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Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos

La Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos ( SCOTUS ) es el tribunal más alto del poder judicial federal de los Estados Unidos . Tiene jurisdicción de apelación final sobre todos los casos de los tribunales federales de los Estados Unidos y sobre los casos de los tribunales estatales que giran en torno a cuestiones de derecho constitucional o federal de los Estados Unidos . También tiene jurisdicción original sobre una gama limitada de casos, específicamente "todos los casos que afecten a embajadores, otros ministros públicos y cónsules, y aquellos en los que un Estado sea parte". [2] El tribunal tiene el poder de revisión judicial , la capacidad de invalidar una ley por violar una disposición de la Constitución. También puede anular directivas presidenciales por violar la Constitución o la ley estatutaria . [3]

Según el Artículo Tres de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos , la composición y los procedimientos de la Corte Suprema fueron establecidos originalmente por el 1.er Congreso a través de la Ley Judicial de 1789. La corte está compuesta por nueve jueces: el presidente de la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos y ocho jueces asociados , y los jueces se reúnen en el edificio de la Corte Suprema en Washington, DC. Los jueces tienen un mandato vitalicio , lo que significa que permanecen en la corte hasta que mueren, se jubilan, renuncian o son acusados ​​y destituidos de su cargo. [3] Cuando se produce una vacante, el presidente , con el asesoramiento y consentimiento del Senado , nombra a un nuevo juez. Cada juez tiene un solo voto para decidir los casos discutidos ante la corte. Cuando hay mayoría, el presidente de la Corte Suprema decide quién escribe la opinión de la corte ; de ​​lo contrario, el juez de mayor antigüedad en la mayoría asigna la tarea de escribir la opinión.

En promedio, la Corte Suprema recibe alrededor de 7.000 peticiones de autos de certiorari cada año, pero sólo concede alrededor de 80. [4] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] [ necesita actualización ]

Historia

El Royal Exchange, Nueva York, el primer lugar de reunión de la Corte Suprema
Imagen de edificio de ladrillo de dos pisos.
El tribunal no tuvo edificio propio hasta 1935. De 1791 a 1801, se reunió en el Ayuntamiento de Filadelfia , antes de trasladarse al Capitolio en Washington, DC.

Fue durante el debate sobre la separación de poderes entre los departamentos legislativo y ejecutivo que los delegados a la Convención Constitucional de 1787 establecieron los parámetros para el poder judicial nacional . La creación de una "tercera rama" del gobierno fue una idea novedosa [ cita requerida ] ; en la tradición inglesa, los asuntos judiciales habían sido tratados como un aspecto de la autoridad real (ejecutiva). Al principio, los delegados que se oponían a tener un gobierno central fuerte argumentaron que las leyes nacionales podrían ser aplicadas por los tribunales estatales, mientras que otros, incluido James Madison , abogaron por una autoridad judicial nacional compuesta por tribunales elegidos por la legislatura nacional. Se propuso que el poder judicial debería tener un papel en el control del poder del ejecutivo para vetar o revisar las leyes. [ cita requerida ]

Finalmente, los redactores de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos llegaron a un compromiso al esbozar únicamente un esquema general del poder judicial en el Artículo Tres , otorgando el poder judicial federal a "una Corte Suprema y a los tribunales inferiores que el Congreso pueda de vez en cuando ordenar y establecer". [5] [6] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] No delinearon ni los poderes y prerrogativas exactos de la Corte Suprema ni la organización del poder judicial en su conjunto. [ cita requerida ]

El 1.er Congreso de los Estados Unidos estableció la organización detallada de un poder judicial federal a través de la Ley del Poder Judicial de 1789. La Corte Suprema, el tribunal judicial más alto del país, se reuniría en la capital de la nación y, en un principio, estaría compuesta por un presidente y cinco jueces asociados. La ley también dividió el país en distritos judiciales, que a su vez se organizaron en circuitos. Los jueces debían "recorrer el circuito" y celebrar audiencias de circuito dos veces al año en su distrito judicial asignado. [7] [ fuente no primaria necesaria ]

Inmediatamente después de firmar la ley, el presidente George Washington nominó a las siguientes personas para servir en la corte: John Jay como presidente de la Corte Suprema y John Rutledge , William Cushing , Robert H. Harrison , James Wilson y John Blair Jr. como jueces asociados. Los seis fueron confirmados por el Senado el 26 de septiembre de 1789; sin embargo, Harrison se negó a servir y Washington nominó más tarde a James Iredell en su lugar. [8] [ fuente no primaria necesaria ]

La Corte Suprema celebró su sesión inaugural del 2 al 10 de febrero de 1790 en la Royal Exchange de la ciudad de Nueva York, entonces capital de los Estados Unidos. [9] Una segunda sesión se celebró allí en agosto de 1790. [10] Las primeras sesiones de la corte se dedicaron a procedimientos organizativos, ya que los primeros casos no llegaron hasta 1791. [7] Cuando la capital de la nación se trasladó a Filadelfia en 1790, la Corte Suprema también lo hizo. Después de reunirse inicialmente en el Independence Hall , la corte estableció sus cámaras en el Ayuntamiento. [11]

Primeros comienzos

John Marshall , presidente del Tribunal Supremo de 1801 a 1835

Bajo los jueces presidentes Jay, Rutledge y Ellsworth (1789-1801), la corte escuchó pocos casos; su primera decisión fue West v. Barnes (1791), un caso que involucraba procedimiento. [12] Como la corte inicialmente tenía solo seis miembros, cada decisión que tomaba por mayoría también se tomaba por dos tercios (votando cuatro a dos). [13] Sin embargo, el Congreso siempre ha permitido que menos de la membresía total de la corte tome decisiones, comenzando con un quórum de cuatro jueces en 1789. [14] La corte carecía de una sede propia y tenía poco prestigio, [15] una situación que no ayudó con el caso de más alto perfil de la época, Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), que fue revertido dentro de los dos años por la adopción de la Undécima Enmienda . [16]

El poder y el prestigio de la corte crecieron sustancialmente durante la Corte Marshall (1801-1835). [17] Bajo Marshall, la corte estableció el poder de revisión judicial sobre los actos del Congreso, [18] incluyendo especificarse a sí misma como el expositor supremo de la Constitución ( Marbury v. Madison ) [19] [20] y tomar varias decisiones constitucionales importantes que dieron forma y sustancia al equilibrio de poder entre el gobierno federal y los estados, en particular Martin v. Hunter's Lessee , McCulloch v. Maryland y Gibbons v. Ogden . [21] [22] [23] [24]

El Tribunal Marshall también puso fin a la práctica de que cada juez emitiera su opinión de forma consecutiva , [25] un remanente de la tradición británica, [26] y en su lugar emitió una única opinión mayoritaria. [25] También durante el mandato de Marshall, aunque fuera del control del tribunal, el juicio político y la absolución del juez Samuel Chase de 1804 a 1805 ayudaron a cimentar el principio de independencia judicial . [27] [28]

De Taney a Taft

La Corte de Taney (1836-1864) dictó varios fallos importantes, como Sheldon v. Sill , que sostuvo que si bien el Congreso no puede limitar los temas que puede escuchar la Corte Suprema, puede limitar la jurisdicción de los tribunales federales inferiores para evitar que escuchen casos que traten sobre ciertos temas. [29] Sin embargo, se lo recuerda principalmente por su fallo en Dred Scott v. Sandford , [30] que ayudó a precipitar la Guerra Civil estadounidense . [31] En la era de la Reconstrucción , las Cortes Chase , Waite y Fuller (1864-1910) interpretaron las nuevas enmiendas de la Guerra Civil a la Constitución [24] y desarrollaron la doctrina del debido proceso sustantivo ( Lochner v. New York ; [32] Adair v. United States ). [33] El tamaño de la corte se modificó por última vez en 1869, cuando se fijó en nueve.

En los tribunales White y Taft (1910-1930), el tribunal sostuvo que la Decimocuarta Enmienda había incorporado algunas garantías de la Declaración de Derechos contra los estados ( Gitlow v. New York ), [34] se enfrentó a los nuevos estatutos antimonopolio ( Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States ), confirmó la constitucionalidad del servicio militar obligatorio ( Selective Draft Law Cases ), [35] y llevó la doctrina del debido proceso sustantivo a su primer apogeo ( Adkins v. Children's Hospital ). [36]

La era del New Deal

El edificio de la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos , sede actual del Tribunal Supremo, inaugurado en 1935
El Tribunal se sentó
El Tribunal Hughes en 1937, fotografiado por Erich Salomon . Entre sus miembros se encuentran el presidente del Tribunal Supremo Charles Evans Hughes (centro), Louis Brandeis , Benjamin N. Cardozo , Harlan Stone , Owen Roberts y los " Cuatro Jinetes ": Pierce Butler , James Clark McReynolds , George Sutherland y Willis Van Devanter , que se opusieron a las políticas del New Deal.

Durante los tribunales de Hughes , Stone y Vinson (1930-1953), el tribunal obtuvo su propio alojamiento en 1935 [37] y cambió su interpretación de la Constitución , dando una lectura más amplia a los poderes del gobierno federal para facilitar el New Deal del presidente Franklin D. Roosevelt (más prominentemente West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish , Wickard v. Filburn , Estados Unidos v. Darby y Estados Unidos v. Butler ). [38] [39] [40] Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial , el tribunal continuó favoreciendo el poder del gobierno, defendiendo el internamiento de los estadounidenses de origen japonés ( Korematsu v. Estados Unidos ) y el Juramento de Lealtad obligatorio ( Distrito Escolar de Minersville v. Gobitis ). Sin embargo, Gobitis pronto fue repudiado ( Consejo de Educación del Estado de Virginia Occidental v. Barnette ), y el caso de la incautación de acero restringió la tendencia progubernamental.

La Corte Warren (1953-1969) expandió dramáticamente la fuerza de las libertades civiles constitucionales . [41] Sostuvo que la segregación en las escuelas públicas viola la Cláusula de Igual Protección de la Decimocuarta Enmienda ( Brown v. Board of Education , Bolling v. Sharpe y Green v. County School Bd. ) [42] y que los distritos legislativos deben ser aproximadamente iguales en población ( Reynolds v. Sims ). Reconoció un derecho general a la privacidad ( Griswold v. Connecticut ), [43] limitó el papel de la religión en la escuela pública, más prominentemente Engel v. Vitale y Abington School District v. Schempp , [44] [45] incorporó la mayoría de las garantías de la Declaración de Derechos contra los estados, prominentemente Mapp v. Ohio (la regla de exclusión ) y Gideon v. Wainwright ( derecho a un abogado designado ), [46] [47] y requirió que los sospechosos criminales sean informados de todos estos derechos por la policía ( Miranda v. Arizona ). [48] ​​Al mismo tiempo, el tribunal limitó las demandas por difamación presentadas por figuras públicas ( New York Times Co. v. Sullivan ) y proporcionó al gobierno una serie ininterrumpida de victorias antimonopolio. [49]

Burger, Rehnquist y Roberts

Los jueces de la Corte Suprema con el presidente George W. Bush (centro-derecha) en octubre de 2005. Los jueces (de izquierda a derecha) son: Ruth Bader Ginsburg , David Souter , Antonin Scalia , John Paul Stevens , John Roberts , Sandra Day O'Connor , Anthony Kennedy , Clarence Thomas y Stephen Breyer .

El Tribunal Burger (1969-1986) vio un giro conservador. [50] También amplió el derecho a la privacidad de Griswold para derribar leyes sobre el aborto ( Roe v. Wade ) [51] pero se dividió profundamente en la acción afirmativa ( Regents of the University of California v. Bakke ) [52] y la regulación del financiamiento de campañas ( Buckley v. Valeo ). [53] También vaciló sobre la pena de muerte , dictaminando primero que la mayoría de las aplicaciones eran defectuosas ( Furman v. Georgia ), [54] pero más tarde que la pena de muerte en sí no era inconstitucional ( Gregg v. Georgia ). [54] [55] [56]

La Corte Rehnquist (1986-2005) fue conocida por su resurgimiento de la aplicación judicial del federalismo , [57] enfatizando los límites de las concesiones afirmativas de poder de la Constitución ( Estados Unidos v. López ) y la fuerza de sus restricciones a esos poderes ( Tribu Seminole v. Florida , Ciudad de Boerne v. Flores ). [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] Derribó las escuelas estatales de un solo sexo como una violación de la protección igualitaria ( Estados Unidos v. Virginia ), las leyes contra la sodomía como violaciones del debido proceso sustantivo ( Lawrence v. Texas ) [63] y el veto de partidas individuales ( Clinton v. Nueva York ), pero confirmó los vales escolares ( Zelman v. Simmons-Harris ) y reafirmó las restricciones de Roe a las leyes sobre el aborto ( Planned Parenthood v. Casey ). [64] La decisión del tribunal en Bush v. Gore , que puso fin al recuento electoral durante las elecciones presidenciales de Estados Unidos de 2000 , sigue siendo especialmente controvertida, con un debate en curso sobre el ganador legítimo y si el fallo debería o no sentar un precedente. [65] [66] [67] [68]

La Corte Roberts (2005-presente) es considerada más conservadora y controvertida que la Corte Rehnquist. [69] [70] [71] [72] Algunas de sus principales sentencias han tenido que ver con la primacía federal ( Wyeth v. Levine ), el procedimiento civil ( TwomblyIqbal ), el derecho al voto y la autorización previa federal ( Shelby County ), el aborto ( Gonzales v. Carhart and Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization ), [73] el cambio climático ( Massachusetts v. EPA ), el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo ( United States v. Windsor and Obergefell v. Hodges ) y la Carta de Derechos, como en Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission ( First Amendment ), [74] HellerMcDonaldBruen ( Second Amendment ), [75] y Baze v. Rees ( Octava Amendment ). [76] [77]

Composición

Nombramiento, confirmación y nombramiento

John Roberts dando testimonio ante el Comité Judicial del Senado durante las audiencias de 2005 sobre su nominación como presidente de la Corte Suprema.

