande, el sánscrito era una lengua hablada en forma coloquial a mediados del primer milenio a. C. que coexistía con una forma más formal y gramaticalmente correcta de sánscrito literario. [123] Esto, afirma Deshpande, es cierto para las lenguas modernas en las que se hablan y entienden aproximaciones coloquiales incorrectas y dialectos de una lengua, junto con formas más "refinadas, sofisticadas y gramaticalmente precisas" de la misma lengua que se encuentran en las obras literarias. [123] La tradición india, afirma Winternitz (1996), ha favorecido el aprendizaje y el uso de múltiples lenguas desde la antigüedad. El sánscrito era una lengua hablada en las clases educadas y de élite, pero también era una lengua que debe haber sido entendida en un círculo más amplio de la sociedad porque las epopeyas y las historias populares ampliamente populares como el Ramayana , el Mahabharata , el Bhagavata Purana , el Panchatantra y muchos otros textos están todos en lengua sánscrita. [124] El sánscrito clásico con su gramática exigente era así el idioma de los eruditos indios y las clases educadas, mientras que otros se comunicaban con variantes aproximadas o agramaticales de él, así como otras lenguas indias naturales. [123] El sánscrito, como lengua culta de la antigua India, existía así junto con los prakrits vernáculos. [123] Muchos dramas sánscritos indican que el idioma coexistió con los prakrits vernáculos. Las ciudades de Varanasi , Paithan , Pune y Kanchipuram fueron centros de aprendizaje del sánscrito clásico y de debates públicos hasta la llegada de la era colonial. [125]

Según Lamotte (1976), un indólogo y estudioso del budismo, el sánscrito se convirtió en la lengua literaria y de inscripción dominante debido a su precisión en la comunicación. Era, afirma Lamotte, un instrumento ideal para presentar ideas, y a medida que el conocimiento en sánscrito se multiplicaba, también lo hacía su difusión e influencia. [126] El sánscrito fue adoptado voluntariamente como vehículo de alta cultura, artes e ideas profundas. Pollock no está de acuerdo con Lamotte, pero coincide en que la influencia del sánscrito creció hasta convertirse en lo que él llama una "cosmópolis sánscrita" en una región que incluía todo el sur de Asia y gran parte del sudeste asiático. La cosmópolis de la lengua sánscrita prosperó más allá de la India entre el 300 y el 1300 d. C. [127]

Hoy en día, se cree que el cachemir es el idioma más cercano al sánscrito. [128] [129] [130]

Influencia dravídica en el sánscrito

Reinöhl menciona que las lenguas dravídicas no sólo han tomado prestado del vocabulario sánscrito, sino que también han afectado al sánscrito en niveles más profundos de estructura, "por ejemplo, en el dominio de la fonología, donde los retroflejos indoarios se han atribuido a la influencia dravídica". [131] De manera similar, Ferenc Ruzca afirma que todos los cambios importantes en la fonética indoaria a lo largo de dos milenios pueden atribuirse a la influencia constante de una lengua dravídica con una estructura fonética similar al tamil. [132] Hock et al., citando a George Hart, afirman que hubo influencia del tamil antiguo en el sánscrito. [133] Hart comparó el tamil antiguo y el sánscrito clásico para llegar a la conclusión de que había un idioma común del que derivaban ambas características: "que tanto el tamil como el sánscrito derivaban sus convenciones, metros y técnicas compartidas de una fuente común, porque está claro que ninguno tomó prestado directamente del otro". [134]

Reinöhl afirma además que existe una relación simétrica entre las lenguas dravídicas, como el kannada o el tamil, y las lenguas indoarias, como el bengalí o el hindi, mientras que no se encuentra la misma relación con las lenguas no indoarias, por ejemplo, el persa o el inglés:

Una oración en una lengua dravídica, como el tamil o el kannada, se convierte normalmente en buena versión en bengalí o hindi sustituyendo las palabras y formas dravídicas por equivalentes en bengalí o hindi, sin modificar el orden de las palabras; pero lo mismo no es posible al traducir una oración persa o inglesa a una lengua no indoaria.

—Reinohl  [131 ]

Shulman menciona que "las formas verbales no finitas dravídicas (llamadas vinaiyeccam en tamil) moldearon el uso de los verbos no finitos sánscritos (originalmente derivados de formas flexivas de sustantivos de acción en el Védico). Este caso particularmente destacado de la posible influencia del dravídico en el sánscrito es sólo uno de los muchos elementos de asimilación sintáctica, y no menos importante entre ellos el amplio repertorio de modalidades y aspectos morfológicos que, una vez que uno sabe buscarlos, se pueden encontrar en todas partes en el sánscrito clásico y posclásico". [135]

Se ha descubierto que la principal influencia del dravidiano en el sánscrito se concentró en el lapso de tiempo comprendido entre el período védico tardío y la cristalización del sánscrito clásico. Como en este período las tribus indoarias aún no habían entrado en contacto con los habitantes del sur del subcontinente, esto sugiere una presencia significativa de hablantes del dravidiano en el norte de la India (la llanura central del Ganges y el Madhyadeśa clásico) que fueron fundamentales en esta influencia subyacente en el sánscrito. [136]

Influencia

Los manuscritos existentes en sánscrito suman más de 30 millones, cien veces más que los manuscritos en griego y latín juntos, y constituyen el mayor patrimonio cultural que cualquier civilización haya producido antes de la invención de la imprenta.

— Prólogo de Lingüística computacional sánscrita (2009), Gérard Huet, Amba Kulkarni y Peter Scharf [137] [138] [j]

El sánscrito ha sido el idioma predominante de los textos hindúes que abarcan una rica tradición de textos filosóficos y religiosos , así como poesía, música, teatro , científicos , técnicos y otros. [140] [141] Es el idioma predominante de una de las colecciones más grandes de manuscritos históricos. Las primeras inscripciones conocidas en sánscrito son del siglo I a. C., como la Inscripción de Ayodhya de Dhana y Ghosundi-Hathibada (Chittorgarh) . [142]

Aunque desarrollado y nutrido por eruditos de las escuelas ortodoxas del hinduismo, el sánscrito ha sido el idioma de algunas de las obras literarias y teológicas clave de las escuelas heterodoxas de filosofías indias como el budismo y el jainismo. [143] [144] La estructura y las capacidades del idioma sánscrito clásico dieron lugar a antiguas especulaciones indias sobre "la naturaleza y función del lenguaje", cuál es la relación entre las palabras y sus significados en el contexto de una comunidad de hablantes, si esta relación es objetiva o subjetiva, descubierta o creada, cómo aprenden los individuos y se relacionan con el mundo que los rodea a través del lenguaje, y sobre los límites del lenguaje. [143] [145] Especularon sobre el papel del lenguaje, el estatus ontológico de pintar imágenes de palabras a través del sonido y la necesidad de reglas para que pueda servir como un medio para que una comunidad de hablantes, separados por la geografía o el tiempo, compartan y comprendan ideas profundas entre sí. [145] [k] Estas especulaciones se volvieron particularmente importantes para las escuelas Mīmāṃsā y Nyaya de la filosofía hindú, y más tarde para el Vedanta y el budismo Mahayana, afirma Frits Staal , un erudito en lingüística con un enfoque en las filosofías indias y el sánscrito. [143] Aunque escrito en varias escrituras diferentes, el idioma dominante de los textos hindúes ha sido el sánscrito. Este o una forma híbrida del sánscrito se convirtió en el idioma preferido de los estudiosos del budismo Mahayana; [148] por ejemplo, uno de los primeros e influyentes filósofos budistas, Nagarjuna (~200 d. C.), utilizó el sánscrito clásico como idioma para sus textos. [149] Según Renou, el sánscrito tuvo un papel limitado en la tradición Theravada (antes conocida como Hinayana), pero las obras Prakrit que han sobrevivido son de dudosa autenticidad. Algunos de los fragmentos canónicos de las tradiciones budistas tempranas, descubiertos en el siglo XX, sugieren que las primeras tradiciones budistas usaban un sánscrito imperfecto y razonablemente bueno, a veces con una sintaxis pali, afirma Renou. El Mahāsāṃghika y el Mahavastu, en sus últimas formas Hinayana, usaban un sánscrito híbrido para su literatura. [150] El sánscrito también fue el idioma de algunas de las obras filosóficas más antiguas, autorizadas y seguidas del jainismo, como el Tattvartha Sutra de Umaswati . [l] [152]

El manuscrito Spitzer data del siglo II d. C. (arriba: fragmento del folio 383). Descubierto en las cuevas de Kizil , cerca de la rama norte de la Ruta de la Seda de Asia Central en el noroeste de China, [153] es el manuscrito filosófico sánscrito más antiguo conocido hasta ahora. [154] [155]

El idioma sánscrito ha sido uno de los principales medios de transmisión de conocimientos e ideas en la historia asiática. Los textos indios en sánscrito ya estaban en China en el año 402 d. C., llevados por el influyente peregrino budista Faxian , quien los tradujo al chino en el año 418 d. C. [156] Xuanzang , otro peregrino budista chino, aprendió sánscrito en la India y llevó 657 textos sánscritos a China en el siglo VII, donde estableció un importante centro de aprendizaje y traducción de idiomas bajo el patrocinio del emperador Taizong. [157] [158] A principios del primer milenio d. C., el sánscrito había difundido las ideas budistas e hindúes al sudeste asiático, [159] partes del este de Asia [160] y el centro de Asia. [161] Fue aceptado como un idioma de alta cultura y el idioma preferido por algunas de las élites gobernantes locales en estas regiones. [162] Según el Dalai Lama , el sánscrito es una lengua madre que está en la base de muchas lenguas modernas de la India y la que promovió el pensamiento indio a otros países lejanos. En el budismo tibetano, afirma el Dalai Lama, el sánscrito ha sido una lengua venerada y llamada legjar lhai-ka o "lengua elegante de los dioses". Ha sido el medio de transmisión de la "profunda sabiduría de la filosofía budista" al Tíbet. [163]

Una inscripción sánscrita del siglo V descubierta en Java , Indonesia , una de las más antiguas del sudeste asiático después de la inscripción Mulavarman descubierta en Kutai , en el este de Borneo . La inscripción Ciaruteun combina dos escrituras y compara al rey con el dios hindú Vishnu . Proporciona un término ad quem a la presencia del hinduismo en las islas indonesias. La inscripción sánscrita más antigua del sudeste asiático, llamada inscripción Vo Canh , descubierta hasta ahora está cerca de Nha Trang , Vietnam , y está datada entre finales del siglo IV y principios del siglo V d. C. [164] [165]

El idioma sánscrito creó una accesibilidad pan-indo-aria a la información y el conocimiento en los tiempos antiguos y medievales, en contraste con las lenguas prácritas que se entendían solo regionalmente. [125] [166] Creó un vínculo cultural en todo el subcontinente. [166] A medida que las lenguas y dialectos locales evolucionaron y se diversificaron, el sánscrito sirvió como idioma común. [166] Conectó a eruditos de partes distantes del sur de Asia, como Tamil Nadu y Cachemira, afirma Deshpande, así como a los de diferentes campos de estudio, aunque debe haber habido diferencias en su pronunciación dada la primera lengua de los respectivos hablantes. El idioma sánscrito unió a las personas de habla indoaria, particularmente a sus eruditos de élite. [125] Algunos de estos eruditos de la historia de la India produjeron sánscrito vernáculo regionalmente para llegar a audiencias más amplias, como lo evidencian los textos descubiertos en Rajastán, Gujarat y Maharashtra. Una vez que el público se familiarizaba con la versión vernáculada del sánscrito, más fácil de entender, los interesados ​​podían pasar del sánscrito coloquial al sánscrito clásico, más avanzado. Los rituales y las ceremonias de paso han sido y siguen siendo otras ocasiones en las que un amplio espectro de personas escuchan sánscrito y, ocasionalmente, se suman para decir algunas palabras en sánscrito, como namah . [125]

El sánscrito clásico es el registro estándar tal como se establece en la gramática de Pāṇini , alrededor del siglo IV a. C. [167] Su posición en las culturas de la Gran India es similar a la del latín y el griego antiguo en Europa. El sánscrito ha influido significativamente en la mayoría de las lenguas modernas del subcontinente indio , en particular las lenguas del subcontinente indio del norte, oeste, centro y este. [168] [169] [170]