El Artículo II, Sección 2, Cláusula 2 de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos , conocida como la Cláusula de Nombramientos , faculta al presidente a nominar y, con la confirmación ( consejo y consentimiento ) del Senado de los Estados Unidos, a nombrar a funcionarios públicos , incluidos los magistrados de la Corte Suprema. Esta cláusula es un ejemplo del sistema de pesos y contrapesos inherente a la Constitución. El presidente tiene el poder plenario para nominar, mientras que el Senado posee el poder plenario para rechazar o confirmar al nominado. La Constitución no establece requisitos para el servicio como juez, como la edad, la ciudadanía, la residencia o la experiencia judicial previa, por lo que un presidente puede nominar a cualquier persona para servir, y el Senado no puede establecer ningún requisito o limitar de otro modo a quién puede elegir el presidente. [78] [79] [80]

En los tiempos modernos, el proceso de confirmación ha atraído considerable atención de la prensa y de los grupos de defensa, que presionan a los senadores para que confirmen o rechacen a un nominado dependiendo de si su historial se alinea con las opiniones del grupo. El Comité Judicial del Senado lleva a cabo audiencias y vota si la nominación debe ir al pleno del Senado con un informe positivo, negativo o neutral. La práctica del comité de entrevistar personalmente a los nominados es relativamente reciente. El primer nominado que compareció ante el comité fue Harlan Fiske Stone en 1925, quien trató de calmar las preocupaciones sobre sus vínculos con Wall Street , y la práctica moderna de interrogatorio comenzó con John Marshall Harlan II en 1955. [81] Una vez que el comité informa sobre la nominación, el pleno del Senado la considera. Los rechazos son relativamente poco comunes; el Senado ha rechazado explícitamente a doce nominados a la Corte Suprema, el más reciente a Robert Bork , nominado por el presidente Ronald Reagan en 1987.

Aunque las reglas del Senado no permiten necesariamente que un voto negativo o empatado en el comité bloquee una nominación, antes de 2017 una nominación podía ser bloqueada por obstruccionismo una vez que el debate había comenzado en el pleno del Senado. La nominación del presidente Lyndon B. Johnson del juez asociado en funciones Abe Fortas para suceder a Earl Warren como presidente de la Corte Suprema en 1968 fue el primer obstruccionismo exitoso de un candidato a la Corte Suprema. Incluyó a senadores republicanos y demócratas preocupados por la ética de Fortas. La nominación del presidente Donald Trump de Neil Gorsuch para el asiento dejado vacante por la muerte de Antonin Scalia fue la segunda. A diferencia del obstruccionismo de Fortas, solo los senadores demócratas votaron en contra de la clausura de la nominación de Gorsuch, citando su percibida filosofía judicial conservadora y la negativa previa de la mayoría republicana a aceptar la nominación del presidente Barack Obama de Merrick Garland para llenar la vacante. [82] Esto llevó a la mayoría republicana a cambiar las reglas y eliminar el obstruccionismo para las nominaciones a la Corte Suprema. [83]

Ruth Bader Ginsburg dando testimonio ante el Comité Judicial del Senado durante las audiencias de 1993 sobre su nominación para ser juez asociada

No todos los nominados a la Corte Suprema han recibido una votación en el pleno del Senado. Un presidente puede retirar una nominación antes de que se realice una votación de confirmación real, generalmente porque está claro que el Senado rechazará al nominado; esto ocurrió con la nominación de Harriet Miers por parte del presidente George W. Bush en 2005. El Senado también puede no actuar sobre una nominación, que expira al final de la sesión. La primera nominación del presidente Dwight Eisenhower de John Marshall Harlan II en noviembre de 1954 no fue tomada en cuenta por el Senado; Eisenhower volvió a nominar a Harlan en enero de 1955, y Harlan fue confirmado dos meses después. Más recientemente, el Senado no actuó sobre la nominación de Merrick Garland en marzo de 2016, ya que la nominación expiró en enero de 2017, y la vacante fue cubierta por Neil Gorsuch, un designado del presidente Trump. [8]

Una vez que el Senado confirma una nominación, el presidente debe preparar y firmar una comisión, a la que debe estamparse el Sello del Departamento de Justicia , antes de que el designado pueda asumir el cargo. [84] La antigüedad de un juez asociado se basa en la fecha de nombramiento, no en la fecha de confirmación o juramento. [85] Después de recibir su comisión, el designado debe realizar los dos juramentos prescritos antes de asumir sus funciones oficiales. [86] La importancia de la toma de juramento se ve subrayada por el caso de Edwin M. Stanton . Aunque fue confirmado por el Senado el 20 de diciembre de 1869 y debidamente comisionado como juez asociado por el presidente Ulysses S. Grant , Stanton murió el 24 de diciembre, antes de tomar los juramentos prescritos. Por lo tanto, no se considera que haya sido miembro de la corte. [87] [88]

Antes de 1981, el proceso de aprobación de los jueces era generalmente rápido. Desde la administración de Truman hasta la de Nixon , los jueces eran aprobados normalmente en un mes. Desde la administración de Reagan hasta la actualidad, el proceso ha llevado mucho más tiempo y algunos creen que esto se debe a que el Congreso considera que los jueces desempeñan un papel más político que en el pasado. [89] Según el Servicio de Investigación del Congreso , el número medio de días desde la nominación hasta la votación final del Senado desde 1975 es de 67 días (2,2 meses), mientras que la mediana es de 71 días (2,3 meses). [90] [91]

Citas durante el receso

Cuando el Senado está en receso , un presidente puede hacer nombramientos temporales para cubrir vacantes. Los designados en receso permanecen en el cargo sólo hasta el final de la siguiente sesión del Senado (menos de dos años). El Senado debe confirmar al candidato para que continúe en funciones; de los dos presidentes de la Corte Suprema y once jueces asociados que han recibido nombramientos en receso, sólo el presidente de la Corte Suprema, John Rutledge, no fue confirmado posteriormente. [92]

Ningún presidente de los Estados Unidos desde Dwight D. Eisenhower ha hecho un nombramiento en receso para la corte, y la práctica se ha vuelto rara y controvertida incluso en tribunales federales inferiores. [93] En 1960, después de que Eisenhower hubiera hecho tres nombramientos de ese tipo, el Senado aprobó una resolución de "sentido del Senado" que establecía que los nombramientos en receso para la corte sólo deberían hacerse en "circunstancias inusuales"; [94] dichas resoluciones no son legalmente vinculantes, sino que son una expresión de las opiniones del Congreso con la esperanza de orientar la acción ejecutiva. [94] [95]

La decisión de 2014 de la Corte Suprema en el caso National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning limitó la capacidad del presidente para hacer nombramientos en receso (incluidos los nombramientos para la Corte Suprema); la corte dictaminó que el Senado decide cuándo el Senado está en sesión o en receso. Escribiendo para la corte, el juez Breyer declaró: "Sostenemos que, a los efectos de la cláusula de nombramientos en receso, el Senado está en sesión cuando dice que lo está, siempre que, según sus propias reglas, conserve la capacidad de realizar transacciones en el Senado". [96] Esta decisión permite al Senado evitar nombramientos en receso mediante el uso de sesiones pro forma . [97]

Tenencia

La permanencia vitalicia de los jueces solo se puede encontrar en los jueces de la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos y en los jueces de la Corte Suprema del Estado de Rhode Island, mientras que todas las demás naciones democráticas y todos los demás estados de los Estados Unidos tienen límites de mandato o edades de jubilación obligatorias. [98] Larry Sabato escribió: "La insularidad de la permanencia vitalicia, combinada con los nombramientos de abogados relativamente jóvenes que prestan un largo servicio en el tribunal, produce jueces superiores que representan las opiniones de generaciones pasadas mejor que las opiniones de la actualidad". [99] Sanford Levinson ha criticado a los jueces que permanecieron en el cargo a pesar del deterioro médico basado en la longevidad. [100] James MacGregor Burns afirmó que la permanencia vitalicia ha "producido un desfase temporal crítico, con la Corte Suprema institucionalmente casi siempre atrasada". [101] Las propuestas para resolver estos problemas incluyen límites de mandato para los jueces, como propusieron Levinson [102] y Sabato [99] [103] y una edad de jubilación obligatoria propuesta por Richard Epstein , [104] entre otros. [105] Alexander Hamilton en Federalist 78 sostuvo que uno de los beneficios de la permanencia en el cargo de por vida era que "nada puede contribuir tanto a su firmeza e independencia como la permanencia en el cargo". [106] [ se necesita una fuente no primaria ]

El interior de la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos
El interior de la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos

El artículo tres, sección 1 de la Constitución establece que los jueces "mantendrán sus cargos mientras se comporten bien", lo que se entiende que significa que pueden servir por el resto de sus vidas, hasta la muerte; además, la frase generalmente se interpreta en el sentido de que la única forma en que los jueces pueden ser destituidos de su cargo es por el Congreso a través del proceso de impeachment . Los redactores de la Constitución eligieron la permanencia por buena conducta para limitar el poder de destituir a los jueces y garantizar la independencia judicial . [107] [108] [109] No existe ningún mecanismo constitucional para destituir a un juez que está incapacitado permanentemente por enfermedad o lesión, pero que no puede (o no quiere) renunciar. [110] El único juez que fue sometido a impeachment fue Samuel Chase , en 1804. La Cámara de Representantes adoptó ocho artículos de impeachment en su contra; Sin embargo, fue absuelto por el Senado y permaneció en el cargo hasta su muerte en 1811. [111] Dos jueces, William O. Douglas y Abe Fortas fueron sometidos a audiencias del Comité Judicial, siendo Douglas objeto de audiencias dos veces, en 1953 y nuevamente en 1970 y Fortas renunció mientras se organizaban las audiencias en 1969. El 10 de julio de 2024, la representante Alexandria Ocasia-Cortez presentó artículos de acusación contra los jueces Clarence Thomas y Samuel Alito , citando sus "enredos financieros y personales ampliamente documentados". [112]

Como los magistrados tienen un mandato indefinido, el momento en que se producen vacantes puede ser impredecible. A veces surgen en rápida sucesión, como en septiembre de 1971, cuando Hugo Black y John Marshall Harlan II dejaron el cargo con pocos días de diferencia, el período más corto entre vacantes en la historia de la corte. [113] A veces pasa mucho tiempo entre vacantes, como el lapso de 11 años, de 1994 a 2005, desde la jubilación de Harry Blackmun hasta la muerte de William Rehnquist , que fue el segundo lapso más largo entre vacantes en la historia de la corte. [114] En promedio, un nuevo magistrado se incorpora a la corte aproximadamente cada dos años. [7]

A pesar de la variabilidad, todos los presidentes excepto cuatro han podido nombrar al menos a un juez. William Henry Harrison murió un mes después de asumir el cargo, aunque su sucesor ( John Tyler ) hizo un nombramiento durante ese período presidencial. Del mismo modo, Zachary Taylor murió 16 meses después de asumir el cargo, pero su sucesor ( Millard Fillmore ) también hizo una nominación a la Corte Suprema antes del final de ese período. A Andrew Johnson, quien se convirtió en presidente después del asesinato de Abraham Lincoln , se le negó la oportunidad de nombrar a un juez por una reducción en el tamaño de la corte. Jimmy Carter es la única persona elegida presidente que ha dejado el cargo después de al menos un mandato completo sin tener la oportunidad de nombrar a un juez. Los presidentes James Monroe , Franklin D. Roosevelt y George W. Bush cumplieron cada uno un mandato completo sin la oportunidad de nombrar a un juez, pero hicieron nombramientos durante sus mandatos posteriores en el cargo. Ningún presidente que haya cumplido más de un mandato completo ha pasado sin al menos una oportunidad de hacer un nombramiento.

Tamaño de la cancha

La Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos, una de las más pequeñas del mundo, está formada por nueve miembros: un presidente y ocho jueces asociados. La Constitución de Estados Unidos no especifica el tamaño de la Corte Suprema ni tampoco especifica ningún cargo específico para los miembros de la corte. La Constitución presupone la existencia del cargo de presidente, porque menciona en el Artículo I, Sección 3, Cláusula 6 que "el presidente de la Corte Suprema" debe presidir los juicios de destitución del presidente de los Estados Unidos . Se ha asumido que el poder para definir el tamaño y la membresía de la Corte Suprema pertenece al Congreso, que inicialmente estableció una Corte Suprema de seis miembros compuesta por un presidente y cinco jueces asociados a través de la Ley Judicial de 1789 .

El tamaño de la corte fue alterado por primera vez por la Ley de Jueces de Medianoche de 1801 que habría reducido el tamaño de la corte a cinco miembros en su próxima vacante (ya que los jueces federales tienen mandato vitalicio ), pero la Ley Judicial de 1802 rápidamente anuló la ley de 1801, restaurando el tamaño de la corte a seis miembros antes de que ocurriera tal vacante. A medida que las fronteras de la nación crecieron en todo el continente y como los jueces de la Corte Suprema en esos días tenían que viajar por el circuito , un proceso arduo que requería largos viajes a caballo o carruaje sobre terrenos difíciles que resultaban en estadías prolongadas de meses fuera de casa, el Congreso agregó jueces para corresponder con el crecimiento de tal manera que el número de asientos para jueces asociados más el presidente de la Corte Suprema se convirtió en siete en 1807 , nueve en 1837 y diez en 1863. [ 115] [116]

A instancias del presidente de la Corte Suprema Chase , y en un intento del Congreso republicano de limitar el poder del demócrata Andrew Johnson , el Congreso aprobó la Ley de Circuitos Judiciales de 1866, que disponía que los próximos tres jueces que se jubilaran no serían reemplazados, lo que reduciría el tribunal a siete jueces por desgaste. En consecuencia, se eliminó un escaño en 1866 y un segundo en 1867. Poco después de que Johnson dejara el cargo, el nuevo presidente Ulysses S. Grant , [117] republicano, firmó la Ley Judicial de 1869. Esto devolvió el número de jueces a nueve [118] (donde ha permanecido desde entonces), y permitió a Grant nombrar inmediatamente a dos jueces más.

El presidente Franklin D. Roosevelt intentó ampliar la corte en 1937. Su propuesta preveía el nombramiento de un juez adicional por cada juez titular que alcanzara la edad de 70  años y 6  meses y rechazara la jubilación, hasta un máximo de 15 jueces. La propuesta pretendía ostensiblemente aliviar la carga de trabajo de los jueces de edad avanzada, pero el propósito real fue ampliamente entendido como un esfuerzo por "llenar" la corte con jueces que apoyarían el New Deal de Roosevelt. [119] El plan, generalmente llamado el " plan de llenar la corte ", fracasó en el Congreso después de que los miembros del propio Partido Demócrata de Roosevelt creyeran que era inconstitucional. Fue derrotado por 70 a 20 en el Senado, y el Comité Judicial del Senado informó que era "esencial para la continuidad de nuestra democracia constitucional" que la propuesta "sea rechazada tan enfáticamente que su paralelo nunca más se presente a los representantes libres del pueblo libre de Estados Unidos". [120] [121] [122] [123]

La expansión de una mayoría conservadora de 5-4 a una supermayoría de 6-3 durante la presidencia de Donald Trump llevó a los analistas a calificar a la corte como la más conservadora desde la década de 1930, así como a pedir una expansión del tamaño de la corte para corregir lo que algunos vieron como un desequilibrio, con los republicanos habiendo nombrado a 14 de los 18 jueces inmediatamente anteriores a Amy Coney Barrett . [124] [125] En abril de 2021, durante el 117.º Congreso , algunos demócratas de la Cámara de Representantes presentaron la Ley Judicial de 2021, un proyecto de ley para ampliar la Corte Suprema de nueve a 13 escaños. Se encontró con opiniones divididas dentro del partido, y la presidenta de la Cámara de Representantes , Nancy Pelosi, no lo llevó al pleno para su votación. [126] [127] Poco después de asumir el cargo en enero de 2021, el presidente Joe Biden estableció una comisión presidencial para estudiar posibles reformas a la Corte Suprema. El informe final de la comisión de diciembre de 2021 analizó la ampliación del tamaño del tribunal, pero no adoptó ninguna posición al respecto. [128]

Con nueve miembros, la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos es una de las más pequeñas del mundo. David Litt sostiene que la corte es demasiado pequeña para representar las perspectivas de un país del tamaño de Estados Unidos. [129] El abogado y erudito en derecho Jonathan Turley aboga por 19 jueces y que la corte se amplíe gradualmente con dos nuevos miembros por mandato presidencial, lo que llevaría a la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos a un tamaño similar al de sus homólogas en otros países desarrollados. Dice que una corte más grande reduciría el poder del juez indeciso , garantizaría que la corte tenga "una mayor diversidad de puntos de vista" y haría que la confirmación de nuevos jueces sea menos polémica políticamente. [130] [131]

Afiliación

Jueces actuales

Actualmente, la Corte Suprema está integrada por nueve jueces: el presidente John Roberts y ocho jueces asociados. Entre los miembros actuales de la corte, Clarence Thomas es el juez que lleva más tiempo en el cargo, con un mandato de 10 años.12.029 días (32 años, 341 días) al 28 de septiembre de 2024; el juez más reciente en unirse a la corte es Ketanji Brown Jackson, cuyo mandato comenzó el 30 de junio de 2022, después de ser confirmado por el Senado el 7 de abril. [132]

Esta cronología gráfica representa la duración del mandato de cada juez actual de la Corte Suprema (no la antigüedad, ya que el presidente tiene antigüedad sobre todos los jueces asociados independientemente de la antigüedad) en la corte:

Ketanji Brown JacksonAmy Coney BarrettBrett KavanaughNeil GorsuchElena KaganSonia SotomayorSamuel AlitoJohn RobertsClarence Thomas

Demografía de los tribunales

Actualmente, el tribunal cuenta con cinco jueces hombres y cuatro mujeres. Entre los nueve jueces, hay dos jueces afroamericanos (los jueces Thomas y Jackson ) y una jueza hispana (la jueza Sotomayor ). Uno de los jueces nació de al menos un padre inmigrante : el padre del juez Alito nació en Italia. [134] [135]

Al menos seis jueces son católicos romanos , uno es judío y uno es protestante . No está claro si Neil Gorsuch se considera católico o episcopal . [136] Históricamente, la mayoría de los jueces han sido protestantes, incluidos 36 episcopales, 19 presbiterianos , 10 unitarios , 5 metodistas y 3 bautistas . [137] [138] El primer juez católico fue Roger Taney en 1836, [139] y 1916 vio el nombramiento del primer juez judío, Louis Brandeis . [140] En los últimos años, la situación histórica se ha revertido, ya que la mayoría de los jueces recientes han sido católicos o judíos.

Tres jueces son del estado de Nueva York, dos son de Washington, DC, y uno es de cada uno de Nueva Jersey, Georgia, Colorado y Luisiana. [141] [142] [143] Ocho de los jueces actuales recibieron su Doctorado en Derecho de una facultad de derecho de la Ivy League : Neil Gorsuch, Ketanji Brown Jackson, Elena Kagan y John Roberts de Harvard ; además de Samuel Alito, Brett Kavanaugh , Sonia Sotomayor y Clarence Thomas de Yale . Solo Amy Coney Barrett no lo hizo; recibió su Doctorado en Derecho en Notre Dame .

Los cargos o puestos anteriores, judiciales o en el gobierno federal, antes de unirse a la corte (por orden de antigüedad siguiendo al Presidente de la Corte Suprema) incluyen:

Las primeras cuatro juezas: O'Connor, Sotomayor, Ginsburg y Kagan

Durante gran parte de la historia de la corte, cada juez era un hombre de ascendencia del noroeste de Europa , y casi siempre protestante . Las preocupaciones por la diversidad se centraron en la geografía, para representar a todas las regiones del país, en lugar de la diversidad religiosa, étnica o de género. [144] La diversidad racial, étnica y de género en la corte aumentó a fines del siglo XX. Thurgood Marshall se convirtió en el primer juez afroamericano en 1967. [140] Sandra Day O'Connor se convirtió en la primera mujer juez en 1981. [140] En 1986, Antonin Scalia se convirtió en el primer juez italoamericano . Marshall fue sucedido por el afroamericano Clarence Thomas en 1991. [145] O'Connor fue acompañada por Ruth Bader Ginsburg, la primera mujer judía en la Corte, en 1993. [146] Después del retiro de O'Connor, Ginsburg fue acompañada en 2009 por Sonia Sotomayor , la primera jueza hispana y latina , [140] y en 2010 por Elena Kagan. [146] Después de la muerte de Ginsburg el 18 de septiembre de 2020, Amy Coney Barrett fue confirmada como la quinta mujer en la historia de la corte el 26 de octubre de 2020. Ketanji Brown Jackson es la sexta mujer y la primera mujer afroamericana en la corte.

Ha habido seis jueces nacidos en el extranjero en la historia de la corte: James Wilson (1789-1798), nacido en Caskardy , Escocia; James Iredell (1790-1799), nacido en Lewes , Inglaterra; William Paterson (1793-1806), nacido en el condado de Antrim , Irlanda; David Brewer (1889-1910), nacido de misioneros estadounidenses en Esmirna , Imperio otomano (ahora Esmirna , Turquía); George Sutherland (1922-1939), nacido en Buckinghamshire , Inglaterra; y Felix Frankfurter (1939-1962), nacido en Viena , Austria-Hungría (ahora en Austria). [140]

Desde 1789, aproximadamente un tercio de los jueces han sido veteranos militares estadounidenses . Samuel Alito es el único veterano que actualmente presta servicio en la corte. [147] Los jueces retirados Stephen Breyer y Anthony Kennedy también sirvieron en el ejército estadounidense. [148]

Tendencias judiciales

Los jueces son nominados por el presidente en el poder y reciben la confirmación del Senado, y históricamente han mantenido muchas de las opiniones del partido político del presidente que los nomina. Si bien los jueces no representan ni reciben el respaldo oficial de los partidos políticos, como es una práctica aceptada en los poderes legislativo y ejecutivo, organizaciones como la Sociedad Federalista sí filtran y respaldan oficialmente a los jueces que tienen una visión suficientemente conservadora de la ley. Los juristas suelen ser categorizados informalmente en los medios de comunicación como conservadores o liberales. Los intentos de cuantificar las ideologías de los juristas incluyen la puntuación de Segal-Cover , la puntuación de Martin-Quinn y la puntuación del Espacio Común Judicial . [149] [150]

Devins y Baum sostienen que antes de 2010, la Corte nunca tuvo bloques ideológicos claros que encajaran perfectamente con las líneas partidarias. Al elegir a sus miembros, los presidentes a menudo se centraban más en la amistad y las conexiones políticas que en la ideología. Los presidentes republicanos a veces nombraban a liberales y los presidentes demócratas a veces nombraban a conservadores. Como resultado, "... entre 1790 y principios de 2010 hubo sólo dos decisiones que la Guía de la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos designó como importantes y que tuvieron al menos dos votos disidentes en los que los jueces se dividieron según líneas partidarias, alrededor de medio uno por ciento". [151] : 316  [152] Incluso en los turbulentos años 1960 y 1970, las élites demócratas y republicanas tendían a estar de acuerdo en algunas cuestiones importantes, especialmente en lo que respecta a los derechos civiles y las libertades civiles, y lo mismo hacían los jueces. Pero desde 1991, sostienen, la ideología ha sido mucho más importante a la hora de elegir a los jueces: todos los designados por los republicanos han sido conservadores comprometidos y todos los designados por los demócratas han sido liberales. [151] : 331–344  A medida que los jueces republicanos más moderados se jubilaron, la Corte se volvió más partidista. La Corte se dividió más marcadamente en líneas partidistas, con los jueces designados por presidentes republicanos adoptando posiciones cada vez más conservadoras y los designados por demócratas adoptando posiciones liberales moderadas. [151] : 357 

Balance de la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos desde 2020, sombreado por partido del presidente nominador: el azul representa a un presidente demócrata y el rojo a un presidente republicano

Tras la confirmación de Amy Coney Barrett en 2020 tras la muerte de Ruth Bader Ginsburg , la corte está compuesta por seis jueces designados por presidentes republicanos y tres designados por presidentes demócratas. Se acepta popularmente que el presidente del Tribunal Supremo Roberts y los jueces asociados Thomas , Alito , Gorsuch , Kavanaugh y Barrett, designados por presidentes republicanos, componen el ala conservadora de la corte, y que los jueces Sotomayor , Kagan y Jackson , designados por presidentes demócratas, componen el ala liberal de la corte. [153] Antes de la muerte de la jueza Ginsburg en 2020, el conservador presidente del Tribunal Supremo Roberts era descrito a veces como el "juez medio" de la corte (con cuatro jueces más liberales y cuatro más conservadores que él). [154] [155] Darragh Roche sostiene que Kavanaugh como juez medio de 2021 ejemplifica el giro hacia la derecha en la corte. [156] [ necesita actualización ]

FiveThirtyEight descubrió que el número de decisiones unánimes se redujo del promedio de 20 años de casi el 50% a casi el 30% en 2021, mientras que los fallos partidistas aumentaron de un promedio de 60 años justo por encima de cero a un récord del 21%. [157] Ese año, Ryan Williams señaló las votaciones partidarias para las confirmaciones de los jueces como evidencia de que la corte es de importancia partidista para el Senado. [158] En 2022, Simon Lazarus de Brookings criticó a la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos como una institución cada vez más partidista. [159] Una encuesta AP-NORC de 2024 mostró que 7 de cada 10 encuestados creían que la corte decide los casos para "encajar con sus propias ideologías" en lugar de "actuar como un control independiente de otras ramas del gobierno siendo justa e imparcial". [160]

Jueces jubilados

Actualmente hay tres jueces jubilados vivos de la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos: Anthony Kennedy, David Souter y Stephen Breyer. Como jueces jubilados, ya no participan en el trabajo de la Corte Suprema, pero pueden ser designados para asignaciones temporales para sentarse en tribunales federales inferiores, generalmente los Tribunales de Apelaciones de los Estados Unidos . Tales asignaciones son hechas formalmente por el presidente de la Corte Suprema, a solicitud del juez principal del tribunal inferior y con el consentimiento del juez jubilado. En los últimos años, el juez Souter ha sentado con frecuencia en el Primer Circuito , el tribunal del que fue miembro brevemente antes de unirse a la Corte Suprema. [161] El estado de un juez jubilado es análogo al de un juez de circuito o tribunal de distrito que ha tomado el estado senior , y la elegibilidad de un juez de la Corte Suprema para asumir el estado jubilado (en lugar de simplemente renunciar al cargo) se rige por los mismos criterios de edad y servicio.