Rechazar

El sánscrito comenzó a declinar a partir del siglo XIII. [127] [171] Esto coincide con el comienzo de las invasiones islámicas del sur de Asia para crear y, posteriormente, expandir el dominio musulmán en forma de sultanatos y, más tarde, el Imperio mogol . [172] Sheldon Pollock caracteriza el declive del sánscrito como un "cambio cultural, social y político" a largo plazo. Rechaza la idea de que el sánscrito decayó debido a la "lucha contra los invasores bárbaros", y enfatiza factores como el creciente atractivo de la lengua vernácula para la expresión literaria. [173]

Con la caída de Cachemira alrededor del siglo XIII, un centro de primer orden de la creatividad literaria sánscrita, la literatura sánscrita desapareció allí, [174] quizás en los "incendios que periódicamente envolvían la capital de Cachemira" o la "invasión mongola de 1320", afirma Pollock. [175] La literatura sánscrita que una vez se difundió ampliamente fuera de las regiones del noroeste del subcontinente, se detuvo después del siglo XII. [176] A medida que los reinos hindúes cayeron en el este y el sur de la India, como el gran Imperio Vijayanagara , también lo hizo el sánscrito. [174] Hubo excepciones y cortos períodos de apoyo imperial al sánscrito, principalmente concentrados durante el reinado del tolerante emperador mogol Akbar . [177] Los gobernantes musulmanes patrocinaron el idioma y las escrituras de Oriente Medio que se encontraban en Persia y Arabia, y los indios se adaptaron lingüísticamente a esta persanización para ganar empleo con los gobernantes musulmanes. [178] Los gobernantes hindúes, como Shivaji del Imperio Maratha , revirtieron el proceso al readoptar el sánscrito y reafirmar su identidad sociolingüística. [178] [179] [180] Después de que el gobierno islámico se desintegrara en el sur de Asia y comenzara la era del gobierno colonial, el sánscrito resurgió, pero en forma de una "existencia fantasmal" en regiones como Bengala. Este declive fue el resultado de "instituciones políticas y ethos cívico" que no respaldaron la cultura literaria sánscrita histórica [174] y el fracaso de la nueva literatura sánscrita para asimilarse al cambiante entorno cultural y político. [173]

Sheldon Pollock afirma que, de alguna manera crucial, "el sánscrito ha muerto ". [181] Después del siglo XII, las obras literarias en sánscrito se redujeron a "reinscripciones y reformulaciones" de ideas ya exploradas, y toda creatividad se limitó a himnos y versos. Esto contrasta con los 1.500 años anteriores, cuando "grandes experimentos en imaginación moral y estética" marcaron la erudición india que utilizaba el sánscrito clásico, afirma Pollock. [176]

Los estudiosos sostienen que el idioma sánscrito no murió, sino que más bien sólo decayó. Jurgen Hanneder no está de acuerdo con Pollock, pues considera que sus argumentos son elegantes pero "a menudo arbitrarios". Según Hanneder, un declive o una ausencia regional de literatura creativa e innovadora constituye una evidencia negativa de la hipótesis de Pollock, pero no es una evidencia positiva. Un análisis más detallado del sánscrito en la historia de la India después del siglo XII sugiere que el sánscrito sobrevivió a pesar de las dificultades. Según Hanneder, [182]

En un nivel más público, la afirmación de que el sánscrito es una lengua muerta es engañosa, ya que es evidente que el sánscrito no está tan muerto como otras lenguas muertas y el hecho de que se hable, se escriba y se lea probablemente convencerá a la mayoría de la gente de que no puede ser una lengua muerta en el sentido más común del término. La noción de Pollock de la "muerte del sánscrito" permanece en este ámbito poco claro entre la academia y la opinión pública cuando dice que "la mayoría de los observadores estarían de acuerdo en que, de alguna manera crucial, el sánscrito está muerto". [174]

Existen manuscritos en sánscrito en muchas escrituras. Arriba, de arriba a abajo: Isha Upanishad (Devanagari), Samaveda (Tamil Grantha), Bhagavad Gita (Gurmukhi), Vedanta Sara (Telugu), Jatakamala (Sharada primitivo). Todos son textos hindúes, excepto el último texto budista.

El estudioso del sánscrito Moriz Winternitz afirma que el sánscrito nunca fue una lengua muerta y que sigue viva, aunque su prevalencia es menor que en los tiempos antiguos y medievales. El sánscrito sigue siendo una parte integral de los diarios hindúes, los festivales, las obras de teatro Ramlila, el teatro, los rituales y los ritos de paso. [183] ​​De manera similar, Brian Hatcher afirma que las "metáforas de ruptura histórica" ​​de Pollock no son válidas, que hay pruebas suficientes de que el sánscrito estaba muy vivo en los estrechos confines de los reinos hindúes supervivientes entre los siglos XIII y XVIII, y que su reverencia y tradición continúan. [184]

Hanneder afirma que las obras modernas en sánscrito son ignoradas o se cuestiona su "modernidad". [185]

Según Robert P. Goldman y Sally Sutherland, el sánscrito no está ni “muerto” ni “vivo” en el sentido convencional. Es un idioma especial, atemporal, que vive en numerosos manuscritos, cantos diarios y recitaciones ceremoniales, una lengua heredada que los indios aprecian en su contexto y que algunos practican. [186]

Cuando los británicos introdujeron el inglés en la India en el siglo XIX, el conocimiento del sánscrito y la literatura antigua continuó floreciendo a medida que el estudio del sánscrito cambió de un estilo más tradicional a una forma de erudición analítica y comparativa que reflejaba la de Europa. [187]

Lenguas indoarias modernas

La relación del sánscrito con las lenguas prácritas, en particular la forma moderna de las lenguas indias, es compleja y abarca unos 3.500 años, afirma Colin Masica , un lingüista especializado en lenguas del sur de Asia. Una parte de la dificultad es la falta de suficiente evidencia textual, arqueológica y epigráfica de las antiguas lenguas prácritas, con raras excepciones como el pali, lo que conduce a una tendencia a los errores anacrónicos . [188] Las lenguas sánscritas y prácritas pueden dividirse en indoario antiguo (1500 a. C. - 600 a. C.), indoario medio (600 a. C. - 1000 d. C.) y nuevo indoario (1000 d. C. - presente), cada una de las cuales puede subdividirse a su vez en subetapas evolutivas temprana, media o segunda y tardía. [188]

El sánscrito védico pertenece a la etapa temprana del indoario antiguo, mientras que el sánscrito clásico a la etapa posterior del indoario antiguo. La evidencia de los prácritos como el pali (budismo theravada) y el ardhamagadhi (jainismo), junto con el magadhi, el maharashtri, el cingalés, el sauraseni y el niya (gandhari), surge en la etapa indoaria media en dos versiones (arcaica y más formalizada) que pueden ubicarse en las subetapas temprana y media del período 600 a. C. - 1000 d. C. [ 188] Se pueden rastrear dos lenguas literarias indoarias hasta la etapa tardía del indoario medio, y estas son el apabhramsa y el elu (una forma literaria del cingalés ). Numerosas lenguas del norte, centro, este y oeste de la India, como el hindi, el gujarati, el sindhi, el panyabí, el cachemiro, el nepalí, el braj, el awadhi, el bengalí, el asamés, el oriya, el maratí y otras pertenecen a la nueva etapa indoaria. [188]

Existe una amplia superposición en el vocabulario, la fonética y otros aspectos de estas nuevas lenguas indoarias con el sánscrito, pero no es universal ni idéntica en todas las lenguas. Probablemente surgieron de una síntesis de las antiguas tradiciones lingüísticas sánscritas y una mezcla de varios dialectos regionales. Cada lengua tiene algunos aspectos únicos y regionalmente creativos, con orígenes poco claros. Las lenguas prácritas tienen una estructura gramatical, pero al igual que el sánscrito védico, es mucho menos rigurosa que el sánscrito clásico. Si bien las raíces de todas las lenguas prácritas pueden estar en el sánscrito védico y, en última instancia, en la lengua protoindoaria, sus detalles estructurales varían de los del sánscrito clásico. [28] [188] Los eruditos generalmente aceptan y creen ampliamente en la India que las lenguas indoarias modernas , como el bengalí, el gujarati, el hindi y el panyabí, son descendientes del sánscrito. [189] [190] [191] El sánscrito, afirma Burjor Avari, puede describirse como "la lengua madre de casi todas las lenguas del norte de la India". [192]

Distribución geográfica

La presencia histórica del sánscrito está atestiguada en muchos países. Entre las pruebas se encuentran páginas manuscritas e inscripciones descubiertas en el sur de Asia, el sudeste de Asia y Asia central, que se han datado entre el 300 y el 1800 d. C.

La presencia histórica del sánscrito está atestiguada en una amplia geografía más allá del sur de Asia. Las inscripciones y la evidencia literaria sugieren que el sánscrito ya se estaba adoptando en el sudeste asiático y en Asia central en el primer milenio de nuestra era, a través de monjes, peregrinos religiosos y comerciantes. [193] [194] [195]

El sur de Asia ha sido el área geográfica de la mayor colección de manuscritos e inscripciones sánscritas antiguas y anteriores al siglo XVIII. [139] Más allá de la antigua India, se han encontrado colecciones significativas de manuscritos e inscripciones sánscritas en China (particularmente en los monasterios tibetanos), [196] [197] Myanmar , [198] Indonesia , [199] Camboya , [200] Laos , [201] Vietnam , [202] Tailandia , [203] y Malasia . [201] Se han descubierto inscripciones, manuscritos o restos de sánscritos, incluidos algunos de los textos escritos en sánscrito más antiguos que se conocen, en desiertos altos y secos y terrenos montañosos como Nepal, [204] [205] [m] Tíbet, [197] [206] Afganistán, [207] [208] Mongolia, [209] Uzbekistán, [210] Turkmenistán, Tayikistán, [210] y Kazajstán. [211] También se han descubierto algunos textos e inscripciones en sánscrito en Corea y Japón. [212] [213] [214]

Estatus oficial

En la India, el sánscrito se encuentra entre los 22 idiomas oficiales de la India en el Octavo Anexo de la Constitución . [215] En 2010, Uttarakhand se convirtió en el primer estado de la India en hacer del sánscrito su segundo idioma oficial. [216] En 2019, Himachal Pradesh hizo del sánscrito su segundo idioma oficial, convirtiéndose en el segundo estado de la India en hacerlo. [217]

Fonología

El sánscrito comparte muchas características fonológicas del protoindoeuropeo, aunque presenta un inventario más amplio de fonemas distintos. El sistema consonántico es el mismo, aunque amplió sistemáticamente el inventario de sonidos distintos. Por ejemplo, el sánscrito agregó una "tʰ" aspirada sorda a la "t" sorda, la "d" sonora y la "dʰ" sonora aspirada que se encuentran en las lenguas del IEP. [218]

El desarrollo fonológico más significativo y distintivo en sánscrito es la fusión de vocales. [218] Las cortas *e , *o y *a , todas se fusionan como a (अ) en sánscrito, mientras que las largas , y *ā , todas se fusionan como ā larga (आ). Compárese el sánscrito nāman con el latín nōmen . Estas fusiones ocurrieron muy temprano y afectaron significativamente el sistema morfológico del sánscrito. [218] Algunos desarrollos fonológicos en él reflejan aquellos en otros idiomas PIE. Por ejemplo, las labiovelares se fusionaron con las velares simples como en otros idiomas satem. La palatalización secundaria de los segmentos resultantes es más completa y sistemática dentro del sánscrito. [218] Por ejemplo, a diferencia de la pérdida de la claridad morfológica de la contracción vocálica que se encuentra en el griego temprano y los idiomas relacionados del sudeste europeo, el sánscrito desplegó *y , *w y *s intervocálicamente para proporcionar claridad morfológica. [218]

Vocales

Un manuscrito en hoja de palma publicado en el año 828 d. C. con el alfabeto sánscrito.
Este es uno de los manuscritos en hojas de palma más antiguos que se conservan y datan de 828 d. C. Descubierto en Nepal, la hoja inferior muestra todas las vocales y consonantes del sánscrito (las primeras cinco consonantes están resaltadas en azul y amarillo).