En los últimos tiempos, los jueces tienden a planificar estratégicamente sus decisiones de abandonar el cargo, teniendo en cuenta factores personales, institucionales, ideológicos, partidistas y políticos. [162] [163] El miedo al deterioro mental y a la muerte suele ser la razón por la que los jueces renuncian. El deseo de maximizar la fuerza y ​​la legitimidad de la Corte mediante una jubilación a la vez, cuando la Corte está en receso y durante años en los que no hay elecciones presidenciales, sugiere una preocupación por la salud institucional. Por último, especialmente en las últimas décadas, muchos jueces han programado su salida para que coincida con el mandato de un presidente filosóficamente compatible, a fin de garantizar que se designe a un sucesor con ideas afines. [164] [165]

Salario

A partir de 2024, los jueces asociados reciben un salario anual de 298.500 dólares y el presidente de la Corte Suprema recibe 312.200 dólares al año. [166] Una vez que un juez cumple con los requisitos de edad y servicio , puede jubilarse con una pensión basada en la misma fórmula que se utiliza para los empleados federales. Al igual que con otros jueces de tribunales federales, su pensión nunca puede ser inferior a su salario en el momento de la jubilación según la Cláusula de Compensación del Artículo III de la Constitución . [ cita requerida ]

Antigüedad y asientos

Tribunal Roberts (desde junio de 2022): Primera fila (de izquierda a derecha): Sonia Sotomayor , Clarence Thomas , el presidente del Tribunal Supremo John Roberts , Samuel Alito y Elena Kagan . Fila de atrás (de izquierda a derecha): Amy Coney Barrett , Neil Gorsuch , Brett Kavanaugh y Ketanji Brown Jackson .

En su mayor parte, las actividades cotidianas de los jueces se rigen por reglas de protocolo basadas en la antigüedad de los jueces. El presidente de la Corte Suprema siempre ocupa el primer lugar en el orden de precedencia , independientemente de la duración de su servicio. A continuación, los jueces asociados se clasifican según la duración de su servicio. El presidente de la Corte Suprema se sienta en el centro del tribunal o en la cabecera de la mesa durante las conferencias. Los demás jueces se sientan en orden de antigüedad. El juez asociado de mayor antigüedad se sienta inmediatamente a la derecha del presidente de la Corte Suprema; el segundo más antiguo se sienta inmediatamente a su izquierda. Los asientos se alternan de derecha a izquierda en orden de antigüedad, y el juez más joven ocupa el último asiento. Por lo tanto, desde el período de octubre de 2022, la Corte se sienta de la siguiente manera, de izquierda a derecha, desde la perspectiva de quienes se enfrentan a la Corte: Barrett, Gorsuch, Sotomayor, Thomas (el juez asociado de mayor antigüedad), Roberts (presidente de la Corte Suprema), Alito, Kagan, Kavanaugh y Jackson. De la misma manera, cuando los miembros de la corte se reúnen para fotografías grupales oficiales, los jueces se organizan en orden de antigüedad, con los cinco miembros más antiguos sentados en la primera fila en el mismo orden en que se sentarían durante las sesiones de la Corte (actualmente, de izquierda a derecha, Sotomayor, Thomas, Roberts, Alito y Kagan), y los cuatro jueces más jóvenes de pie detrás de ellos, nuevamente en el mismo orden en que se sentarían durante las sesiones de la Corte (Barrett, Gorsuch, Kavanaugh y Jackson).

En las conferencias privadas de los magistrados, la práctica actual es que hablen y voten en orden de antigüedad, comenzando con el presidente y terminando con el magistrado asociado más joven. Según la costumbre, el magistrado asociado más joven en estas conferencias se encarga de las tareas menores que los magistrados puedan requerir cuando se reúnen solos, como abrir la puerta de su sala de conferencias, servir bebidas y transmitir las órdenes del tribunal al secretario. [167]

Instalaciones

Desde la década de 1860 hasta la década de 1930, el tribunal tuvo su sede en la antigua Cámara del Senado del Capitolio de los Estados Unidos .

La Corte Suprema se reunió por primera vez el 1 de febrero de 1790 en el edificio Merchants' Exchange de la ciudad de Nueva York. Cuando Filadelfia se convirtió en la capital, la corte se reunió brevemente en Independence Hall antes de establecerse en Old City Hall desde 1791 hasta 1800. Después de que el gobierno se mudó a Washington, DC, la corte ocupó varios espacios en el edificio del Capitolio hasta 1935, cuando se mudó a su propia casa construida especialmente para ese fin. El edificio de cuatro pisos fue diseñado por Cass Gilbert en un estilo clásico que simpatiza con los edificios circundantes del Capitolio y la Biblioteca del Congreso , y está revestido de mármol. El edificio incluye la sala de audiencias, las cámaras de los jueces, una extensa biblioteca jurídica , varios espacios de reunión y servicios auxiliares que incluyen un gimnasio. El edificio de la Corte Suprema está dentro del ámbito del Arquitecto del Capitolio , pero mantiene su propia Policía de la Corte Suprema , separada de la Policía del Capitolio . [168]

Ubicado frente al Capitolio de los Estados Unidos, en One First Street NE y Maryland Avenue, [169] [170] el edificio está abierto al público de 9:00  a 16:30  horas de lunes a viernes, pero cerrado los fines de semana y días festivos . [169] Los visitantes no pueden recorrer la sala del tribunal sin acompañamiento. Hay una cafetería, una tienda de regalos, exhibiciones y una película informativa de media hora. [168] Cuando el tribunal no está en sesión, se realizan conferencias sobre la sala del tribunal cada hora de 9:30  a 15:30  horas y no es necesario hacer reservas. [168] Cuando el tribunal está en sesión, el público puede asistir a los argumentos orales, que se llevan a cabo dos veces por la mañana (y, a veces, por la tarde) los lunes, martes y miércoles en intervalos de dos semanas desde octubre hasta fines de abril, con descansos durante diciembre y febrero. Los visitantes se sientan por orden de llegada. Se estima que hay alrededor de 250 asientos disponibles. [171] El número de asientos disponibles varía de un caso a otro; en los casos importantes, algunos visitantes llegan el día anterior y esperan toda la noche. El tribunal publica las opiniones a partir de las 10  de la mañana en los "días sin alegatos" programados (también llamados días de opinión). [172] Estas sesiones, que suelen durar entre 15 y 30 minutos, también están abiertas al público. [172] [168] Desde mediados de mayo hasta fines de junio, se programa al menos un día de opinión cada semana. [168] La policía de la Corte Suprema está disponible para responder preguntas. [169]

Jurisdicción

El Congreso está autorizado por el Artículo III de la Constitución federal a regular la jurisdicción de apelación de la Corte Suprema.

Jurisdicción original

La Corte Suprema tiene jurisdicción original y exclusiva sobre casos entre dos o más estados [173] pero puede negarse a conocer de dichos casos. [174] También posee jurisdicción original pero no exclusiva para conocer de "todas las acciones o procedimientos en los que sean partes embajadores, otros ministros públicos, cónsules o vicecónsules de estados extranjeros; todas las controversias entre los Estados Unidos y un Estado; y todas las acciones o procedimientos de un Estado contra los ciudadanos de otro Estado o contra extranjeros". [175]

En 1906, el tribunal afirmó su jurisdicción original para procesar a personas por desacato al tribunal en Estados Unidos v. Shipp . [176] El procedimiento resultante sigue siendo el único procedimiento por desacato y el único juicio penal en la historia del tribunal. [177] [178] El procedimiento por desacato surgió del linchamiento de Ed Johnson en Chattanooga, Tennessee, la noche después de que el juez John Marshall Harlan le concediera a Johnson una suspensión de la ejecución para permitir que sus abogados presentaran una apelación. Johnson fue sacado de su celda por una turba de linchadores, ayudado por el sheriff local que dejó la prisión prácticamente sin vigilancia, y ahorcado de un puente, después de lo cual un ayudante del sheriff colocó una nota en el cuerpo de Johnson que decía: "Al juez Harlan. Ven a buscar a tu negro ahora". [177] El sheriff local, John Shipp, citó la intervención de la Corte Suprema como la justificación del linchamiento. El tribunal designó a su secretario adjunto como maestro especial para presidir el juicio en Chattanooga con argumentos finales presentados en Washington ante los jueces de la Corte Suprema, quienes encontraron a nueve personas culpables de desacato, condenando a tres a 90 días de cárcel y al resto a 60 días de cárcel. [177] [178] [179]

En todos los demás casos, el tribunal sólo tiene jurisdicción de apelación, incluida la capacidad de emitir órdenes de mandamus y órdenes de prohibición a tribunales inferiores. Muy rara vez considera casos basados ​​en su jurisdicción original; casi todos los casos se llevan a la Corte Suprema en apelación. En la práctica, los únicos casos de jurisdicción original que conoce el tribunal son disputas entre dos o más estados. [180]

Jurisdicción de apelación

La jurisdicción de apelación del tribunal consiste en apelaciones de tribunales federales de apelación (a través de certiorari , certiorari antes del juicio y preguntas certificadas ), [181] el Tribunal de Apelaciones de los Estados Unidos para las Fuerzas Armadas (a través de certiorari), [182] el Tribunal Supremo de Puerto Rico (a través de certiorari ), [183] ​​el Tribunal Supremo de las Islas Vírgenes (a través de certiorari ), [184] el Tribunal de Apelaciones del Distrito de Columbia (a través de certiorari ), [185] y "sentencias o decretos finales dictados por el tribunal más alto de un Estado en el que se podría tomar una decisión" (a través de certiorari ). [185] En el último caso, se puede presentar una apelación ante el Tribunal Supremo desde un tribunal estatal inferior si el tribunal más alto del estado se negó a escuchar una apelación o carece de jurisdicción para escuchar una apelación. Por ejemplo, una decisión dictada por uno de los Tribunales de Apelaciones del Distrito de Florida puede ser apelada ante la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos si (a) la Corte Suprema de Florida se negó a conceder certiorari , por ejemplo, Florida Star v. BJF , o (b) el tribunal de apelaciones del distrito emitió una decisión per curiam simplemente afirmando la decisión del tribunal inferior sin discutir los méritos del caso, ya que la Corte Suprema de Florida carece de jurisdicción para escuchar apelaciones de tales decisiones. [186] El poder de la Corte Suprema para considerar apelaciones de tribunales estatales, en lugar de solo tribunales federales, fue creado por la Ley Judicial de 1789 y confirmado temprano en la historia de la corte, por sus fallos en Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1816) y Cohens v. Virginia (1821). La Corte Suprema es el único tribunal federal que tiene jurisdicción sobre apelaciones directas de decisiones de tribunales estatales, aunque hay varios dispositivos que permiten la llamada "revisión colateral" de casos estatales. Cabe señalar que esta "revisión colateral" a menudo sólo se aplica a las personas condenadas a muerte y no a través del sistema judicial ordinario. [187]