Las vocales cardinales ( svaras ) i (इ), u (उ), a (अ) distinguen la longitud en sánscrito. [219] [220] La a corta (अ) en sánscrito es una vocal más cercana que ā, equivalente a schwa. Las vocales medias ē (ए) y ō (ओ) en sánscrito son monoftongaciones de los diptongos indoiraníes *ai y *au . El antiguo idioma iraní conservó *ai y *au . [219] Las vocales sánscritas son inherentemente largas, aunque a menudo se transcriben e y o sin el diacrítico. La líquida vocálica en sánscrito es una fusión de las PIE *r̥ y *l̥ . La larga es una innovación y se utiliza en unas pocas categorías morfológicas generadas analógicamente. [219] [221] [222]

Según Masica, el sánscrito tiene cuatro semivocales tradicionales, con las que se clasificaban, "por razones morfofonémicas, las líquidas: y, r, l y v; es decir, como y y v eran las no silábicas correspondientes a i, u, también lo eran r, l en relación con r̥ y l̥". [227] Los dialectos sánscritos del noroeste, central y oriental han tenido una confusión histórica entre "r" y "l". El sistema paniniano que siguió al dialecto central preservó la distinción, probablemente por reverencia al sánscrito védico que distinguía la "r" y la "l". Sin embargo, el dialecto del noroeste solo tenía "r", mientras que el dialecto oriental probablemente solo tenía "l", afirma Masica. Por lo tanto, las obras literarias de diferentes partes de la antigua India parecen inconsistentes en su uso de "r" y "l", lo que resulta en dobletes que ocasionalmente se diferencian semánticamente. [227]

Consonantes

El sánscrito posee una estructura de fonemas consonánticos simétricos basada en cómo se articula el sonido, aunque el uso real de estos sonidos oculta la falta de paralelismo en la aparente simetría, posiblemente debido a cambios históricos dentro del idioma. [228]

El sánscrito tenía una serie de oclusivas retroflejas que se originaron como alternantes condicionadas de dentales, aunque para el sánscrito se habían vuelto fonémicas. [228]

En cuanto a las oclusivas palatales, la pronunciación es un tema de debate. En los testimonios contemporáneos, las oclusivas palatales son una serie regular de oclusivas palatales, respaldadas por la mayoría de las reglas del sandhi sánscrito. Sin embargo, los reflejos en las lenguas descendientes, así como algunas de las reglas del sandhi relacionadas con ch , podrían sugerir una pronunciación africada.

jh era un fonema marginal en sánscrito, por lo que su fonología es más difícil de reconstruir; se empleó más comúnmente en las lenguas indoarias medias como resultado de los procesos fonológicos que dieron lugar al fonema.

La nasal palatina es una variante condicionada de n que aparece junto a obstruyentes palatinas. [228] El anusvara que utiliza el sánscrito es un alternante condicionado de nasales postvocálicas, en ciertas condiciones de sandhi. [229] Su visarga es un alternante condicionado de s y r al final de palabra o de morfema en ciertas condiciones de sandhi. [229]

El sistema de los sonidos sánscritos
[El] orden de los sonidos sánscritos funciona según tres principios: va de lo simple a lo complejo; va de atrás hacia adelante en la boca; y agrupa los sonidos similares. [...] Entre sí, tanto las vocales como las consonantes se ordenan según el lugar de la boca en que se pronuncian, yendo de atrás hacia adelante.

— AM Ruppel, Introducción de Cambridge al sánscrito [230]

La serie aspirada sorda también es una innovación en sánscrito, pero es significativamente más rara que las otras tres series. [228]

Si bien el sánscrito organiza los sonidos para expresarse de una manera distinta a la del PIE, conservó muchas características presentes en los idiomas iraní y baltoeslavo. Un ejemplo de un proceso similar en los tres es la sibilante retrofleja ʂ, que es el producto automático de la s dental que sigue a i, u, r y k . [229]

Alternancias fonológicas, reglas de sandhi

El sánscrito utiliza amplias alternancias fonológicas en diferentes niveles lingüísticos a través de reglas de sandhi (literalmente, las reglas de "juntar, unir, conectar, alianza"), similares a la alteración inglesa de "going to" como gonna . [231] El idioma sánscrito acepta tales alteraciones dentro de él, pero ofrece reglas formales para el sandhi de dos palabras cualesquiera que estén una al lado de la otra en la misma oración o que conecten dos oraciones. Las reglas de sandhi externas establecen que las vocales cortas similares se fusionan en una sola vocal larga, mientras que las vocales diferentes forman deslizamientos o experimentan diptongación. [231] Entre las consonantes, la mayoría de las reglas de sandhi externas recomiendan la asimilación regresiva para mayor claridad cuando se expresan sonoramente. Estas reglas se aplican ordinariamente en las uniones compuestas y los límites de los morfemas. [231] En el sánscrito védico, las reglas de sandhi externas son más variables que en el sánscrito clásico. [232]

Las reglas internas del sandhi son más intrincadas y dan cuenta de la raíz y la estructura canónica de la palabra sánscrita. Estas reglas anticipan lo que ahora se conoce como la ley de Bartholomae y la ley de Grassmann . Por ejemplo, afirma Jamison, las "obstruyentes sordas, sonoras y aspiradas sonoras de una serie posicional se alternan regularmente entre sí ( pbbh ; tddh , etc.; nótese, sin embargo, cjh ), de modo que, por ejemplo, un morfema con una final aspirada sonora subyacente puede mostrar alternantes con las tres oclusivas en diferentes condiciones internas del sandhi". [233] La serie velar (k, g, gʰ) se alterna con la serie palatal (c, j, h), mientras que la posición estructural de la serie palatal se modifica en un grupo retroflejo cuando va seguida de la dental. Esta regla crea dos series morfofonémicamente distintas a partir de una única serie palatal. [233]

Las alternancias vocálicas en el sistema morfológico sánscrito se denominan "fortalecimiento", y se llaman guṇa y vr̥ddhi en las versiones preconsonánticas. Existe una equivalencia con los términos utilizados en las gramáticas descriptivas indoeuropeas, donde el estado no reforzado del sánscrito es el mismo que el grado cero, guṇa corresponde al grado normal, mientras que vr̥ddhi es el mismo que el estado alargado. [234] El ablaut cualitativo no se encuentra en sánscrito al igual que está ausente en iraní, pero el sánscrito conserva el ablaut cuantitativo a través del fortalecimiento vocálico. [234] Las transformaciones entre no reforzado a guṇa son prominentes en el sistema morfológico, afirma Jamison, mientras que vr̥ddhi es una regla particularmente significativa cuando se derivan adjetivos de origen y pertenencia. La forma en que esto se hace difiere ligeramente entre el sánscrito védico y el clásico. [234] [235]

El sánscrito otorga una estructura silábica muy flexible, donde pueden comenzar o terminar con vocales, ser consonantes simples o grupos. De manera similar, la sílaba puede tener una vocal interna de cualquier peso. El sánscrito védico muestra rastros de seguir la ley de Sievers-Edgerton , pero el sánscrito clásico no. [ cita requerida ] El sánscrito védico tiene un sistema de acento tonal (heredado del protoindoeuropeo) que fue reconocido por Pāṇini, afirma Jamison; pero en su sánscrito clásico los acentos desaparecen. [236] La mayoría de las palabras del sánscrito védico tienen un acento. Sin embargo, este acento no es fonológicamente predecible, afirma Jamison. [236] Puede caer en cualquier parte de la palabra y su posición a menudo transmite información morfológica y sintáctica. [236] La presencia de un sistema de acento en el sánscrito védico se evidencia a partir de las marcas en los textos védicos. Esto es importante debido a la conexión del sánscrito con las lenguas del PIE y la lingüística indoeuropea comparada. [237]

El sánscrito, como la mayoría de las lenguas indoeuropeas tempranas, perdió las llamadas "consonantes laríngeas (símbolo de cobertura *H ) presentes en el protoindoeuropeo", afirma Jamison. [236] Esto afectó significativamente el camino evolutivo de la fonología y morfología del sánscrito, particularmente en las formas variantes de las raíces. [238]

Pronunciación

Como el sánscrito no es la lengua materna de nadie, no tiene una pronunciación fija. La gente tiende a pronunciarlo como lo hace en su lengua materna. Los artículos sobre la fonología del indostánico , el maratí , el nepalí , el oriya y el bengalí darán alguna indicación de la variación que se encuentra. Cuando el sánscrito era una lengua hablada, su pronunciación variaba regionalmente y también a lo largo del tiempo. No obstante, Panini describió el sistema de sonido del sánscrito lo suficientemente bien como para que la gente tenga una idea bastante clara de lo que pretendía.

Morfología

La base de la morfología sánscrita es la raíz, afirma Jamison, "un morfema que lleva un significado léxico". [241] Los vocablos sánscritos derivan de esta raíz a través de los procesos fonológicos de gradación vocálica, la adición de afijos, vocablos y vocablos. A continuación, se añade una terminación para establecer la identidad gramatical y sintáctica del vocablo. Según Jamison, los "tres elementos formales principales de la morfología son (i) la raíz, (ii) el afijo y (iii) la terminación; y son, en líneas generales, los responsables de (i) el significado léxico, (ii) la derivación y (iii) la flexión, respectivamente". [242]

Una palabra sánscrita tiene la siguiente estructura canónica: [241]

Raíz + Afijo
0-n
+ Final
0–1

La estructura de la raíz tiene ciertas restricciones fonológicas. Dos de las restricciones más importantes de una "raíz" es que no termina en una "a" corta (अ) y que es monosilábica. [241] En cambio, los afijos y las terminaciones sí lo hacen. Los afijos en sánscrito son casi siempre sufijos, con excepciones como el aumento "a-" añadido como prefijo a las formas verbales en tiempo pasado y el infijo "-na/n-" en la clase verbal presente única, afirma Jamison. [241]

Los verbos sánscritos tienen la siguiente estructura canónica: [243]

Raíz + Sufijo
Aspecto temporal
+ Sufijo
Ánimo
+ Final
Número personal de voz

Según Ruppel, los verbos en sánscrito expresan la misma información que otros idiomas indoeuropeos como el inglés. [244] Los verbos sánscritos describen una acción, un suceso o un estado, su morfología incorporada informa sobre "quién lo está haciendo" (persona o personas), "cuándo se hace" (tiempo) y "cómo se hace" (estado de ánimo, voz). Los idiomas indoeuropeos difieren en los detalles. Por ejemplo, el idioma sánscrito agrega los afijos y la terminación a la raíz del verbo, mientras que el idioma inglés agrega pequeñas palabras independientes antes del verbo. En sánscrito, estos elementos coexisten dentro de la palabra. [244] [x]

Jamison afirma que tanto los verbos como los sustantivos en sánscrito son temáticos o atemáticos. [246] Las formas guna (reforzadas) en singular activo se alternan regularmente en verbos atemáticos. Los verbos finitos del sánscrito clásico tienen las siguientes categorías gramaticales: persona, número, voz, tiempo-aspecto y modo. Según Jamison, un morfema compuesto generalmente expresa la persona-número-voz en sánscrito, y a veces también la terminación o solo la terminación. El modo de la palabra está incrustado en el afijo. [246]

Estos elementos de la arquitectura de las palabras son los bloques de construcción típicos del sánscrito clásico, pero en el sánscrito védico estos elementos fluctúan y no están claros. Por ejemplo, en el Rigveda los preverbios aparecen regularmente en tmesis , afirma Jamison, lo que significa que están "separados del verbo finito". [241] Esta indecisión probablemente esté vinculada al intento del sánscrito védico de incorporar el acento. Con las formas no finitas del verbo y con los derivados nominales del mismo, afirma Jamison, "los preverbios muestran una univerbación mucho más clara en el védico, tanto por posición como por acento, y en el sánscrito clásico, la tmesis ya no es posible ni siquiera con formas finitas". [241]

Aunque las raíces son típicas del sánscrito, algunas palabras no siguen la estructura canónica. [242] Algunas formas carecen tanto de flexión como de raíz. Muchas palabras son flexionadas (y pueden entrar en derivación) pero carecen de una raíz reconocible. Ejemplos del vocabulario básico incluyen términos de parentesco como mātar- (madre), nas- (nariz), śvan- (perro). Según Jamison, los pronombres y algunas palabras fuera de las categorías semánticas también carecen de raíces, al igual que los numerales. De manera similar, el idioma sánscrito es lo suficientemente flexible como para no exigir flexión. [242]

Las palabras sánscritas pueden contener más de un afijo que interactúan entre sí. Los afijos en sánscrito pueden ser atemáticos y temáticos, según Jamison. [247] Los afijos atemáticos pueden ser alternantes. El sánscrito utiliza ocho casos, a saber: nominativo, acusativo, instrumental, dativo, ablativo, genitivo, locativo y vocativo. [247]