Dado que el Artículo Tres de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos estipula que los tribunales federales sólo pueden conocer de "casos" o "controversias", la Corte Suprema no puede decidir casos que son discutibles y no emite opiniones consultivas , como pueden hacer las cortes supremas de algunos estados. Por ejemplo, en DeFunis v. Odegaard (1974), la corte desestimó una demanda que cuestionaba la constitucionalidad de una política de acción afirmativa de una facultad de derecho porque el estudiante demandante se había graduado después de que comenzó la demanda, y una decisión de la corte sobre su demanda no podría reparar ningún daño que hubiera sufrido. Sin embargo, la corte reconoce algunas circunstancias en las que es apropiado escuchar un caso que aparentemente es discutible. Si una cuestión es "capaz de repetirse pero evadiendo la revisión", la corte la abordaría aunque la parte ante la corte no se vería compensada por un resultado favorable. En Roe v. Wade (1973) y otros casos de aborto, el tribunal analiza los méritos de las reclamaciones presentadas por mujeres embarazadas que solicitan un aborto incluso si ya no están embarazadas, porque apelar un caso a través de los tribunales inferiores ante la Corte Suprema lleva más tiempo que el período típico de gestación humana. Otra excepción irrelevante es el cese voluntario de la conducta ilegal, en la que el tribunal considera la probabilidad de recurrencia y la necesidad de reparación del demandante. [188]

Los jueces como jueces de circuito

Estados Unidos está dividido en trece tribunales de apelaciones de circuito , a cada uno de los cuales se le asigna un "juez de circuito" de la Corte Suprema. Aunque este concepto ha existido continuamente a lo largo de la historia de la república, su significado ha cambiado con el tiempo. Bajo la Ley Judicial de 1789, cada juez estaba obligado a "viajar por el circuito", o viajar dentro del circuito asignado y considerar casos junto con los jueces locales. Esta práctica encontró oposición por parte de muchos jueces, que citaron la dificultad de viajar. Además, existía la posibilidad de un conflicto de intereses en el tribunal si un juez había decidido previamente el mismo caso mientras estaba en el circuito. El circuito de jueces terminó en 1901, cuando se aprobó la Ley del Tribunal de Apelaciones del Circuito, y el Congreso lo abolió oficialmente en 1911. [189]

El juez de circuito de cada circuito es responsable de tratar ciertos tipos de solicitudes que, por ley y por las reglas del tribunal, pueden ser abordadas por un solo juez. Por lo general, un juez resolverá una solicitud de este tipo simplemente endosándola como "concedida" o "denegada" o emitiendo un formulario estándar de orden; sin embargo, el juez puede optar por escribir una opinión, conocida como opinión en cámara . El Congreso ha autorizado específicamente a un juez a emitir una suspensión pendiente de certiorari en 28 USC  § 2101(f) [ inappropriate external link? ] . Cada juez también decide sobre solicitudes de procedimiento rutinarias, como por ejemplo, las extensiones de tiempo.

Antes de 1990, las reglas de la Corte Suprema también establecían que "un juez puede conceder un mandato judicial en un caso en que pueda ser concedido por el Tribunal". [190] Sin embargo, esta parte de la regla (y todas las demás menciones específicas a los mandatos judiciales) se eliminaron en la revisión de las reglas de la Corte Suprema de diciembre de 1989. [191] [192] No obstante, las solicitudes de mandatos judiciales en virtud de la Ley de todos los mandatos judiciales a veces se dirigen al juez del circuito. En el pasado, [ ¿cuándo? ] los jueces del circuito también concedían a veces mociones de libertad bajo fianza en casos penales, recursos de habeas corpus y solicitudes de recursos de error que concedían permiso para apelar. [192]

Un juez de circuito puede ser juez en el Tribunal de Apelaciones de ese circuito, pero en los últimos cien años, esto ha ocurrido raramente. Un juez de circuito que se desempeña en el Tribunal de Apelaciones tiene antigüedad sobre el juez principal del circuito. [193] El presidente de la Corte Suprema ha sido tradicionalmente asignado al Circuito del Distrito de Columbia, el Cuarto Circuito (que incluye Maryland y Virginia, los estados que rodean el Distrito de Columbia) y, desde su creación, al Circuito Federal . Cada juez asociado está asignado a uno o dos circuitos judiciales.

Al 28 de septiembre de 2022, la distribución de los magistrados entre los circuitos es la siguiente: [194]

Cinco de los jueces actuales están asignados a circuitos en los que anteriormente se desempeñaron como jueces de circuito: el Presidente del Tribunal Supremo Roberts (Circuito de DC), la Jueza Sotomayor (Segundo Circuito), el Juez Alito (Tercer Circuito), la Jueza Barrett (Séptimo Circuito) y el Juez Gorsuch (Décimo Circuito).

Proceso

Selección de casos

Casi todos los casos llegan ante el tribunal mediante peticiones de auto de certiorari , comúnmente conocido como cert , sobre el cual el tribunal concede un auto de certiorari. El tribunal puede revisar a través de este proceso cualquier caso civil o penal en los tribunales federales de apelaciones. [195] También puede revisar por certiorari una sentencia final del tribunal más alto de un estado si la sentencia involucra una cuestión de derecho constitucional o estatutario federal. [196] Un caso puede llegar alternativamente ante el tribunal como una apelación directa de un tribunal federal de distrito de tres jueces. [197] La ​​parte que solicita al tribunal la revisión es el peticionario y la parte que no presenta la moción es el demandado .

Los casos que se presentan ante el tribunal se denominan "peticionario contra demandado" , independientemente de qué parte haya iniciado la demanda en el tribunal de primera instancia. Por ejemplo, los procesos penales se llevan a cabo en nombre del estado y contra un individuo, como en el caso Estado de Arizona contra Ernesto Miranda . Si el acusado es condenado y su condena se confirma en apelación en el tribunal supremo del estado , cuando solicita la certidumbre, el nombre del caso pasa a ser Miranda contra Arizona .

El tribunal también escucha las preguntas que le presentan los propios tribunales de apelaciones mediante un proceso conocido como certificación. [195]

La Corte Suprema se basa en el expediente reunido por tribunales inferiores para los hechos de un caso y se ocupa únicamente de la cuestión de cómo se aplica la ley a los hechos presentados . Sin embargo, hay situaciones en las que el tribunal tiene jurisdicción original , como cuando dos estados tienen una disputa entre sí, o cuando hay una disputa entre los Estados Unidos y un estado. En tales casos, un caso se presenta directamente ante la Corte Suprema. Ejemplos de tales casos incluyen Estados Unidos v. Texas , un caso para determinar si una parcela de tierra pertenecía a los Estados Unidos o a Texas, y Virginia v. Tennessee , un caso que gira en torno a si un límite trazado incorrectamente entre dos estados puede ser cambiado por un tribunal estatal, y si el establecimiento del límite correcto requiere la aprobación del Congreso. Aunque no ha sucedido desde 1794 en el caso de Georgia v. Brailsford , [198] las partes en una acción judicial en la que la Corte Suprema tiene jurisdicción original pueden solicitar que un jurado determine cuestiones de hecho. [199] Georgia v. Brailsford sigue siendo el único caso en el que el tribunal ha formado un jurado, en este caso un jurado especial . [200] Otros dos casos de jurisdicción original involucran fronteras de la era colonial y derechos bajo aguas navegables en Nueva Jersey v. Delaware , y derechos de agua entre estados ribereños aguas arriba de aguas navegables en Kansas v. Colorado .

La petición de certiorari se somete a votación en una sesión del tribunal llamada conferencia. Una conferencia es una reunión privada de los nueve jueces por separado; el público y los secretarios de los jueces están excluidos. La regla de los cuatro permite que cuatro de los nueve jueces concedan un recurso de certiorari . Si se concede, el caso pasa a la etapa de presentación de escritos; de lo contrario, el caso termina. Excepto en los casos de pena de muerte y otros casos en los que el tribunal ordena que el demandado presente escritos, el demandado puede, pero no está obligado a, presentar una respuesta a la petición de certiorari. El tribunal concede una petición de certiorari solo por "razones imperiosas", que se detallan en la Regla 10 del tribunal. Tales razones incluyen:

Cuando surge un conflicto de interpretaciones a partir de diferentes interpretaciones de la misma ley o disposición constitucional emitidas por diferentes tribunales federales de apelaciones, los abogados llaman a esta situación una " división del circuito "; si el tribunal vota para denegar una petición de cert, como lo hace en la gran mayoría de las peticiones de este tipo que llegan ante él, lo hace típicamente sin comentarios. La denegación de una petición de cert no es un juicio sobre los méritos de un caso, y la decisión del tribunal inferior se mantiene como el fallo final del caso. Para gestionar el alto volumen de peticiones de cert que recibe el tribunal cada año (de las más de 7.000 peticiones que recibe el tribunal cada año, normalmente solicitará información y escuchará argumentos orales en 100 o menos), el tribunal emplea una herramienta interna de gestión de casos conocida como el " fondo de peticiones de cert "; actualmente, todos los jueces, excepto los jueces Alito y Gorsuch, participan en el fondo de peticiones de cert. [201] [202] [203] [204]

Prueba escrita

El Tribunal también se basa en escritos de amicus curiae , artículos de revistas jurídicas y otros trabajos escritos para fundamentar sus decisiones. Si bien el uso de artículos de revistas jurídicas ha aumentado ligeramente, con un artículo citado por decisión en promedio, [205] el uso de escritos de amicus curiae ha aumentado significativamente. [206] El uso de escritos de amicus curiae ha recibido críticas, incluida la capacidad de los autores para discutir temas fuera de su especialidad (a diferencia de lo que ocurre en los tribunales inferiores), [206] con ejemplos documentados de falsedades en opiniones escritas, a menudo suministradas a los jueces por escritos de amicus curiae de grupos que abogan por un resultado particular. [207] La ​​falta de transparencia en la financiación y la falta de un requisito para presentarlos en una etapa más temprana del proceso también dificultan la verificación de hechos y la comprensión de la credibilidad de los escritos de amicus curiae. [206]

Argumento oral

Un hombre habla en un atril ante dos jueces de la Corte Suprema.
Seth P. Waxman presenta su caso durante los argumentos orales y responde preguntas de los jueces.

Cuando el tribunal concede una petición de cert, el caso se fija para argumentos orales. Ambas partes presentarán escritos sobre los méritos del caso, a diferencia de las razones que pueden haber argumentado para conceder o denegar la petición de cert. Con el consentimiento de las partes o la aprobación del tribunal, los amici curiae , o "amigos del tribunal", también pueden presentar escritos. El tribunal celebra sesiones de argumentos orales de dos semanas cada mes desde octubre hasta abril. Cada parte tiene treinta minutos para presentar su argumento (el tribunal puede optar por dar más tiempo, aunque esto es poco común), [208] y durante ese tiempo, los jueces pueden interrumpir al abogado y hacer preguntas. En 2019, el tribunal adoptó una regla que generalmente permite a los abogados hablar sin interrupciones durante los primeros dos minutos de su argumento. [209] El peticionario hace la primera presentación y puede reservar algo de tiempo para refutar los argumentos del demandado después de que este haya concluido. Los amici curiae también pueden presentar argumentos orales en nombre de una de las partes si esa parte está de acuerdo. El tribunal aconseja a los abogados que asuman que los jueces están familiarizados con los escritos presentados en un caso y los han leído.

Decisión

Al concluir la audiencia oral, el caso se somete a decisión. Los casos se deciden por mayoría de votos de los magistrados. Una vez concluida la audiencia oral, normalmente en la misma semana en que se presentó el caso, los magistrados se retiran a otra conferencia en la que se cuentan los votos preliminares y el tribunal ve qué lado ha prevalecido. A continuación, se asigna a uno de los magistrados de la mayoría la tarea de redactar la opinión del tribunal, también conocida como "opinión de la mayoría", una tarea que realiza el magistrado de mayor antigüedad de la mayoría, siendo siempre el presidente del tribunal el más antiguo. Los borradores de la opinión del tribunal circulan entre los magistrados hasta que el tribunal está preparado para anunciar la sentencia en un caso determinado. [210]

Los jueces tienen libertad para cambiar su voto sobre un caso hasta que la decisión se haya tomado y publicado. En cualquier caso, un juez tiene libertad para elegir si redacta o no una opinión o simplemente se suma a la opinión de la mayoría o de otro juez. Existen varios tipos principales de opiniones:

La práctica del tribunal es emitir decisiones sobre todos los casos discutidos en un período determinado antes de que finalice dicho período. Durante ese período, el tribunal no tiene obligación de emitir una decisión dentro de un plazo determinado después de los argumentos orales. Dado que los dispositivos de grabación están prohibidos dentro de la sala del tribunal del edificio de la Corte Suprema, la entrega de la decisión a los medios de comunicación se ha hecho históricamente mediante copias en papel en lo que se conocía como la " carrera de los pasantes ". [211] Sin embargo, esta práctica ha quedado obsoleta, ya que el Tribunal ahora publica copias electrónicas de las opiniones en su sitio web a medida que se anuncian. [212]

Es posible que, a causa de recusaciones o vacantes, el tribunal se divida de manera uniforme en un caso. Si eso ocurre, entonces la decisión del tribunal inferior se confirma, pero no establece un precedente vinculante. En efecto, resulta en un retorno al status quo ante . Para que se escuche un caso, debe haber un quórum de al menos seis jueces. [213] Si no hay quórum disponible para escuchar un caso y una mayoría de jueces calificados cree que el caso no puede escucharse y determinarse en el siguiente período, entonces la sentencia del tribunal inferior se confirma como si el tribunal hubiera estado dividido de manera uniforme. En el caso de los casos presentados ante la Corte Suprema por apelación directa de un Tribunal de Distrito de los Estados Unidos, el presidente del tribunal puede ordenar que el caso se devuelva al Tribunal de Apelaciones de los Estados Unidos correspondiente para que allí se tome una decisión final. [214] Esto solo ha ocurrido una vez en la historia de los Estados Unidos, en el caso de Estados Unidos contra Alcoa (1945). [215]

Opiniones publicadas

Las opiniones del tribunal se publican en tres etapas. En primer lugar, se publica una opinión preliminar en el sitio web del tribunal y a través de otros medios. A continuación, varias opiniones y listas de las órdenes del tribunal se encuadernan en formato de bolsillo, lo que se denomina impresión preliminar de United States Reports , la serie oficial de libros en la que aparece la versión final de las opiniones del tribunal. Aproximadamente un año después de que se emiten las impresiones preliminares, el Relator de Decisiones publica un volumen encuadernado final de US Reports . Los volúmenes individuales de US Reports están numerados para que los usuarios puedan citar este conjunto de informes (o una versión competitiva publicada por otro editor legal comercial pero que contenga citas paralelas) para permitir que quienes lean sus alegatos y otros escritos encuentren los casos de manera rápida y sencilla. A partir de enero de 2019 , hay:

Hasta marzo de 2012 , los US Reports han publicado un total de 30.161 opiniones de la Corte Suprema, que abarcan las decisiones dictadas desde febrero de 1790 hasta marzo de 2012. [ cita requerida ] Esta cifra no refleja el número de casos que ha tomado el tribunal, ya que varios casos pueden ser abordados por una sola opinión (véase, por ejemplo, Parents v. Seattle , donde Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education también se decidió en la misma opinión; por una lógica similar, Miranda v. Arizona en realidad decidió no solo Miranda sino también otros tres casos: Vignera v. New York , Westover v. United States y California v. Stewart ). Un ejemplo más inusual es The Telephone Cases , que son un único conjunto de opiniones interconectadas que ocupan todo el volumen 126 de los US Reports .

Opinions are also collected and published in two unofficial, parallel reporters: Supreme Court Reporter, published by West (now a part of Thomson Reuters), and United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers' Edition (simply known as Lawyers' Edition), published by LexisNexis. In court documents, legal periodicals and other legal media, case citations generally contain cites from each of the three reporters; for example, citation to Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission is presented as Citizens United v. Federal Election Com'n, 585 U.S. 50, 130 S. Ct. 876, 175 L. Ed. 2d 753 (2010), with "S. Ct." representing the Supreme Court Reporter, and "L. Ed." representing the Lawyers' Edition.[219][220]

Citations to published opinions

Lawyers use an abbreviated format to cite cases, in the form "vol U.S. page, pin (year)", where vol is the volume number, page is the page number on which the opinion begins, and year is the year in which the case was decided. Optionally, pin is used to "pinpoint" to a specific page number within the opinion. For instance, the citation for Roe v. Wade is 410 U.S. 113 (1973), which means the case was decided in 1973 and appears on page 113 of volume 410 of U.S. Reports. For opinions or orders that have not yet been published in the preliminary print, the volume and page numbers may be replaced with ___

Supreme Court bar

In order to plead before the court, an attorney must first be admitted to the court's bar. Approximately 4,000 lawyers join the bar each year. The bar contains an estimated 230,000 members. In reality, pleading is limited to several hundred attorneys.[citation needed] The rest join for a one-time fee of $200, with the court collecting about $750,000 annually. Attorneys can be admitted as either individuals or as groups. The group admission is held before the current justices of the Supreme Court, wherein the chief justice approves a motion to admit the new attorneys.[221] Lawyers commonly apply for the cosmetic value of a certificate to display in their office or on their resume. They also receive access to better seating if they wish to attend an oral argument.[222] Members of the Supreme Court Bar are also granted access to the collections of the Supreme Court Library.[223]

Term

A term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of around two weeks known as "sittings" and "recesses"; justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings, and discuss cases and write opinions during recesses.[224]

Institutional powers

Inscription on the wall of the Supreme Court Building from Marbury v. Madison, in which Chief Justice John Marshall outlined the concept of judicial review

The federal court system and the judicial authority to interpret the Constitution received little attention in the debates over the drafting and ratification of the Constitution. The power of judicial review, in fact, is nowhere mentioned in it. Over the ensuing years, the question of whether the power of judicial review was even intended by the drafters of the Constitution was quickly frustrated by the lack of evidence bearing on the question either way.[225] Nevertheless, the power of judiciary to overturn laws and executive actions it determines are unlawful or unconstitutional is a well-established precedent. Many of the Founding Fathers accepted the notion of judicial review; in Federalist No. 78, Alexander Hamilton wrote: "A Constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, and the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute."

The Supreme Court established its own power to declare laws unconstitutional in Marbury v. Madison (1803), consummating the American system of checks and balances. In explaining the power of judicial review, Chief Justice John Marshall stated that the authority to interpret the law was the particular province of the courts, part of the duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. His contention was not that the court had privileged insight into constitutional requirements, but that it was the constitutional duty of the judiciary, as well as the other branches of government, to read and obey the dictates of the Constitution.[225] This decision was criticized by then-President Thomas Jefferson who said, "the Constitution, on this hypothesis, is a mere thing of wax in the hands of the judiciary, which they may twist and shape into any form they please."[226]

Since the founding of the republic, there has been a tension between the practice of judicial review and the democratic ideals of egalitarianism, self-government, self-determination and freedom of conscience. At one pole are those who view the federal judiciary and especially the Supreme Court as being "the most separated and least checked of all branches of government."[227] Indeed, federal judges and justices on the Supreme Court are not required to stand for election by virtue of their tenure "during good behavior", and their pay may "not be diminished" while they hold their position (Section 1 of Article Three). Although subject to the process of impeachment, only one justice has ever been impeached and no Supreme Court justice has been removed from office. At the other pole are those who view the judiciary as the least dangerous branch, with little ability to resist the exhortations of the other branches of government.[225]

Constraints

The Supreme Court cannot directly enforce its rulings; instead, it relies on respect for the Constitution and for the law for adherence to its judgments. One notable instance of nonacquiescence came in 1832, when the state of Georgia ignored the Supreme Court's decision in Worcester v. Georgia. President Andrew Jackson, who sided with the Georgia courts, is supposed to have remarked, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!"[228] Some state governments in the South also resisted the desegregation of public schools after the 1954 judgment Brown v. Board of Education. More recently, many feared that President Nixon would refuse to comply with the court's order in United States v. Nixon (1974) to surrender the Watergate tapes.[229] Nixon ultimately complied with the Supreme Court's ruling.[230]

Supreme Court decisions can be purposefully overturned by constitutional amendment, something that has happened on six occasions:[231]

When the court rules on matters involving the interpretation of laws rather than of the Constitution, simple legislative action can reverse the decisions (for example, in 2009 Congress passed the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, superseding the limitations given in Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. in 2007). Also, the Supreme Court is not immune from political and institutional consideration: lower federal courts and state courts sometimes resist doctrinal innovations, as do law enforcement officials.[232]

In addition, the other two branches can restrain the court through other mechanisms. Congress can increase the number of justices, giving the president power to influence future decisions by appointments (as in Roosevelt's court-packing plan discussed above). Congress can pass legislation that restricts the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and other federal courts over certain topics and cases: this is suggested by language in Section 2 of Article Three, where the appellate jurisdiction is granted "with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make." The court sanctioned such congressional action in the Reconstruction Era case ex parte McCardle (1869), although it rejected Congress' power to dictate how particular cases must be decided in United States v. Klein (1871).[233]

On the other hand,[tone] through its power of judicial review, the Supreme Court has defined the scope and nature of the powers and separation between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government; for example, in United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp. (1936), Dames & Moore v. Regan (1981), and notably in Goldwater v. Carter (1979), which effectively gave the presidency the power to terminate ratified treaties without the consent of Congress. The court's decisions can also impose limitations on the scope of Executive authority, as in Humphrey's Executor v. United States (1935), the Steel Seizure Case (1952), and United States v. Nixon (1974).[citation needed]

Law clerks

Each Supreme Court justice hires several law clerks to review petitions for writ of certiorari, research them, prepare bench memorandums, and draft opinions. Associate justices are allowed four clerks. The chief justice is allowed five clerks, but Chief Justice Rehnquist hired only three per year, and Chief Justice Roberts usually hires only four.[234] Generally, law clerks serve a term of one to two years.

The first law clerk was hired by Associate Justice Horace Gray in 1882.[234][235] Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. and Louis Brandeis were the first Supreme Court justices to use recent law school graduates as clerks, rather than hiring "a stenographer-secretary."[236] Most law clerks are recent law school graduates.

The first female clerk was Lucile Lomen, hired in 1944 by Justice William O. Douglas.[234] The first African-American, William T. Coleman Jr., was hired in 1948 by Justice Felix Frankfurter.[234] A disproportionately large number of law clerks have obtained law degrees from elite law schools, especially Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, Columbia, and Stanford. From 1882 to 1940, 62% of law clerks were graduates of Harvard Law School.[234] Those chosen to be Supreme Court law clerks usually have graduated in the top of their law school class and were often an editor of the law review or a member of the moot court board. By the mid-1970s, clerking previously for a judge in a federal court of appeals had also become a prerequisite to clerking for a Supreme Court justice.

Ten Supreme Court justices previously clerked for other justices: Byron White for Frederick M. Vinson, John Paul Stevens for Wiley Rutledge, William Rehnquist for Robert H. Jackson, Stephen Breyer for Arthur Goldberg, John Roberts for William Rehnquist, Elena Kagan for Thurgood Marshall, Neil Gorsuch for both Byron White and Anthony Kennedy, Brett Kavanaugh also for Kennedy, Amy Coney Barrett for Antonin Scalia, and Ketanji Brown Jackson for Stephen Breyer. Justices Gorsuch and Kavanaugh served under Kennedy during the same term. Gorsuch is the first justice to clerk for and subsequently serve alongside the same justice, serving alongside Kennedy from April 2017 through Kennedy's retirement in 2018. With the confirmation of Justice Kavanaugh, for the first time a majority of the Supreme Court was composed of former Supreme Court law clerks (Roberts, Breyer, Kagan, Gorsuch and Kavanaugh, now joined by Barrett and Jackson).

Several current Supreme Court justices have also clerked in the federal courts of appeals: John Roberts for Judge Henry Friendly of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Justice Samuel Alito for Judge Leonard I. Garth of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, Elena Kagan for Judge Abner J. Mikva of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, Neil Gorsuch for Judge David B. Sentelle of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, Brett Kavanaugh for Judge Walter Stapleton of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit and Judge Alex Kozinski of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, and Amy Coney Barrett for Judge Laurence Silberman of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit.

Politicization of the court

Clerks hired by each of the justices of the Supreme Court are often given considerable leeway in the opinions they draft. "Supreme Court clerkship appeared to be a nonpartisan institution from the 1940s into the 1980s," according to a study published in 2009 by the law review of Vanderbilt University Law School.[237][238] "As law has moved closer to mere politics, political affiliations have naturally and predictably become proxies for the different political agendas that have been pressed in and through the courts," former federal court of appeals judge J. Michael Luttig said.[237] David J. Garrow, professor of history at the University of Cambridge, stated that the court had thus begun to mirror the political branches of government. "We are getting a composition of the clerk workforce that is getting to be like the House of Representatives," Professor Garrow said. "Each side is putting forward only ideological purists."[237] According to the Vanderbilt Law Review study, this politicized hiring trend reinforces the impression that the Supreme Court is "a superlegislature responding to ideological arguments rather than a legal institution responding to concerns grounded in the rule of law."[237]

Criticism and controversies

The following are some of the criticisms and controversies about the Court that are not discussed in previous sections.