Los nexos, es decir, "raíz + afijo", aparecen en dos categorías en sánscrito: nexos vocálicos y nexos consonánticos. A diferencia de algunas lenguas indoeuropeas como el latín o el griego, según Jamison, "el sánscrito no tiene un conjunto cerrado de declinaciones de sustantivos denotadas convencionalmente". El sánscrito incluye un conjunto bastante grande de tipos de nexos. [248] La interacción lingüística de las raíces, los segmentos fonológicos, los elementos léxicos y la gramática del sánscrito clásico consisten en cuatro componentes paninianos . Estos, afirma Paul Kiparsky, son el Astadhyaayi , un sistema integral de 4.000 reglas gramaticales, de las cuales un pequeño conjunto se utiliza con frecuencia; Sivasutras , un inventario de anubandhas (marcadores) que dividen los segmentos fonológicos para abreviaturas eficientes a través de la técnica pratyharas ; Dhatupatha , una lista de 2.000 raíces verbales clasificadas por su morfología y propiedades sintácticas utilizando marcadores diacríticos, una estructura que guía sus sistemas de escritura; y, el Ganapatha , un inventario de grupos de palabras, clases de sistemas léxicos. [249] Hay adjuntos periféricos a estos cuatro, como los Unadisutras , que se centran en los derivados formados irregularmente a partir de las raíces. [249]

La morfología sánscrita se estudia generalmente en dos grandes categorías fundamentales: las formas nominales y las formas verbales. Estas difieren en los tipos de terminaciones y lo que estas terminaciones marcan en el contexto gramatical. [242] Los pronombres y los sustantivos comparten las mismas categorías gramaticales, aunque pueden diferir en la flexión. Los adjetivos y participios basados ​​en verbos no son formalmente distintos de los sustantivos. Los adverbios son típicamente formas congeladas de los adjetivos, afirma Jamison, y "las formas verbales no finitas como los infinitivos y los gerundios también muestran claramente terminaciones congeladas de los casos nominales". [242]

Tiempo y voz

El idioma sánscrito incluye cinco tiempos: presente, futuro, pretérito imperfecto, pretérito aoristo y pretérito perfecto. [245] Se distinguen tres tipos de voces: activa, pasiva y media. [245] La media también se denomina mediopasiva, o más formalmente en sánscrito como parasmaipada (palabra para otro) y atmanepada (palabra para uno mismo). [243]

The paradigm for the tense-aspect system in Sanskrit is the three-way contrast between the "present", the "aorist" and the "perfect" architecture.[250] Vedic Sanskrit is more elaborate and had several additional tenses. For example, the Rigveda includes perfect and a marginal pluperfect. Classical Sanskrit simplifies the "present" system down to two tenses, the perfect and the imperfect, while the "aorist" stems retain the aorist tense and the "perfect" stems retain the perfect and marginal pluperfect.[250] The classical version of the language has elaborate rules for both voice and the tense-aspect system to emphasize clarity, and this is more elaborate than in other Indo-European languages. The evolution of these systems can be seen from the earliest layers of the Vedic literature to the late Vedic literature.[251]

Number, person

Sanskrit recognizes three numbers—singular, dual, and plural.[247] The dual is a fully functioning category, used beyond naturally paired objects such as hands or eyes, extending to any collection of two. The elliptical dual is notable in the Vedic Sanskrit, according to Jamison, where a noun in the dual signals a paired opposition.[247] Illustrations include dyāvā (literally, "the two heavens" for heaven-and-earth), mātarā (literally, "the two mothers" for mother-and-father).[247] A verb may be singular, dual or plural, while the person recognized in the language are forms of "I", "you", "he/she/it", "we" and "they".[245]

There are three persons in Sanskrit: first, second and third.[243] Sanskrit uses the 3×3 grid formed by the three numbers and the three persons parameters as the paradigm and the basic building block of its verbal system.[251]

Gender, mood

The Sanskrit language incorporates three genders: feminine, masculine and neuter.[247] All nouns have inherent gender. With some exceptions, personal pronouns have no gender. Exceptions include demonstrative and anaphoric pronouns.[247] Derivation of a word is used to express the feminine. Two most common derivations come from feminine-forming suffixes, the -ā- (आ, Rādhā) and -ī- (ई, Rukmīnī). The masculine and neuter are much simpler, and the difference between them is primarily inflectional.[247][252] Similar affixes for the feminine are found in many Indo-European languages, states Burrow, suggesting links of the Sanskrit to its PIE heritage.[253]

Pronouns in Sanskrit include the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, unmarked for gender, and a larger number of gender-distinguishing pronouns and adjectives.[246] Examples of the former include ahám (first singular), vayám (first plural) and yūyám (second plural). The latter can be demonstrative, deictic or anaphoric.[246] Both the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit share the sá/tám pronominal stem, and this is the closest element to a third person pronoun and an article in the Sanskrit language, states Jamison.[246]

Indicative, potential and imperative are the three mood forms in Sanskrit.[245]

Prosody, metre

The Sanskrit language formally incorporates poetic metres.[254] By the late Vedic era, this developed into a field of study; it was central to the composition of the Hindu literature, including the later Vedic texts. This study of Sanskrit prosody is called chandas, and is considered one of the six Vedangas, or limbs of Vedic studies.[254][255]

Sanskrit prosody includes linear and non-linear systems.[256] The system started off with seven major metres, according to Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, called the "seven birds" or "seven mouths of Brihaspati", and each had its own rhythm, movements and aesthetics wherein a non-linear structure (aperiodicity) was mapped into a four verse polymorphic linear sequence.[256] A syllable in Sanskrit is classified as either laghu (light) or guru (heavy). This classification is based on a matra (literally, "count, measure, duration"), and typically a syllable that ends in a short vowel is a light syllable, while those that end in consonant, anusvara or visarga are heavy. The classical Sanskrit found in Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita and many texts are so arranged that the light and heavy syllables in them follow a rhythm, though not necessarily a rhyme.[257][258][aa]

Sanskrit metres include those based on a fixed number of syllables per verse, and those based on fixed number of morae per verse.[260] The Vedic Sanskrit employs fifteen metres, of which seven are common, and the most frequent are three (8-, 11- and 12-syllable lines).[261] The Classical Sanskrit deploys both linear and non-linear metres, many of which are based on syllables and others based on diligently crafted verses based on repeating numbers of morae (matra per foot).[261]

There is no word without metre,
nor is there any metre without words.

Natya Shastra[262]

Metre and rhythm is an important part of the Sanskrit language. It may have played a role in helping preserve the integrity of the message and Sanskrit texts. The verse perfection in the Vedic texts such as the verse Upanishads[ab] and post-Vedic Smṛti texts are rich in prosody. This feature of the Sanskrit language led some Indologists from the 19th century onwards to identify suspected portions of texts where a line or sections are off the expected metre.[263][264][ac]

The metre-feature of the Sanskrit language embeds another layer of communication to the listener or reader. A change in metres has been a tool of literary architecture and an embedded code to inform the reciter and audience that it marks the end of a section or chapter.[268] Each section or chapter of these texts uses identical metres, rhythmically presenting their ideas and making it easier to remember, recall and check for accuracy.[268] Authors coded a hymn's end by frequently using a verse of a metre different from that used in the hymn's body.[268] However, Hindu tradition does not use the Gayatri metre to end a hymn or composition, possibly because it has enjoyed a special level of reverence in Hinduism.[268]

Writing system

One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit manuscript pages in Gupta script (c. 828 CE), discovered in Nepal

The early history of writing Sanskrit and other languages in ancient India is a problematic topic despite a century of scholarship, states Richard Salomon – an epigraphist and Indologist specializing in Sanskrit and Pali literature.[269] The earliest possible script from South Asia is from the Indus Valley civilization (3rd/2nd millennium BCE), but this script – if it is a script – remains undeciphered. If any scripts existed in the Vedic period, they have not survived. Scholars generally accept that Sanskrit was spoken in an oral society, and that an oral tradition preserved the extensive Vedic and Classical Sanskrit literature.[270] Other scholars such as Jack Goody argue that the Vedic Sanskrit texts are not the product of an oral society, basing this view by comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek (Greco-Sanskrit), Serbian, and other cultures. This minority of scholars argue that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without having been written down.[271][272][273]

Lipi is the term in Sanskrit which means "writing, letters, alphabet". It contextually refers to scripts, the art or any manner of writing or drawing.[100] The term, in the sense of a writing system, appears in some of the earliest Buddhist, Hindu, and Jaina texts. Pāṇini's Astadhyayi, composed sometime around the 5th or 4th century BCE, for example, mentions lipi in the context of a writing script and education system in his times, but he does not name the script.[100][101][274] Several early Buddhist and Jaina texts, such as the Lalitavistara Sūtra and Pannavana Sutta include lists of numerous writing scripts in ancient India.[ad] The Buddhist texts list the sixty four lipi that the Buddha knew as a child, with the Brahmi script topping the list. "The historical value of this list is however limited by several factors", states Salomon. The list may be a later interpolation.[276][ae] The Jain canonical texts such as the Pannavana Sutta – probably older than the Buddhist texts – list eighteen writing systems, with the Brahmi topping the list and Kharotthi (Kharoshthi) listed as fourth. The Jaina text elsewhere states that the "Brahmi is written in 18 different forms", but the details are lacking.[278] However, the reliability of these lists has been questioned and the empirical evidence of writing systems in the form of Sanskrit or Prakrit inscriptions dated prior to the 3rd century BCE has not been found. If the ancient surfaces for writing Sanskrit were palm leaves, tree bark and cloth – the same as those in later times – these have not survived.[279][af] According to Salomon, many find it difficult to explain the "evidently high level of political organization and cultural complexity" of ancient India without a writing system for Sanskrit and other languages.[279][ag]

The oldest datable writing systems for Sanskrit are the Brāhmī script, the related Kharoṣṭhī script and the Brahmi derivatives.[282][283] The Kharosthi was used in the northwestern part of South Asia and it became extinct, while the Brahmi was used all over the subcontinent along with regional scripts such as Old Tamil.[284] Of these, the earliest records in the Sanskrit language are in Brahmi, a script that later evolved into numerous related Indic scripts for Sanskrit, along with Southeast Asian scripts (Burmese, Thai, Lao, Khmer, others) and many extinct Central Asian scripts such as those discovered along with the Kharosthi in the Tarim Basin of western China and in Uzbekistan.[285] The most extensive inscriptions that have survived into the modern era are the rock edicts and pillar inscriptions of the 3rd century BCE Mauryan emperor Ashoka, but these are not in Sanskrit.[286][ah]

Scripts

Over the centuries, and across countries, a number of scripts have been used to write Sanskrit.

Brahmi script

One of the oldest Hindu Sanskrit[ai] inscriptions, the broken pieces of this early-1st-century BCE Hathibada Brahmi Inscription were discovered in Rajasthan. It is a dedication to deities Vāsudeva-Samkarshana (Krishna-Balarama) and mentions a stone temple.[142][287]

The Brahmi script for writing Sanskrit is a "modified consonant-syllabic" script. The graphic syllable is its basic unit, and this consists of a consonant with or without diacritic modifications.[283] Since the vowel is an integral part of the consonants, and given the efficiently compacted, fused consonant cluster morphology for Sanskrit words and grammar, the Brahmi and its derivative writing systems deploy ligatures, diacritics and relative positioning of the vowel to inform the reader how the vowel is related to the consonant and how it is expected to be pronounced for clarity.[283][288][aj] This feature of Brahmi and its modern Indic script derivatives makes it difficult to classify it under the main script types used for the writing systems for most of the world's languages, namely logographic, syllabic and alphabetic.[283]

The Brahmi script evolved into "a vast number of forms and derivatives", states Richard Salomon, and in theory, Sanskrit "can be represented in virtually any of the main Brahmi-based scripts and in practice it often is".[289] From the ancient times, it has been written in numerous regional scripts in South and Southeast Asia. Most of these are descendants of the Brahmi script.[ak] The earliest datable varnamala Brahmi alphabet system, found in later Sanskrit texts, is from the 2nd century BCE, in the form of a terracotta plaque found in Sughana, Haryana. It shows a "schoolboy's writing lessons", states Salomon.[291][292]

Nagari script

Many modern era manuscripts are written and available in the Nagari script, whose form is attestable to the 1st millennium CE.[293] The Nagari script is the ancestor of Devanagari (north India), Nandinagari (south India) and other variants. The Nāgarī script was in regular use by 7th century CE, and had fully evolved into Devanagari and Nandinagari[294] scripts by about the end of the first millennium of the common era.[295][296] The Devanagari script, states Banerji, became more popular for Sanskrit in India since about the 18th century.[297] However, Sanskrit does have special historical connection to the Nagari script as attested by the epigraphical evidence.[298]

The Nagari script has been thought of as a northern Indic script for Sanskrit as well as the regional languages such as Hindi, Marathi, and Nepali. However, it has had a "supra-local" status as evidenced by 1st-millennium CE epigraphy and manuscripts discovered all over India and as far as Sri Lanka, Burma, Indonesia, and in its parent form, called the Siddhamatrka script, found in manuscripts of East Asia.[299] The Sanskrit and Balinese languages Sanur inscription on Belanjong pillar of Bali (Indonesia), dated to about 914 CE, is in part in the Nagari script.[300]

The Nagari script used for Classical Sanskrit has the fullest repertoire of characters consisting of fourteen vowels and thirty three consonants. For Vedic Sanskrit, it has two more allophonic consonantal characters (the intervocalic ळ ḷa, and ळ्ह ḷha).[299] To communicate phonetic accuracy, it also includes several modifiers such as the anusvara dot and the visarga double dot, punctuation symbols and others such as the halanta sign.[299]

Other writing systems

Sanskrit in modern Indian and other Brahmi scripts: May Śiva bless those who take delight in the language of the gods. (Kālidāsa)

Other scripts such as Gujarati, Bangla-Assamese, Odia and major south Indian scripts, states Salomon, "have been and often still are used in their proper territories for writing Sanskrit".[293] These and many Indian scripts look different to the untrained eye, but the differences between Indic scripts is "mostly superficial and they share the same phonetic repertoire and systemic features", states Salomon.[301] They all have essentially the same set of eleven to fourteen vowels and thirty-three consonants as established by the Sanskrit language and attestable in the Brahmi script. Further, a closer examination reveals that they all have the similar basic graphic principles, the same varnamala (literally, "garland of letters") alphabetic ordering following the same logical phonetic order, easing the work of historic skilled scribes writing or reproducing Sanskrit works across South Asia.[302][al] The Sanskrit language written in some Indic scripts exaggerate angles or round shapes, but this serves only to mask the underlying similarities. Nagari script favours symmetry set with squared outlines and right angles. In contrast, Sanskrit written in the Bengali script emphasizes the acute angles while the neighbouring Odia script emphasizes rounded shapes and uses cosmetically appealing "umbrella-like curves" above the script symbols.[304]

One of the earliest known Sanskrit inscriptions in Tamil Grantha script at a rock-cut Hindu Trimurti temple (Mandakapattu, c. 615 CE)

In the south, where Dravidian languages predominate, scripts used for Sanskrit include the Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam and Grantha alphabets.

Transliteration schemes, Romanisation

Since the late 18th century, Sanskrit has been transliterated using the Latin alphabet. The system most commonly used today is the IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration), which has been the academic standard since 1888. ASCII-based transliteration schemes have also evolved because of difficulties representing Sanskrit characters in computer systems. These include Harvard-Kyoto and ITRANS, a transliteration scheme that is used widely on the Internet, especially in Usenet and in email, for considerations of speed of entry as well as rendering issues. With the wide availability of Unicode-aware web browsers, IAST has become common online. It is also possible to type using an alphanumeric keyboard and transliterate to Devanagari using software like Mac OS X's international support.

European scholars in the 19th century generally preferred Devanagari for the transcription and reproduction of whole texts and lengthy excerpts. However, references to individual words and names in texts composed in European Languages were usually represented with Roman transliteration. From the 20th century onwards, because of production costs, textual editions edited by Western scholars have mostly been in Romanised transliteration.[305]

Epigraphy

The earliest known stone inscriptions in Sanskrit are in the Brahmi script from the first century BCE.[142][am][an] These include the Ayodhyā (Uttar Pradesh) and Hāthībādā-Ghosuṇḍī (near Chittorgarh, Rajasthan) inscriptions.[142][308] Both of these, states Salomon, are "essentially standard" and "correct Sanskrit", with a few exceptions reflecting an "informal Sanskrit usage".[142] Other important Hindu inscriptions dated to the 1st century BCE, in relatively accurate classical Sanskrit and Brahmi script are the Yavanarajya inscription on a red sandstone slab and the long Naneghat inscription on the wall of a cave rest stop in the Western Ghats.[309]

Besides these few examples from the 1st century BCE, the earliest Sanskrit and hybrid dialect inscriptions are found in Mathura (Uttar Pradesh).[310] These date to the 1st and 2nd century CE, states Salomon, from the time of the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps and the subsequent Kushan Empire.[ao] These are also in the Brahmi script.[312] The earliest of these, states Salomon, are attributed to Ksatrapa Sodasa from the early years of 1st century CE. Of the Mathura inscriptions, the most significant is the Mora Well Inscription.[312] In a manner similar to the Hathibada inscription, the Mora well inscription is a dedicatory inscription and is linked to the cult of the Vrishni heroes: it mentions a stone shrine (temple), pratima (murti, images) and calls the five Vrishnis as bhagavatam.[312][313] There are many other Mathura Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi script overlapping the era of Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps and early Kushanas.[312] Other significant 1st-century inscriptions in reasonably good classical Sanskrit in the Brahmi script include the Vasu Doorjamb Inscription and the Mountain Temple inscription.[314] The early ones are related to the Brahmanical, except for the inscription from Kankali Tila which may be Jaina, but none are Buddhist.[315][316] A few of the later inscriptions from the 2nd century CE include Buddhist Sanskrit, while others are in "more or less" standard Sanskrit and related to the Brahmanical tradition.[317]

Starting in about the 1st century BCE, Sanskrit has been written in many South Asian, Southeast Asian and Central Asian scripts.

In Maharashtra and Gujarat, Brahmi script Sanskrit inscriptions from the early centuries of the common era exist at the Nasik Caves site, near the Girnar mountain of Junagadh and elsewhere such as at Kanakhera, Kanheri, and Gunda.[318] The Nasik inscription dates to the mid-1st century CE, is a fair approximation of standard Sanskrit and has hybrid features.[318] The Junagadh rock inscription of Western Satraps ruler Rudradaman I (c. 150 CE, Gujarat) is the first long poetic-style inscription in "more or less" standard Sanskrit that has survived into the modern era. It represents a turning point in the history of Sanskrit epigraphy, states Salomon.[319][ap] Though no similar inscriptions are found for about two hundred years after the Rudradaman reign, it is important because its style is the prototype of the eulogy-style Sanskrit inscriptions found in the Gupta Empire era.[319] These inscriptions are also in the Brahmi script.[320]

The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions are the earliest known substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd century or early 4th century CE, or both.[321] These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism.[322] A few of these inscriptions from both traditions are verse-style in the classical Sanskrit language, while some such as the pillar inscription is written in prose and a hybridized Sanskrit language.[321] An earlier hybrid Sanskrit inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated to the late 2nd century, while a few later ones include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions related to Hinduism and Buddhism.[323] After the 3rd century CE, Sanskrit inscriptions dominate and many have survived.[324] Between the 4th and 7th centuries CE, south Indian inscriptions are exclusively in the Sanskrit language.[aq] In the eastern regions of South Asia, scholars report minor Sanskrit inscriptions from the 2nd century, these being fragments and scattered. The earliest substantial true Sanskrit language inscription of Susuniya (West Bengal) is dated to the 4th century.[325] Elsewhere, such as Dehradun (Uttarakhand), inscriptions in more or less correct classical Sanskrit inscriptions are dated to the 3rd century.[325]

According to Salomon, the 4th-century reign of Samudragupta was the turning point when the classical Sanskrit language became established as the "epigraphic language par excellence" of the Indian world.[326] These Sanskrit language inscriptions are either "donative" or "panegyric" records. Generally in accurate classical Sanskrit, they deploy a wide range of regional Indic writing systems extant at the time.[327] They record the donation of a temple or stupa, images, land, monasteries, pilgrim's travel record, public infrastructure such as water reservoir and irrigation measures to prevent famine. Others praise the king or the donor in lofty poetic terms.[328] The Sanskrit language of these inscriptions is written on stone, various metals, terracotta, wood, crystal, ivory, shell, and cloth.[329][ar]

The evidence of the use of the Sanskrit language in Indic writing systems appears in southeast Asia in the first half of the 1st millennium CE.[332] A few of these in Vietnam are bilingual where both the Sanskrit and the local language is written in the Indian alphabet. Early Sanskrit language inscriptions in Indic writing systems are dated to the 4th century in Malaysia, 5th to 6th centuries in Thailand near Si Thep and the Sak River, early 5th century in Kutai (known as the Mulavarman inscription discovered in eastern Borneo), and mid-5th century in west Java (Indonesia).[333] Both major writing systems for Sanskrit, the North Indian and South Indian scripts, have been discovered in southeast Asia, but the Southern variety with its rounded shapes are far more common.[334] The Indic scripts, particularly the Pallava script prototype,[335] spread and ultimately evolved into Mon-Burmese, Khmer, Thai, Lao, Sumatran, Celebes, Javanese and Balinese scripts.[336] From about the 5th century, Sanskrit inscriptions become common in many parts of South Asia and Southeast Asia, with significant discoveries in Nepal, Vietnam and Cambodia.[326]

Literature

Literature in Sanskrit[as] can be broadly divided into texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit and the later Classical Sanskrit.[338] Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the extensive liturgical works of the Vedic religion,[at] which aside from the four Vedas, include the Brāhmaṇas and the Sūtras.[340][341][342]

The Vedic literature that survives is entirely of a religious form, whereas works in Classical Sanskrit exist in a wide variety of fields including epics, lyric, drama, romance, fairytale, fables, grammar, civil and religious law, the science of politics and practical life, the science of love and sex, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, astrology and mathematics, and is largely secular in subject-matter.[343][344]

While Vedic literature is essentially optimistic in spirit, portraying man as strong and powerful capable of finding fulfilment both here and in the afterworld, the later literature is pessimistic, portraying humans as controlled by the forces of fate with worldly pleasures deemed the cause of misery. These fundamental differences in psychology are attributed to the absence of the doctrines of Karma and reincarnation in the Vedic period, notions which are very prevalent in later times.[345]

Works

Sanskrit has been written in various scripts on a variety of media such as palm leaves, cloth, paper, rock and metal sheets, from ancient times.[346]

Lexicon

As an Indo-European language, Sanskrit's core lexicon is inherited from Proto-Indo-European. Over time however, the language exhibits a tendency to shed many of these inherited words and borrow others in their place from other sources.

In the oldest Vedic literature, there are few such non-Indo-European words, but these progressively grow in volume.[383]

The following are some of the old Indo-European words that eventually fade out of use in Sanskrit:[384]

Dravidian lexical influence

The sources of these new loanwords are many, and vary across the different regions of the Indian subcontinent. But of all influences on the lexicon of Sanskrit, the most important is Dravidian.

The following is a list of Dravidian entrants into Sanskrit lexicon, although some may have been contested:[385][386]

Nominal-form preference

While Vedic and epic form of speech is largely cognate to that of other Indo-European languages such as Greek and Latin, later Sanskrit shows a tendency to move away from using verbal forms to nominal ones. Examples of nominal forms taking the place of conventional conjugation are:

However the most notable development is the prolific use of word-compounding to express ideas normally conveyed by verbal forms and subclauses introduced by conjunctions.[387]

Classical Sanskrit's pre-eminent playwright Kālidāsa uses:

Influence on other languages

For nearly 2,000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia.[173] A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian.[388] Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa (आर्ष), meaning 'of the ṛṣis', the traditional title for the ancient authors. In some contexts, there are also more "prakritisms" (borrowings from common speech) than in Classical Sanskrit proper. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit is a literary language heavily influenced by the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, based on early Buddhist Prakrit texts which subsequently assimilated to the Classical Sanskrit standard in varying degrees.[389]

Indian subcontinent

Sanskrit has greatly influenced the languages of India that grew from its vocabulary and grammatical base; for instance, Hindi is a "Sanskritised register" of Hindustani. All modern Indo-Aryan languages, as well as Munda and Dravidian languages have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit (tatsama words), or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (tadbhava words). Words originating in Sanskrit are estimated at roughly fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages, as well as the literary forms of Malayalam and Kannada.[390] Literary texts in Telugu are lexically Sanskrit or Sanskritised to an enormous extent, perhaps seventy percent or more.[391] Marathi is another prominent language in Western India, that derives most of its words and Marathi grammar from Sanskrit.[392] Sanskrit words are often preferred in the literary texts in Marathi over corresponding colloquial Marathi word.[393]