Unlike in most high courts, the United States Supreme Court has lifetime tenure, an unusual amount of power over elected branches of government, and a difficult constitution to amend.[239] These, among other factors, have been attributed by some critics to the Court's diminished stature abroad[240] and lower approval ratings at home, which have dropped from the mid-60s in the late 1980s to around 40% in the early 2020s. Additional factors cited by critics include the polarization of national politics, ethics scandals, and specific controversial partisan rulings, including the relaxation of campaign finance rules,[241] increased gerrymandering,[242] weakened voting rights,[243] Dobbs v. Jackson and Bush v. Gore.[244] The continued consolidation of power by the court and, as a result of its rulings, the Republican Party, has sparked debate over when democratic backsliding becomes entrenched single-party rule.[244]

Approval ratings

Public trust in the court peaked in the late 1980s. Since the 2022 Dobbs ruling that overturned Roe v. Wade and permitted states to restrict abortion rights, Democrats and independents have increasingly lost trust in the court, seen the court as political, and expressed support for reforming the institution.[245] Historically, the court had relatively more trust than other government institutions.[246]

After recording recent high approval ratings in the late 1980s around 66% approval,[247] the court's ratings have declined to an average of around 40% between mid-2021 and February 2024.[248]

Composition and selection

The electoral college (which elects the President who nominates the justices) and the U.S. Senate which confirms the justices, have selection biases that favor rural states that tend to vote Republican, resulting in a conservative Supreme Court.[249] Ziblatt and Levitsky estimate that 3 or 4 of the seats held by conservative justices on the court would be held by justices appointed by a Democratic president if the Presidency and Senate were selected directly by the popular vote.[250] The three Trump appointees to the court were all nominated by a president who finished second in the popular vote and confirmed by Senators representing a minority of Americans.[251] In addition, Clarence Thomas' confirmation in 1991 and Merrick Garland's blocked confirmation in 2016 were both decided by senators representing a minority of Americans.[252] Greg Price also critiqued the Court as minority rule.[253]

Moreover, the Federalist Society acted as a filter for judicial nominations during the Trump administration,[254] ensuring the latest conservative justices lean even further to the right.[249] 86% of judges Trump appointed to circuit courts and the Supreme Court were Federalist Society members.[255] David Litt critiques it as "an attempt to impose rigid ideological dogma on a profession once known for intellectual freedom."[256] Kate Aronoff criticizes the donations from special interests like fossil fuel companies and other dark money groups to the Federalist Society and related organizations seeking to influence lawyers and Supreme Court Justices.[257]

The 2016 stonewalling of Merrick Garland's confirmation and subsequent filling with Neil Gorsuch has been critiqued as a 'stolen seat' citing precedent from the 20th century of confirmations during election years,[258][259] while proponents cited three blocked nominations between 1844 and 1866.[260] In recent years, Democrats have accused Republican leaders such as Mitch McConnell of hypocrisy, as they were instrumental in blocking the nomination of Merrick, but then rushing through the appointment of Amy Coney Barrett, even though both vacancies occurred close to an election.[261]

Ethics

SCOTUS justices have come under greater scrutiny since 2022,[262] following public disclosures that began with the founder of Faith and Action admissions regarding the organization's long-term influence-peddling scheme, dubbed "Operation Higher Court", designed for wealthy donors among the religious right to gain access to the justices through events held by The Supreme Court Historical Society.[263][264][265][266]

Ethical controversies have grown during the 2020s, with reports of justices (and their close family members) accepting expensive gifts, travel, business deals, and speaking fees without oversight or recusals from cases that present conflicts of interest.[267][268][269][270][271][272][273] Spousal income and connections to cases has been redacted from the Justices' ethical disclosure forms[274] while justices, such as Samuel Alito and Clarence Thomas, failed to disclose many large financial gifts including free vacations valued at as much as $500,000.[275][276] In 2024, Justices Alito and Thomas refused calls to recuse themselves from January 6th cases where their spouses have taken public stances or been involved in efforts to overturn the election.[277][278][279][280] In 2017, Neil Gorsuch sold a property he co-owned for $1.8 million to the CEO of a prominent law firm,[281] who was not listed on his ethics form when reporting a profit of between $250,000 and $500,000.[281][282][283]

The criticism intensified after the 2024 Trump v. United States decision granted broad immunity to presidents, with Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez saying she would introduce impeachment articles when Congress is back in session.[284] On July 10, 2024, she filed Articles of Impeachment against Thomas and Alito, citing their "widely documented financial and personal entanglements."[285][286][112][287] As of late July, 2024, nearly 1.4 million people had signed a moveon.org petition asking Congress to remove Justice Thomas.[288][289]

President Biden proposed term limits for justices, an enforceable ethics code, and elimination of "immunity for crimes a former president committed while in office".[290][291][292]

Yale professor of constitutional law Akhil Reed Amar wrote an op-ed for The Atlantic titled Something Has Gone Deeply Wrong at the Supreme Court.[293]

Other criticisms of the Court include weakening corruption laws impacting branches beyond the judiciary[294][295] and citing falsehoods in written opinions, often supplied to the justices by amicus briefs from groups advocating a particular outcome.[207] Allison Orr Larsen, Associate Dean at William & Mary Law School, wrote in Politico that the court should address this by requiring disclosure of all funders of amicus briefs and the studies they cite, only admit briefs that stay within the expertise of the authors (as is required in lower courts), and require the briefs to be submitted much earlier in the process so the history and facts have time to be challenged and uncovered.[206]

Code of Conduct

On November 13, 2023, the court issued its first-ever Code of Conduct for Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States to set "ethics rules and principles that guide the conduct of the Members of the Court."[296][297] The Code has been received by some as a significant first step[298] but does not address the ethics concerns of many notable critics who found the Code was a significantly weakened version of the rules for other federal judges, let alone the legislature and the executive branch, while also lacking an enforcement mechanism.[296][299][300] The Code's commentary denied past wrongdoing by saying that the Justices have largely abided by these principles and are simply publishing them now.[301][302][303] This has prompted some criticism that the court hopes to legitimize past and future scandals through this Code.[304][305]

The ethics rules guiding the justices are set and enforced by the justices themselves, meaning the members of the court have no external checks on their behavior other than the impeachment of a justice by Congress.[306][264]

Chief Justice Roberts refused to testify before the Senate Judiciary Committee in April 2023, reasserting his desire for the Supreme Court to continue to monitor itself despite mounting ethics scandals.[307] Lower courts, by contrast, discipline according to the 1973 Code of Conduct for U.S. judges which is enforced by the Judicial Conduct and Disability Act of 1980.[306]

Article III, Section I of the Constitution of the United States (1776) establishes that the justices hold their office during good behavior. Thus far only one justice (Associate Justice Samuel Chase in 1804) has ever been impeached, and none has ever been removed from office.[111]

The lack of external enforcement of ethics or other conduct violations makes the Supreme Court an outlier in modern organizational best-practices.[306] 2024 reform legislation has been blocked by congressional Republicans.[280]

Democratic backsliding

Thomas Keck argues that because the Court has historically not served as a strong bulwark for democracy, the Roberts Court has the opportunity to go down in history as a defender of democracy. However, he believes that if the court shields Trump from criminal prosecution (after ensuring his access to the ballot), then the risks that come with an anti-democratic status-quo of the current court will outweigh the dangers that come from court reform (including court packing).[308] Aziz Z. Huq points to the blocking progress of democratizing institutions, increasing the disparity in wealth and power, and empowering an authoritarian white nationalist movement as evidence that the Supreme Court has created a "permanent minority" incapable of being defeated democratically.[309]

Slate published an op-ed on July 3, 2024, by Dahlia Lithwick and Mark Joseph Stern criticizing several recent decisions, stating:

The Supreme Court's conservative supermajority has, in recent weeks, restructured American democracy in the Republican Party's preferred image, fundamentally altering the balance of power between the branches and the citizens themselves.... In the course of its most recent term that conservative supermajority has created a monarchical presidency, awarding the chief executive near-insurmountable immunity from accountability for any and all crimes committed during a term in office. It has seized power from Congress, strictly limiting lawmakers' ability to write broad laws that tackle the major crises of the moment. And it has hobbled federal agencies' authority to apply existing statutes to problems on the ground, substituting the expert opinions of civil servants with the (often partisan) preferences of unelected judges. All the while, the court has placed itself at the apex of the state, agreeing to share power only with a strongman president who seeks to govern in line with the conservative justices' vision.[310]

Individual rights

Some of the most notable historical decisions that were criticized for failing to protect individual rights include the Dred Scott (1857) decision that said people of African descent could not be U.S. citizens or enjoy constitutionally protected rights and privileges,[311] Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) that upheld segregation under the doctrine of separate but equal,[312] the Civil Rights Cases (1883) and Slaughter-House Cases (1873) that all but undermined civil rights legislation enacted during the Reconstruction era.[313]

However, others argue that the court is too protective of some individual rights, particularly those of people accused of crimes or in detention. For example, Chief Justice Warren Burger criticized the exclusionary rule, and Justice Scalia criticized Boumediene v. Bush for being too protective of the rights of Guantanamo detainees, arguing habeas corpus should be limited to sovereign territory.[314]

Protestors in support of keeping Roe v. Wade

After Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization overturned nearly 50 years of precedent set by Roe v. Wade, some experts expressed concern that this may be the beginning of a rollback of individual rights that had been previously established under the substantive due process principle, in part because Justice Clarence Thomas wrote in his concurring opinion in Dobbs that the decision should prompt the court to reconsider all of the court's past substantive due process decisions.[315] Due process rights claimed to be at risk are:[315]

Some experts such as Melissa Murray, law professor at N.Y.U. School of Law, have claimed that protections for interracial marriage, established in Loving v. Virginia (1967), may also be at risk.[316] Other experts such as Josh Blackman, law professor at South Texas College of Law Houston, argued that Loving actually relied more heavily upon Equal Protection Clause grounds than substantive due process.[317]

Substantive due process has also been the primary vehicle used by the Supreme Court to incorporate the Bill of Rights against state and local governments.[318] Clarence Thomas referred to it as 'legal fiction,'[319] preferring the Privileges or Immunities Clause for incorporating the Bill of Rights.[320] However, outside of Neil Gorsuch's commentary in Timbs v. Indiana, Thomas has received little support for this viewpoint.[321][better source needed]

Judicial activism

The Supreme Court has been criticized for engaging in judicial activism. This criticism is leveled by those who believe the court should not interpret the law in any way besides through the lens of past precedent or Textualism. However, those on both sides of the political aisle often level this accusation at the court. The debate around judicial activism typically involves accusing the other side of activism, whilst denying that your own side engages in it.[322][323]

Conservatives often cite the decision in Roe v. Wade (1973) as an example of liberal judicial activism. In its decision, the court legalized abortion on the basis of a "right to privacy" that they found inherent in the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.[324] Roe v. Wade was overturned nearly fifty years later by Dobbs v. Jackson (2022), ending the recognition of abortion access as a constitutional right and returning the issue of abortion back to the states. David Litt criticized the decision in Dobbs as activism on the part of the court's conservative majority because the court failed to respect past precedent, eschewing the principle of Stare decisis that usually guides the court's decisions.[325]

The decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which banned racial segregation in public schools was also criticized as activist by conservatives Pat Buchanan,[326] Robert Bork[327] and Barry Goldwater.[328] More recently, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was criticized for expanding upon the precedent in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (1978) that the First Amendment applies to corporations.[241]

Outdated and an outlier

Foreign Policy writer Colm Quinn says that a criticism leveled at the court, as well as other American institutions, is that after two centuries they are beginning to look their age. He cites four features of the United States Supreme Court that make it different from high courts in other countries, and help explain why polarization is an issue in the United States court:[329]

Adam Liptak wrote in 2008 that the court has declined in relevance in other constitutional courts. He cites factors like American exceptionalism, the relatively few updates to the constitution or the courts, the rightward shift of the court and the diminished stature of the United States abroad.[240]

Power

Michael Waldman argued that no other country gives its Supreme Court as much power.[330] Warren E. Burger, before becoming Chief Justice, argued that since the Supreme Court has such "unreviewable power", it is likely to "self-indulge itself", and unlikely to "engage in dispassionate analysis."[331] Larry Sabato wrote that the federal courts, and especially the Supreme Court, have excessive power.[99] Suja A. Thomas argues the Supreme Court has taken most of the constitutionally-defined power from juries in the United States for itself[332] thanks in part to the influence of legal elites and companies that prefer judges over juries[333] as well as the inability of the jury to defend its power.[334]

Some members of Congress considered the results from the 2021–2022 term a shift of government power into the Supreme Court, and a "judicial coup".[335] The 2021–2022 term of the court was the first full term following the appointment of three judges by Republican president Donald TrumpNeil Gorsuch, Brett Kavanaugh, and Amy Coney Barrett — which created a six-strong conservative majority on the court. Subsequently, at the end of the term, the court issued a number of decisions that favored this conservative majority while significantly changing the landscape with respect to rights. These included Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization which overturned Roe v. Wade and Planned Parenthood v. Casey in recognizing abortion is not a constitutional right, New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen which made public possession of guns a protected right under the Second Amendment, Carson v. Makin and Kennedy v. Bremerton School District which both weakened the Establishment Clause separating church and state, and West Virginia v. EPA which weakened the power of executive branch agencies to interpret their congressional mandate.[336][337][338]

Federalism debate

There has been debate throughout American history about the boundary between federal and state power. While Framers such as James Madison[339] and Alexander Hamilton[340] argued in The Federalist Papers that their then-proposed Constitution would not infringe on the power of state governments,[341][342][343][344] others argue that expansive federal power is good and consistent with the Framers' wishes.[345] The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution explicitly states that "powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."