There has been a profound influence of Sanskrit on the lexical and grammatical systems of Dravidian languages. As per Dalby, India has been a single cultural area for about two millennia which has helped Sanskrit influence on all the Indic languages.[394] Emeneau and Burrow mention the tendency "for all four of the Dravidian literary languages in South to make literary use of total Sanskrit lexicon indiscriminately".[395] There are a large number of loanwords found in the vocabulary of the three major Dravidian languages Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu.[394] Tamil also has significant loanwords from Sanskrit.[396] Krishnamurthi mentions that although it is not clear when the Sanskrit influence happened on the Dravidian languages, it might have been around the 5th century BCE at the time of separation of Tamil and Kannada from a common ancestral stage.[397] ‌The borrowed words are classified into two types based on phonological integration – tadbhava – those words derived from Prakrit and tatsama – unassimilated loanwords from Sanskrit.[398]

Strazny mentions that "so massive has been the influence that it is hard to utter Sanskrit words have influenced Kannada from the early times".[399] The first document in Kannada, the Halmidi inscription has a large number of Sanskrit words. As per Kachru, the influence has not only been on single lexical items in Kannada but also on "long nominal compounds and complicated syntactic expressions". New words have been created in Kannada using Sanskrit derivational prefixes and suffixes like vikēndrīkaraṇa, anilīkaraṇa, bahīskruṭa. Similar stratification is found in verb morphology. Sanskrit words readily undergo verbalization in Kannada, verbalizing suffixes as in: chāpisu, dauḍāyisu, ravānisu.[400]

George mentions that "No other Dravidian language has been so deeply influenced by Sanskrit as Malayalam".[401] According to Lambert, Malayalam is so immensely Sanskritised that every Sanskrit word can be used in Malayalam by integrating "prosodic phonological" changes as per Grant.[402] Loanwords have been integrated into Malayalam by "prosodic phonological" changes as per Grant. These phonological changes are either by replacement of a vowel as in sant-am coming from Sanskrit santa, sāgar-am from sāgara, or addition of prothetic vowel as in aracan from rājā-, uruvam from rūpa, codyam from sodhya.[398]

Hans Henrich et al. note that, the language of the pre-modern Telugu literature was also highly influenced by Sanskrit and was standardized between 11th and 14th centuries.[403] Aiyar has shown that in a class of tadbhavas in Telugu the first and second letters are often replaced by the third and fourth letters and fourth again replaced often by h. Examples of the same are: Sanskrit artha becomes ardhama, vīthi becomes vidhi, putra becomes bidda, mukham becomes muhamu.[404]

Tamil also has been influenced by Sanskrit. Hans Henrich et al. mention that propagation of Jainism and Buddhism into south India had its influence.[403] Shulman mentions that although contrary to the views held by Tamil purists, modern Tamil has been significantly influenced from Sanskrit, further states that "Indeed there may well be more Sanskrit in Tamil than in the Sanskrit derived north-Indian vernaculars". Sanskrit words have been Tamilized through the "Tamil phonematic grid".[396]

Beyond the Indian subcontinent

Sanskrit has had a historical presence and influence in many parts of Asia. Above (top clockwise): [i] a Sanskrit manuscript from Turkestan, [ii] another from Miran-China.

Sanskrit was a language for religious purposes and for the political elite in parts of medieval era Southeast Asia, Central Asia and East Asia, having been introduced in these regions mainly along with the spread of Buddhism. In some cases, it has competed with Pāli for prominence.[162][405]

East Asia

[i] a bell with Sanskrit engravings in South Korea [ii] the Kūkai calligraphy of Siddham-Sanskrit in Japan

Buddhist Sanskrit has had a considerable influence on Sino-Tibetan languages such as Chinese, state William Wang and Chaofen Sun.[406] Many words have been adopted from Sanskrit into Chinese, both in its historic religious discourse and everyday use.[406][ay] This process likely started about 200 CE and continued through about 1400 CE, with the efforts of monks such as Yuezhi, Anxi, Kangju, Tianzhu, Yan Fodiao, Faxian, Xuanzang and Yijing.[406]

Further, as the Chinese languages and culture influenced the rest of East Asia, the ideas in Sanskrit texts and some of its linguistic elements migrated further.[160][407]

Many terms were transliterated directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary. Chinese words like 剎那 chànà (Devanagari: क्षण kṣaṇa 'instantaneous period') were borrowed from Sanskrit. Many Sanskrit texts survive only in Tibetan collections of commentaries to the Buddhist teachings, the Tengyur.

Sanskrit has also influenced the religious register of Japanese mostly through transliterations. These were borrowed from Chinese transliterations.[408] In particular, the Shingon (lit.'True Words') sect of esoteric Buddhism has been relying on Sanskrit and original Sanskrit mantras and writings, as a means of realizing Buddhahood.[409]

Southeast Asia

[i] the Thai script [ii] a Sanskrit inscription in Cambodia

A large number of inscriptions in Sanskrit across Southeast Asia testify the influence the language held in these regions.[410]

Languages such as Indonesian, Thai and Lao contain many loanwords from Sanskrit, as does Khmer. Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in Austronesian languages, such as Javanese, particularly the older form in which nearly half the vocabulary is borrowed.[411]

Other Austronesian languages, such as Malay (descended into modern Malaysian and Indonesian standards) also derive much of their vocabulary from Sanskrit. Similarly, Philippine languages such as Tagalog have some Sanskrit loanwords, although more are derived from Spanish.

A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word bhāṣā, or spoken language, which is used to refer to the names of many languages.[412]

To this day, Southeast Asian languages such as Thai are known to draw upon Sanskrit for technical vocabulary.[413]

Indonesia
The ancient Yūpa inscription (one of the earliest and oldest Sanskrit texts written in ancient Indonesia) dating back to the 4th century CE written by Brahmins under the rule of King Mulavarman of the Kutai Martadipura Kingdom located in eastern Borneo

The earliest Sanskrit text which was founded in the Indonesian Archipelago was at Eastern Borneo dating back to 400 CE known as the Mulavarman inscription.[414] This is one of the reason of strong influence of Indian culture that entered the Malay Archipelago during the Indianization era, and since then, Indian culture has been absorbed towards Indonesian culture and language. Thus, the Sanskrit culture in Indonesia exists not as a religious aspect but more towards a cultural aspect that has been present for generations, resulting in a more cultural rather than Hinduistic value of the Indonesian people. As a result, it is common to find Muslim or Christian Indonesians with names that have Indian or Sanskrit nuances. Unlike names derived from Sanskrit in Thai and Khmer, the pronunciation of Sanskrit names in Indonesia is more similar to the original Indian pronunciation, except that "v" is changed to "w", for example, "Vishnu" in India will be spelled "Wisnu" in Indonesia.

Sanskrit has influenced Indonesian to a great extent.[415] Many words in Indonesian are taken from Sanskrit, for example from the word "language" (bhāṣa) itself comes from Sanskrit which means: "talking accent". In fact, names of cities such as Jayapura (the capital city of Papua province), including terms and mottoes of government, educational and military institutions use Sanskrit, such as the rank of general for example in the Indonesian Navy is "Laksamana" (taken from the Ramayana). The name of the environmental award given to cities throughout Indonesia by the central government is also taken from Sanskrit known as the "Adipura" award, namely from the words "Adi" (which means "role model") and "Pura" (which means "city") literally "A role model city" or "a city worthy of being an example". Sanskrit terms are also widely used in numerous government institutions such as the armed forces and national police, for example, the motto of the Indonesian National Police which reads Rashtra Sevakottama, the motto of the Indonesian Military Academy which reads Adhitakarya Mahatvavirya Nagarabhakti (अधिकाऱ्या विर्य नगरभक्ति) and the motto of the Indonesian Naval Academy which reads Hree Dharma Shanti are one of the small examples. Other Sanskrit terms such as Adhi Makayasa, Chandradimuka, Tri Dharma Eka Karma, Taruna, etc. are also used intensively in the Indonesian security and defence forces.[416]

Rest of the world

In ancient and medieval times, several Sanskrit words in the field of food and spices made their way into European languages including Greek, Latin and later English. Some of these are pepper, ginger and sugar. English today has several words of Sanskrit origin, most of them borrowed[417][better source needed] during the British Raj or later. Some of these words have in turn been borrowed by other European or world languages.

Modern era

Liturgy, ceremonies and meditation

Sanskrit is the sacred language of various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. It is used during worship in Hindu temples. In Newar Buddhism, it is used in all monasteries, while Mahayana and Tibetan Buddhist religious texts and sutras are in Sanskrit as well as vernacular languages. Some of the revered texts of Jainism including the Tattvartha sutra, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, the Bhaktamara Stotra and later versions of the Agamas are in Sanskrit. Further, states Paul Dundas, Sanskrit mantras and Sanskrit as a ritual language was commonplace among Jains throughout their medieval history.[418]

Many Hindu rituals and rites-of-passage such as the "giving away the bride" and mutual vows at weddings, a baby's naming or first solid food ceremony and the goodbye during a cremation invoke and chant Sanskrit hymns.[419] Major festivals such as the Durga Puja ritually recite entire Sanskrit texts such as the Devi Mahatmya every year particularly among the numerous communities of eastern India.[420][421] In the south, Sanskrit texts are recited at many major Hindu temples such as the Meenakshi Temple.[422] According to Richard H. Davis, a scholar of Religion and South Asian studies, the breadth and variety of oral recitations of the Sanskrit text Bhagavad Gita is remarkable. In India and beyond, its recitations include "simple private household readings, to family and neighborhood recitation sessions, to holy men reciting in temples or at pilgrimage places for passersby, to public Gita discourses held almost nightly at halls and auditoriums in every Indian city".[423]

Literature and arts

More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since India's independence in 1947.[424] Much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages.[425][426]

The Sahitya Akademi has given an award for the best creative work in Sanskrit every year since 1967. In 2009, Satya Vrat Shastri became the first Sanskrit author to win the Jnanpith Award, India's highest literary award.[427]

Sanskrit is used extensively in the Carnatic and Hindustani branches of classical music. Kirtanas, bhajans, stotras, and shlokas of Sanskrit are popular throughout India. The Samaveda uses musical notations in several of its recessions.[428]

In Mainland China, musicians such as Sa Dingding have written pop songs in Sanskrit.[429]

Numerous loan Sanskrit words are found in other major Asian languages. For example, Filipino,[430] Cebuano,[431] Lao, Khmer[432] Thai and its alphabets, Malay (including Malaysian and Indonesian), Javanese (old Javanese-English dictionary by P.J. Zoetmulder contains over 25,500 entries), and even in English.

Media

Since 1974, there has been a short daily news broadcast on state-run All India Radio.[433] These broadcasts are also made available on the internet on AIR's website.[434][435] Sanskrit news is broadcast on TV and on the internet through the DD National channel at 6:55 am IST.[436]

Over 90 weeklies, fortnightlies and quarterlies are published in Sanskrit. Sudharma, a daily printed newspaper in Sanskrit, has been published out of Mysore, India, since 1970. It was started by K.N. Varadaraja Iyengar, a Sanskrit scholar from Mysore. Sanskrit Vartman Patram and Vishwasya Vrittantam started in Gujarat during the last five years.[433]

Schools and contemporary status

Sanskrit festival at Pramati Hillview Academy, Mysore, India

Sanskrit has been taught in schools from time immemorial in India. In modern times, the first Sanskrit University was Sampurnanand Sanskrit University, established in 1791 in the Indian city of Varanasi. Sanskrit is taught in 5,000 traditional schools (Pathashalas), and 14,000 schools[437] in India, where there are also 22 colleges and universities dedicated to the exclusive study of the language.[citation needed] Sanskrit is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India.[281] Despite it being a studied school subject in contemporary India, Sanskrit has not been spoken as a native language in centuries.[438][439][440]

The Central Board of Secondary Education of India (CBSE), along with several other state education boards, has made Sanskrit an alternative option to the state's own official language as a second or third language choice in the schools it governs. In such schools, learning Sanskrit is an option for grades 5 to 8 (Classes V to VIII). This is true of most schools affiliated with the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) board, especially in states where the official language is Hindi. Sanskrit is also taught in traditional gurukulas throughout India.[441]

A number of colleges and universities in India have dedicated departments for Sanskrit studies. In March 2020, the Indian Parliament passed the Central Sanskrit Universities Act, 2020 which upgraded three universities, National Sanskrit University, Central Sanskrit University and Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri National Sanskrit University, from the deemed to be university status to a central university status.[442]

Dmitri Mendeleev used the Sanskrit numbers of one, two and three (eka-, dvi- or dwi-, and tri- respectively) to give provisional names to his predicted elements, like eka-boron being Gallium or eka-Francium being Ununennium.