The court has been criticized for giving the federal government too much power to interfere with state authority.[citation needed] One criticism is that it has allowed the federal government to misuse the Commerce Clause by upholding regulations and legislation which have little to do with interstate commerce, but that were enacted under the guise of regulating interstate commerce; and by voiding state legislation for allegedly interfering with interstate commerce. For example, the Commerce Clause was used by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals to uphold the Endangered Species Act, thus protecting six endemic species of insect near Austin, Texas, despite the fact that the insects had no commercial value and did not travel across state lines; the Supreme Court let that ruling stand without comment in 2005.[346] Chief Justice John Marshall asserted Congress's power over interstate commerce was "complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations, other than are prescribed in the Constitution."[347] Justice Alito said congressional authority under the Commerce Clause is "quite broad";[348] modern-day theorist Robert B. Reich suggests debate over the Commerce Clause continues today.[347]

Advocates of states' rights, such as constitutional scholar Kevin Gutzman, have also criticized the court, saying it has misused the Fourteenth Amendment to undermine state authority. Justice Brandeis, in arguing for allowing the states to operate without federal interference, suggested that states should be laboratories of democracy.[349] One critic wrote "the great majority of Supreme Court rulings of unconstitutionality involve state, not federal, law."[350] Others see the Fourteenth Amendment as a positive force that extends "protection of those rights and guarantees to the state level."[351]

More recently, in Gamble v. United States, the Court examined the doctrine of "separate sovereigns", whereby a criminal defendant can be prosecuted in state court as well as federal court on separate charges for the same offense.[352][353]

Ruling on political questions

Some Court decisions have been criticized for injecting the court into the political arena, and deciding questions that are the purview of the elected branches of government. The Bush v. Gore decision, in which the Supreme Court intervened in the 2000 presidential election, awarding George W. Bush the presidency over Al Gore, received scrutiny as political based on the controversial justifications used by the five conservative justices to elevate a fellow conservative to the presidency.[354][312][355][356][357]

Secretive proceedings

The court has been criticized for keeping its deliberations hidden from public view.[358][359] For example, the increasing use of a 'shadow docket' facilitates the court making decisions in secret without knowing how each Justice came to their decision.[360][361] In 2024, after comparing the analysis of shadow-docket decisions to Kremlinology, Matt Ford called this trend of secrecy "increasingly troubling", arguing the court's power comes entirely from persuasion and explanation.[362]

A 2007 review of Jeffrey Toobin's book compared the Court to a cartel where its inner-workings are mostly unknown, arguing this lack of transparency reduces scrutiny which hurts ordinary Americans who know little about the nine extremely consequential Justices.[354] A 2010 poll found that 61% of American voters agreed that televising Court hearings would "be good for democracy", and 50% of voters stated they would watch Court proceedings if they were televised.[363][364]

Too few cases

Ian Millhiser of Vox speculates that the decades-long decline in cases heard could be due to the increasing political makeup of judges, that he says might be more interested in settling political disputes than legal ones.[365]

Too slow

British constitutional scholar Adam Tomkins sees flaws in the American system of having courts (and specifically the Supreme Court) act as checks on the Executive and Legislative branches; he argues that because the courts must wait, sometimes for years, for cases to navigate their way through the system, their ability to restrain other branches is severely weakened.[366][367] In contrast, various other countries have a dedicated constitutional court that has original jurisdiction on constitutional claims brought by persons or political institutions; for example, the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, which can declare a law unconstitutional when challenged.

Critics have accused the Court of "slow-walking" important cases relating to former President Donald Trump in order to benefit his election chances in the face of the 2024 United States presidential election.[368] The Court is considering a Presidential immunity claim as part of the Federal prosecution of Donald Trump (election obstruction case). Critics argue that the Court has acted slowly in order to delay this case until after the election. They point out that the Court can move quickly when it wants to, as it did when it disregarded typical procedures in Bush v. Gore, granting the petition on a Saturday, receiving briefs on Sunday, holding oral arguments on Monday, and issuing the final opinion on Tuesday.[368] Author Sonja West, of Slate, argues that the Federal prosecution of Donald Trump (election obstruction case) is of similar importance to Bush v. Gore and should therefore be treated as expeditiously, but the Court seems to be taking the opposite approach.[368]

Leaks and inadvertent publications

Sometimes draft opinions are deliberately leaked or inadvertently released before they are published. Such releases are often purported to harm the court's reputation.[369] Chief Justice Roberts has previously described leaks as an "egregious breach of trust" that "undermine the integrity of our operations" in reference to the leaked draft opinion for Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization.[370]

In addition to leaks, the Court has sometimes mistakenly released opinions before they are ready to be published. On June 26, 2024, the Court inadvertently posted an opinion for Moyle v. United States to its website that seemed to indicate that the court will temporarily allow abortions in medical emergencies in Idaho.[371] The official opinion was posted the next day, which returned the case to the lower courts without a ruling on the merits.

See also

Selected landmark Supreme Court decisions

References

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  2. ^ U.S. Constitution, Article III, Section 2. This was narrowed by the Eleventh Amendment to exclude suits against states that are brought by persons who are not citizens of that state.
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  15. ^ Scott Douglas Gerber, ed. (1998). "Seriatim: The Supreme Court Before John Marshall". New York University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-8147-3114-7. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Finally many scholars cite the absence of a separate Supreme Court building as evidence that the early Court lacked prestige.
  16. ^ Manning, John F. (2004). "The Eleventh Amendment and the Reading of Precise Constitutional Texts". Yale Law Journal. 113 (8): 1663–1750. doi:10.2307/4135780. ISSN 0044-0094. JSTOR 4135780. Archived from the original on July 16, 2019. Retrieved July 16, 2019.
  17. ^ Epps, Garrett (October 24, 2004). "Don't Do It, Justices". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 26, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The court's prestige has been hard-won. In the early 1800s, Chief Justice John Marshall made the court respected
  18. ^ The Supreme Court had first used the power of judicial review in the case Ware v. Hylton, (1796), wherein it overturned a state law that conflicted with a treaty between the United States and Great Britain.
  19. ^ Rosen, Jeffrey (July 5, 2009). "Black Robe Politics" (book review of Packing the Court by James MacGregor Burns). The Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 14, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2009. From the beginning, Burns continues, the Court has established its "supremacy" over the president and Congress because of Chief Justice John Marshall's "brilliant political coup" in Marbury v. Madison (1803): asserting a power to strike down unconstitutional laws.
  20. ^ "The People's Vote: 100 Documents that Shaped America – Marbury v. Madison (1803)". U.S. News & World Report. 2003. Archived from the original on September 20, 2003. Retrieved October 31, 2009. With his decision in Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall established the principle of judicial review, an important addition to the system of 'checks and balances' created to prevent any one branch of the Federal Government from becoming too powerful...A Law repugnant to the Constitution is void.
  21. ^ Sloan, Cliff; McKean, David (February 21, 2009). "Why Marbury V. Madison Still Matters". Newsweek. Archived from the original on August 2, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. More than 200 years after the high court ruled, the decision in that landmark case continues to resonate.
  22. ^ "The Constitution in Law: Its Phases Construed by the Federal Supreme Court" (PDF). The New York Times. February 27, 1893. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 17, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The decision … in Martin vs. Hunter's Lessee is the authority on which lawyers and Judges have rested the doctrine that where there is in question, in the highest court of a State, and decided adversely to the validity of a State statute... such claim is reviewable by the Supreme Court ...
  23. ^ Ginsburg, Ruth Bader; Stevens, John P.; Souter, David; Breyer, Stephen (December 13, 2000). "Dissenting opinions in Bush v. Gore". USA Today. Archived from the original on May 25, 2010. Retrieved December 8, 2019. Rarely has this Court rejected outright an interpretation of state law by a state high court … The Virginia court refused to obey this Court's Fairfax's Devisee mandate to enter judgment for the British subject's successor in interest. That refusal led to the Court's pathmarking decision in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, 1 Wheat. 304 (1816).
  24. ^ a b "Decisions of the Supreme Court – Historic Decrees Issued in One Hundred and Eleven Years" (PDF). The New York Times. February 3, 1901. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 5, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Very important also was the decision in Martin vs. Hunter's lessee, in which the court asserted its authority to overrule, within certain limits, the decisions of the highest State courts.
  25. ^ a b "The Supreme Quiz". The Washington Post. October 2, 2000. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. According to the Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, Marshall's most important innovation was to persuade the other justices to stop seriatim opinions—each issuing one—so that the court could speak in a single voice. Since the mid-1940s, however, there's been a significant increase in individual 'concurring' and 'dissenting' opinions.
  26. ^ Slater, Dan (April 18, 2008). "Justice Stevens on the Death Penalty: A Promise of Fairness Unfulfilled". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on August 14, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The first Chief Justice, John Marshall set out to do away with seriatim opinions–a practice originating in England in which each appellate judge writes an opinion in ruling on a single case. (You may have read old tort cases in law school with such opinions). Marshall sought to do away with this practice to help build the Court into a coequal branch.
  27. ^ Suddath, Claire (December 19, 2008). "A Brief History of Impeachment". Time. Archived from the original on December 19, 2008. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Congress tried the process again in 1804, when it voted to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase on charges of bad conduct. As a judge, Chase was overzealous and notoriously unfair … But Chase never committed a crime—he was just incredibly bad at his job. The Senate acquitted him on every count.
  28. ^ Greenhouse, Linda (April 10, 1996). "Rehnquist Joins Fray on Rulings, Defending Judicial Independence". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. the 1805 Senate trial of Justice Samuel Chase, who had been impeached by the House of Representatives … This decision by the Senate was enormously important in securing the kind of judicial independence contemplated by Article III" of the Constitution, Chief Justice Rehnquist said
  29. ^ Edward Keynes; Randall K. Miller (1989). "The Court vs. Congress: Prayer, Busing, and Abortion". Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-0968-8. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. (page 115)... Grier maintained that Congress has plenary power to limit the federal courts' jurisdiction.
  30. ^ Ifill, Sherrilyn A. (May 27, 2009). "Sotomayor's Great Legal Mind Long Ago Defeated Race, Gender Nonsense". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved October 31, 2009. But his decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford doomed thousands of black slaves and freedmen to a stateless existence within the United States until the passage of the 14th Amendment. Justice Taney's coldly self-fulfilling statement in Dred Scott, that blacks had "no rights which the white man [was] bound to respect," has ensured his place in history—not as a brilliant jurist, but as among the most insensitive
  31. ^ Irons, Peter (2006). A People's History of the Supreme Court: The Men and Women Whose Cases and Decisions Have Shaped Our Constitution. United States: Penguin Books. pp. 176–177. ISBN 978-0-14-303738-5. The rhetorical battle that followed the Dred Scott decision, as we know, later erupted into the gunfire and bloodshed of the Civil War (p. 176)... his opinion (Taney's) touched off an explosive reaction on both sides of the slavery issue... (p. 177)
  32. ^ "Liberty of Contract?". Exploring Constitutional Conflicts. October 31, 2009. Archived from the original on November 22, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The term 'substantive due process' is often used to describe the approach first used in Lochner—the finding of liberties not explicitly protected by the text of the Constitution to be impliedly protected by the liberty clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In the 1960s, long after the Court repudiated its Lochner line of cases, substantive due process became the basis for protecting personal rights such as the right of privacy, the right to maintain intimate family relationships.
  33. ^ "Adair v. United States 208 U.S. 161". Cornell University Law School. 1908. Archived from the original on April 24, 2012. Retrieved October 31, 2009. No. 293 Argued: October 29, 30, 1907 – Decided: January 27, 1908
  34. ^ Bodenhamer, David J.; James W. Ely (1993). The Bill of Rights in modern America. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 245. ISBN 978-0-253-35159-3. Archived from the original on November 18, 2020. Retrieved October 29, 2020. … of what eventually became the 'incorporation doctrine,' by which various federal Bill of Rights guarantees were held to be implicit in the Fourteenth Amendment due process or equal protection.
  35. ^ White, Edward Douglass. "Opinion for the Court, Arver v. U.S. 245 U.S. 366". Archived from the original on May 1, 2011. Retrieved March 30, 2011. Finally, as we are unable to conceive upon what theory the exaction by government from the citizen of the performance of his supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense of the rights and honor of the nation, as the result of a war declared by the great representative body of the people, can be said to be the imposition of involuntary servitude in violation of the prohibitions of the Thirteenth Amendment, we are constrained to the conclusion that the contention to that effect is refuted by its mere statement.
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  37. ^ Biskupic, Joan (March 29, 2005). "Supreme Court gets makeover". USA Today. Archived from the original on June 5, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The building is getting its first renovation since its completion in 1935.
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  46. ^ "The Law: The Retroactivity Riddle". Time. June 18, 1965. Archived from the original on April 23, 2008. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Last week, in a 7 to 2 decision, the court refused for the first time to give retroactive effect to a great Bill of Rights decision—Mapp v. Ohio (1961).
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  52. ^ "Bakke Wins, Quotas Lose". Time. July 10, 1978. Archived from the original on October 14, 2010. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Split almost exactly down the middle, the Supreme Court last week offered a Solomonic compromise. It said that rigid quotas based solely on race were forbidden, but it also said that race might legitimately be an element in judging students for admission to universities. It thus approved the principle of 'affirmative action'…
  53. ^ "Time to Rethink Buckley v. Valeo". The New York Times. November 12, 1998. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. ...Buckley v. Valeo. The nation's political system has suffered ever since from that decision, which held that mandatory limits on campaign spending unconstitutionally limit free speech. The decision did much to promote the explosive growth of campaign contributions from special interests and to enhance the advantage incumbents enjoy over underfunded challengers.
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Bibliography

Further reading