In the province of Bali in Indonesia, a number of educational and scholarly institutions have also been conducting Sanskrit lessons for Hindu locals.[443][better source needed]

In the West

St James Junior School and Avanti Schools Trust in London, England, offer Sanskrit as part of the curriculum.[444] Since September 2009, US high school students have been able to receive credits as Independent Study or toward Foreign Language requirements by studying Sanskrit as part of the "SAFL: Samskritam as a Foreign Language" program coordinated by Samskrita Bharati.[445] In Australia, the private boys' high school Sydney Grammar School offers Sanskrit from years 7 through to 12, including for the Higher School Certificate.[446] Other schools that offer Sanskrit include the Ficino School in Auckland, New Zealand; St James Preparatory Schools in Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg, South Africa; John Colet School, Sydney, Australia; Erasmus School, Melbourne, Australia.[447][448][449]

European studies and discourse

European scholarship in Sanskrit, begun by Heinrich Roth (1620–1668) and Johann Ernst Hanxleden (1681–1731), is considered responsible for the discovery of an Indo-European language family by Sir William Jones (1746–1794). This research played an important role in the development of Western philology, or historical linguistics.[450]

The 18th- and 19th-century speculations about the possible links of Sanskrit to ancient Egyptian language were later proven to be wrong, but it fed an orientalist discourse both in the form Indophobia and Indophilia, states Trautmann.[451] Sanskrit writings, when first discovered, were imagined by Indophiles to potentially be "repositories of the primitive experiences and religion of the human race, and as such confirmatory of the truth of Christian scripture", as well as a key to "universal ethnological narrative".[452]: 96–97  The Indophobes imagined the opposite, making the counterclaim that there is little of any value in Sanskrit, portraying it as "a language fabricated by artful [Brahmin] priests", with little original thought, possibly copied from the Greeks who came with Alexander or perhaps the Persians.[452]: 124–126 

Scholars such as William Jones and his colleagues felt the need for systematic studies of Sanskrit language and literature. This launched the Asiatic Society, an idea that was soon transplanted to Europe starting with the efforts of Henry Thomas Colebrooke in Britain, then Alexander Hamilton who helped expand its studies to Paris and thereafter his student Friedrich Schlegel who introduced Sanskrit to the universities of Germany. Schlegel nurtured his own students into influential European Sanskrit scholars, particularly through Franz Bopp and Friedrich Max Müller. As these scholars translated the Sanskrit manuscripts, the enthusiasm for Sanskrit grew rapidly among European scholars, states Trautmann, and chairs for Sanskrit "were established in the universities of nearly every German statelet" creating a competition for Sanskrit experts.[452]: 133–142 

Symbolic usage

In India, Indonesia, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, Sanskrit phrases are widely used as mottoes for various national, educational and social organisations:

In November 2020, Gaurav Sharma, a New Zealand politician of Indian origin swore into parliament using Sanskrit alongside Māori; the decision was made as a "homage to all Indian languages" compromising between his native Pahari and Punjabi.[458]

In popular culture

The song My Sweet Lord by George Harrison includes The Hare Krishna mantra, also referred to reverentially as the Maha Mantra, a 16-word Vaishnava mantra which is mentioned in the Kali-Santarana Upanishad. Satyagraha, an opera by Philip Glass, uses texts from the Bhagavad Gita, sung in Sanskrit.[459][460] In 1996, English psychedelic rock band Kula Shaker released Govinda, a song entirely sung in Sanskrit. The closing credits of The Matrix Revolutions has a prayer from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The song "Cyber-raga" from Madonna's album Music includes Sanskrit chants,[461] and Shanti/Ashtangi from her 1998 album Ray of Light, which won a Grammy, is the ashtanga vinyasa yoga chant.[462] The lyrics include the mantra Om shanti.[463] Composer John Williams featured choirs singing in Sanskrit for Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.[464][465][better source needed] The theme song of Battlestar Galactica 2004 is the Gayatri Mantra, taken from the Rigveda.[466] The lyrics of "The Child in Us" by Enigma also contain Sanskrit verses.[467][better source needed] In 2006, Mexican singer Paulina Rubio was influenced in Sanskrit for her concept album Ananda.[468]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b "In conclusion, there are strong systemic and paleographic indications that the Brahmi script derived from a Semitic prototype, which, mainly on historical grounds, is most likely to have been Aramaic. However, the details of this problem remain to be worked out, and in any case, it is unlikely that a complete letter-by-letter derivation will ever be possible; for Brahmi may have been more of an adaptation and remodeling, rather than a direct derivation, of the presumptive Semitic prototype, perhaps under the influence of a preexisting Indian tradition of phonetic analysis. However, the Semitic hypothesis is not so strong as to rule out the remote possibility that further discoveries could drastically change the picture. In particular, a relationship of some kind, probably partial or indirect, with the protohistoric Indus Valley script should not be considered entirely out of the question." Salomon 1998, p. 30
  2. ^ "dhārayan·brāhmaṇam rupam·ilvalaḥ saṃskṛtam vadan..." – The Rāmāyaṇa 3.10.54 – said to be the first known use of saṃskṛta with reference to the language.[18]
  3. ^ "All these achievements are dwarfed, though, by the Sanskrit linguistic tradition culminating in the famous grammar by Pāṇini, known as the Aṣṭhādhyāyī. The elegance and comprehensiveness of its architecture have yet to be surpassed by any grammar of any language, and its ingenious methods of stratifying out use and mention, language and metalanguage, and theorem and metatheorem predate key discoveries in western philosophy by millennia."[32]
  4. ^ "The Sanskrit grammatical tradition is also the ultimate source of the notion of zero, which, once adopted in the Arabic system of numerals, allowed us to transcend the cumbersome notations of Roman arithmetic."[32]
  5. ^ 6,106 Indians in 1981, 49,736 in 1991, 14,135 in 2001, and 24,821 in 2011, have reported Sanskrit to be their mother tongue.[8]
  6. ^ William Jones (1786), quoted by Thomas Burrow in The Sanskrit Language:[62] "The Sanscrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which perhaps no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothick and the Celtick [sic], though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the Old Persian might be added to the same family."
  7. ^ The Mitanni treaty is generally dated to the 16th century BCE, but this date and its significance remains much debated.[80]
  8. ^ An example of the shared phrasal equations is the dyáuṣ pitṛ́ in Vedic Sanskrit, from Proto-Indo-European *dyḗws ph₂tḗr, meaning "sky father". The Mycenaean Greek equivalent is Zeus Pater, which evolved to Jupiter in Latin. Equivalent "paternal Heaven" phrasal equation is found in many Indo-European languages.[85]
  9. ^ Pāṇini's use of the term lipi has been a source of scholarly disagreements. Harry Falk in his 1993 overview states that ancient Indians neither knew nor used writing script, and Pāṇini's mention is likely a reference to Semitic and Greek scripts.[103] In his 1995 review, Salomon questions Falk's arguments and writes it is "speculative at best and hardly constitutes firm grounds for a late date for Kharoṣṭhī. The stronger argument for this position is that we have no specimen of the script before the time of Ashoka, nor any direct evidence of intermediate stages in its development; but of course this does not mean that such earlier forms did not exist, only that, if they did exist, they have not survived, presumably because they were not employed for monumental purposes before Ashoka".[104] According to Hartmut Scharfe, lipi of Pāṇini may be borrowed from the Old Persian dipi, in turn derived from Sumerian dup. Scharfe adds that the best evidence, at the time of his review, is that no script was used in India, aside from the Northwest Indian subcontinent, before c. 300 BCE because Indian tradition "at every occasion stresses the orality of the cultural and literary heritage".[105] Kenneth Norman states writing scripts in ancient India evolved over the long period of time like other cultures, that it is unlikely that ancient Indians developed a single complete writing system at one and the same time in the Maurya era. It is even less likely, states Norman, that a writing script was invented during Ashoka's rule, starting from nothing, for the specific purpose of writing his inscriptions and then it was understood all over South Asia where the Ashoka pillars are found.[106] Goody (1987) states that ancient India likely had a "very old culture of writing" along with its oral tradition of composing and transmitting knowledge, because the Vedic literature is too vast, consistent and complex to have been entirely created, memorized, accurately preserved and spread without a written system.[107] Falk disagrees with Goody, and suggests that it is a Western presumption and inability to imagine that remarkably early scientific achievements such as Pāṇini's grammar (5th to 4th century BCE), and the creation, preservation and wide distribution of the large corpus of the Brahmanic Vedic literature and the Buddhist canonical literature, without any writing scripts. Bronkhorst (2002) disagrees with Falk, and states, "Falk goes too far. It is fair to expect that we believe that Vedic memorisation—though without parallel in any other human society—has been able to preserve very long texts for many centuries without losing a syllable. ... However, the oral composition of a work as complex as Pāṇini's grammar is not only without parallel in other human cultures, it is without parallel in India itself. ... It just will not do to state that our difficulty in conceiving any such thing is our problem".[108]
  10. ^ The Indian Mission for Manuscripts initiative has already counted over 5 million manuscripts. The thirty million estimate is of David Pingree, a manuscriptologist and historian. – Peter M. Scharf[139]
  11. ^ A celebrated work on the philosophy of language is the Vakyapadiya by the 5th-century Hindu scholar Bhartrhari.[143][146][147]
  12. ^ 'That Which Is', known as the Tattvartha Sutra to Jains, is recognized by all four Jain traditions as the earliest, most authoritative, and comprehensive summary of their religion. — [151]
  13. ^ The oldest surviving Sanskrit inscription in the Kathmandu valley is dated to 464 CE.[205]
  14. ^ a b Sanskrit is written in many scripts. Sounds in grey are not phonemic.
  15. ^ is not an actual sound of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the written vowels to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters.[224]
  16. ^ Correspondences are approximate.[239]
  17. ^ Consonant described as either at the roots of the teeth, alveolar, and retroflex. Vowels are very short, may be equivalent to short a, e or i.
  18. ^ a b Like the preceding but longer.
  19. ^ Pronounced somewhat like the lur in English "slurp".
  20. ^ Only found in the verb kl̥p "to be fit", "arrange".
  21. ^ As a nasal vowel or, if followed by a stop consonant (plosive, affricate or nasal), it is realized as the nasal in the same series as the following consonant.
  22. ^ Voiceless [h] followed by a short echo vowel. If the preceding vowel is /ai/ or /au/, the echo vowel will be [i] or [u], respectively.
  23. ^ Use depends on whether penultimate is light or heavy.
  24. ^ The "root + affix" is called the "stem".[245]
  25. ^ Other equivalents: bharāmi (I carry), bharati (he carries), bharāmas (we carry).[61] Similar morphology is found in some other Indo-European languages; for example, in the Gothic language, baira (I carry), bairis (you carry), bairiþ (he carries).
  26. ^ Ruppel gives the following endings for the "present indicative active" in the Sanskrit language: 1st dual: -vaḥ, 1st plural: -maḥ, 2nd dual: -thaḥ, 2nd plural: -tha and so on.[112]
  27. ^ The Sanskrit in the Indian epics such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana are all in meter, and the structure of the metrics has attracted scholarly studies since the 19th century.[259]
  28. ^ Kena, Katha, Isha, Shvetashvatara, and Mundaka Upanishads are examples of verse-style ancient Upanishads.
  29. ^ Sudden or significant changes in metre, wherein the metre of succeeding sections return to earlier sections, suggest a corruption of the message, interpolations and insertion of text into a Sanskrit manuscript. It may also reflect that the text is a compilation of works of different authors and time periods.[265][266][267]
  30. ^ The Buddhist text Lalitavistara Sūtra describes the young Siddhartha—the future Buddha—to have mastered philology and scripts at a school from Brahmin Lipikara and Deva Vidyasinha.[275]
  31. ^ A version of this list of sixty-four ancient Indian scripts is found in the Chinese translation of an Indian Buddhist text, and this translation has been dated to 308 CE.[277]
  32. ^ The Greek Nearchos who visited ancient India with the army of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, mentions that Indians wrote on cloth, but Nearchos could have confused Aramaic writers with the Indians.[280]
  33. ^ Salomon writes, in The World's Writing Systems (edited by Peter Daniels), that "many scholars feel that the origins of these scripts must have gone back further than this [mid-3rd century BCE Ashoka inscriptions], but there is no conclusive proof".[281]
  34. ^ Minor inscriptions discovered in the 20th century may be older, but their dating is uncertain.[286]
  35. ^ Salomon states that the inscription has a few scribal errors, but is essentially standard Sanskrit.[142]
  36. ^ Salomon illustrates this for the consonant ka which is written as "" in the Brahmi script and "क" in the Devanagari script, the vowel is marked together with the consonant before as in "कि", after "का", above "के" or below "कृ".[283]
  37. ^ Sanskrit and the Prakrits, at different times and places were written in a vast number of forms and derivatives of Brahmi. In the premodern period, in other words, these languages would be written by a given scribe in whatever happened to be the current local script ... – Richard Salomon, p 70 [290]
  38. ^ Salomon states that these shared graphic principles that combine syllabic and alphabetic writing are distinctive for Indic scripts when contrasted with other major world languages. The only known similarity is found in the Ethiopic scripts, but Ethiopic system lacks clusters and the Indic set of full vowels signs.[303]
  39. ^ Some scholars date these to the 2nd century BCE.[306][307]
  40. ^ Prakrit inscriptions of ancient India, such as those of Ashoka, are older. Louis Renou called it "the great linguistical paradox of India" that the Sanskrit inscriptions appear later than Prakrit inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language.[142]
  41. ^ According to Salomon, towards the end of pre-Christian era, "a smattering" of standard or nearly standard Sanskrit inscriptions came into vogue, and "we may assume that these are isolated survivals of what must have been then an increasingly common practice". He adds, that the Scythian rulers of northern and western India while not the originators, were promoters of the use of Sanskrit language for inscriptions, and "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite".[311]
  42. ^ The Rudradaman inscription is "not pure classical Sanskrit", but with few epic-vernacular Sanskrit exceptions, it approaches high classical Sanskrit.[319]
  43. ^ Finally, after this transitional period in the fourth and early fifth centuries CE, Prakrit fell out of use completely in southern Indian inscriptions. For the next few centuries Sanskrit was the sole epigraphic language, until the regional Dravidian languages began to come into use around the seventh century. — [325]
  44. ^ The use of the Sanskrit language in epigraphy gradually dropped after the arrival and the consolidation of Islamic Delhi Sultanate rule in the late 12th century, but it remained in active epigraphical use in the south and central regions of India. By about the 14th century, with the Islamic armies conquering more of South Asia, the use of Sanskrit language for inscriptions became rarer and it was replaced with Persian, Arabic, Dravidian and North-Indo-Aryan languages, states Salomon.[330] The Sanskrit language, particularly in bilingual form, re-emerged in the epigraphy of Hindu kingdoms such as the Vijayanagara, Yadavas, Hoysalas, Pandyas, and others that re-established themselves.[331] Some Muslim rulers such as Adil Shah also issued Sanskrit language inscriptions recording the donation of a mosque.[331]
  45. ^ "Since the Renaissance there has been no event of such worldwide significance in the history of culture as the discovery of Sanskrit literature in the latter part of the eighteenth century" – Macdonell[337]
  46. ^ 'The style of the [Vedic] works is more simple and spontaneous while that of the later works abounds in puns, conceits and long compounds. Rhetorical ornaments are more and more copious and complex and the rules of Poetic and Grammar more and more rigidly observed as time advances.' – Iyengar,[339]
  47. ^ These are just generic names for works of law
  48. ^ an account of Indian algebra
  49. ^ Kāma·śāstra, 'the science of love'
  50. ^ Most Tripiṭaka historic texts in the Pali language, but Sanskrit Tripiṭaka texts have been discovered.[378]
  51. ^ Examples of phonetically imported Sanskrit words in Chinese include samgha (Chinese: seng), bhiksuni (ni), kasaya (jiasha), namo or namas (namo), and nirvana (niepan). The list of phonetically transcribed and semantically translated words from Sanskrit into Chinese is substantial, states Xiangdong Shi.[406]

References

  1. ^ Mascaró, Juan (2003). The Bhagavad Gita. Penguin. pp. 13 ff. ISBN 978-0-14-044918-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 11 October 2020. The Bhagawad Gita, an intensely spiritual work, that forms one of the cornerstones of the Hindu faith, and is also one of the masterpieces of Sanskrit poetry. (from the backcover)
  2. ^ Besant, Annie (trans) (1922). "Discourse 1". The Bhagavad-gita; or, The Lord's Song, with text in Devanagari, and English translation. Madras: G. E. Natesan & Co. Archived from the original on 12 October 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2020. प्रवृत्ते शस्त्रसम्पाते धनुरुद्यम्य पाण्डवः ॥ २० ॥
    Then, beholding the sons of Dhritarâshtra standing arrayed, and flight of missiles about to begin, ... the son of Pându, took up his bow,(20)
    हृषीकेशं तदा वाक्यमिदमाह महीपते । अर्जुन उवाच । ...॥ २१ ॥
    And spake this word to Hrishîkesha, O Lord of Earth: Arjuna said: ...
  3. ^ Radhakrishnan, S. (1948). The Bhagavadgītā: With an introductory essay, Sanskrit text, English translation, and notes. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. p. 86. ... pravyite Sastrasampate
    dhanur udyamya pandavah (20)
    Then Arjuna, ... looked at the sons of Dhrtarastra drawn up in battle order; and as the flight of missiles (almost) started, he took up his bow.
    hystkesam tada vakyam
    idam aha mahipate ... (21)
    And, O Lord of earth, he spoke this word to Hrsikesha (Krsna): ...
  4. ^ Uta Reinöhl (2016). Grammaticalization and the Rise of Configurationality in Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. pp. xiv, 1–16. ISBN 978-0-19-873666-0.
  5. ^ Colin P. Masica 1993, p. 55: "Thus Classical Sanskrit, fixed by Panini's grammar in probably the fourth century BC on the basis of a class dialect (and preceding grammatical tradition) of probably the seventh century BC, had its greatest literary flowering in the first millennium AD and even later, much of it therefore a full thousand years after the stage of the language it ostensibly represents."
  6. ^ a b McCartney, Patrick (10 May 2020), Searching for Sanskrit Speakers in the Indian Census, The Wire, archived from the original on 21 October 2020, retrieved 24 November 2020 Quote: "What this data tells us is that it is very difficult to believe the notion that Jhiri is a "Sanskrit village" where everyone only speaks fluent Sanskrit at a mother tongue level. It is also difficult to accept that the lingua franca of the rural masses is Sanskrit, when most the majority of L1, L2 and L3 Sanskrit tokens are linked to urban areas. The predominance of Sanskrit across the Hindi belt also shows a particular cultural/geographic affection that does not spread equally across the rest of the country. In addition, the clustering with Hindi and English, in the majority of variations possible, also suggests that a certain class element is involved. Essentially, people who identify as speakers of Sanskrit appear to be urban and educated, which possibly implies that the affiliation with Sanskrit is related in some way to at least some sort of Indian, if not, Hindu, nationalism."
  7. ^ a b McCartney, Patrick (11 May 2020), The Myth of 'Sanskrit Villages' and the Realm of Soft Power, The Wire, archived from the original on 24 January 2021, retrieved 24 November 2020 Quote: "Consider the example of this faith-based development narrative that has evolved over the past decade in the state of Uttarakhand. In 2010, Sanskrit became the state's second official language. ... Recently, an updated policy has increased this top-down imposition of language shift, toward Sanskrit. The new policy aims to create a Sanskrit village in every "block" (administrative division) of Uttarakhand. The state of Uttarakhand consists of two divisions, 13 districts, 79 sub-districts and 97 blocks. ... There is hardly a Sanskrit village in even one block in Uttarakhand. The curious thing is that, while 70% of the state's total population live in rural areas, 100pc of the total 246 L1-Sanskrit tokens returned at the 2011 census are from Urban areas. No L1-Sanskrit token comes from any villager who identifies as an L1-Sanskrit speaker in Uttarakhand."
  8. ^ a b c d e Sreevastan, Ajai (10 August 2014). "Where are the Sanskrit speakers?". The Hindu. Chennai. Archived from the original on 24 December 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020. Sanskrit is also the only scheduled language that shows wide fluctuations — rising from 6,106 speakers in 1981 to 49,736 in 1991 and then falling dramatically to 14,135 speakers in 2001. "This fluctuation is not necessarily an error of the Census method. People often switch language loyalties depending on the immediate political climate," says Prof. Ganesh Devy of the People's Linguistic Survey of India. ... Because some people "fictitiously" indicate Sanskrit as their mother tongue owing to its high prestige and Constitutional mandate, the Census captures the persisting memory of an ancient language that is no longer anyone's real mother tongue, says B. Mallikarjun of the Center for Classical Language. Hence, the numbers fluctuate in each Census. ... "Sanskrit has influence without presence," says Devy. "We all feel in some corner of the country, Sanskrit is spoken." But even in Karnataka's Mattur, which is often referred to as India's Sanskrit village, hardly a handful indicated Sanskrit as their mother tongue.
  9. ^ a b Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-19-879357-1. The desire to preserve understanding and knowledge of Sanskrit in the face of ongoing linguistic change drove the development of an indigenous grammatical tradition, which culminated in the composition of the Aṣṭādhyāyī, attributed to the grammarian Pāṇini, no later than the early fourth century BCE. In subsequent centuries, Sanskrit ceased to be learnt as a native language, and eventually ceased to develop as living languages do, becoming increasingly fixed according to the prescriptions of the grammatical tradition.
  10. ^ a b Ruppel, A. M. (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 5 October 2020. The study of any ancient (or dead) language is faced with one main challenge: ancient languages have no native speakers who could provide us with examples of simple everyday speech
  11. ^ Annamalai, E. (2008). "Contexts of multilingualism". In Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar (eds.). Language in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–. ISBN 978-1-139-46550-2. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 5 October 2020. Some of the migrated languages ... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native speakers were lost. Some native languages like the language of the Indus valley were lost with their speakers, while some linguistic communities shifted their language to one or other of the migrants' languages.
  12. ^ a b Jain, Dhanesh (2007). "Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan languages". In George Cardona; Dhanesh Jain (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. pp. 47–66, 51. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 12 October 2020. In the history of Indo-Aryan, writing was a later development and its adoption has been slow even in modern times. The first written word comes to us through Asokan inscriptions dating back to the third century BC. Originally, Brahmi was used to write Prakrit (MIA); for Sanskrit (OIA) it was used only four centuries later (Masica 1991: 135). The MIA traditions of Buddhist and Jain texts show greater regard for the written word than the OIA Brahminical tradition, though writing was available to Old Indo-Aryans.
  13. ^ a b Salomon, Richard (2007). "The Writing Systems of the Indo-Aryan Languages". In George Cardona; Dhanesh Jain (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. pp. 67–102. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 12 October 2020. Although in modern usage Sanskrit is most commonly written or printed in Nagari, in theory, it can be represented by virtually any of the main Brahmi-based scripts, and in practice it often is. Thus scripts such as Gujarati, Bangla, and Oriya, as well as the major south Indian scripts, traditionally have been and often still are used in their proper territories for writing Sanskrit. Sanskrit, in other words, is not inherently linked to any particular script, although it does have a special historical connection with Nagari.
  14. ^ "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 1: Founding Provisions". gov.za. Archived from the original on 28 October 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014.
  15. ^ Cardona, George; Luraghi, Silvia (2018). "Sanskrit". In Bernard Comrie (ed.). The World's Major Languages. Taylor & Francis. pp. 497–. ISBN 978-1-317-29049-0. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 13 October 2020. Sanskrit (samskrita- 'adorned, purified') ... It is in the Ramayana that the term saṃskṛta- is encountered probably for the first time with reference to the language.
  16. ^ a b Wright, J.C. (1990). "Reviewed Works: Pāṇini: His Work and Its Traditions. Vol. I. Background and Introduction by George Cardona; Grammaire sanskrite pâninéenne by Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 53 (1). Cambridge University Press: 152–154. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0002156X. JSTOR 618999. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2020. The first reference to 'Sanskrit' in the context of language is in the Ramayana, Book 5 (Sundarkanda), Canto 28, Verse 17: अहं ह्यतितनुश्चैव वनरश्च विशेषतः // वाचंचोदाहरिष्यामि मानुषीमिह संस्कृताम् // १७ // Hanuman says, 'First, my body is very subtle, second I am a monkey. Especially as a monkey, I will use here the human-appropriate Sanskrit speech / language.'
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  18. ^ Cardona 1997, p. 557.
  19. ^ a b Roger D. Woodard (2008). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. The earliest form of this 'oldest' language, Sanskrit, is the one found in the ancient Brahmanic text called the Rigveda, composed c. 1500 BCE. The date makes Sanskrit one of the three earliest of the well-documented languages of the Indo-European family – the other two being Old Hittite and Myceanaean Greek – and, in keeping with its early appearance, Sanskrit has been a cornerstone in the reconstruction of the parent language of the Indo-European family – Proto-Indo-European.
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Bibliography

Further reading

External links