stringtranslate.com

Guerra de Yom Kippur

La Guerra del Yom Kippur , también conocida como la Guerra del Ramadán , la Guerra de Octubre , [70] la Guerra Árabe-Israelí de 1973 o la Cuarta Guerra Árabe-Israelí , se libró del 6 al 25 de octubre de 1973 entre Israel y una coalición de estados árabes liderada por Egipto y Siria . La mayor parte de los combates ocurrieron en la península del Sinaí y los Altos del Golán , territorios ocupados por Israel en 1967. También hubo algunos combates en Egipto y el norte de Israel . [71] [72] [ página requerida ] Egipto pretendía asegurar un punto de apoyo en la orilla oriental del Canal de Suez y utilizarlo para negociar la devolución de la península del Sinaí . [73]

La guerra comenzó el 6 de octubre de 1973, cuando la coalición árabe lanzó un ataque sorpresa contra Israel durante el día sagrado judío de Yom Kippur , que coincidió con el décimo día del Ramadán . [74] Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética se involucraron en esfuerzos masivos de reabastecimiento para sus aliados (Israel y los estados árabes, respectivamente), [75] [76] [77] lo que aumentó las tensiones entre las dos superpotencias. [78]

Las fuerzas egipcias y sirias cruzaron sus respectivas líneas de alto el fuego con Israel, avanzando hacia el Sinaí y los Altos del Golán. Las fuerzas egipcias cruzaron el Canal de Suez en la Operación Badr y avanzaron hacia el Sinaí, mientras que las fuerzas sirias ganaron territorio en los Altos del Golán. Después de tres días, Israel detuvo el avance egipcio y rechazó a los sirios. Israel luego lanzó una contraofensiva en Siria, bombardeando las afueras de Damasco . Las fuerzas egipcias intentaron avanzar más hacia el Sinaí, pero fueron rechazadas, y las fuerzas israelíes cruzaron el Canal de Suez, avanzando hacia la Ciudad de Suez. [79] [80] El 22 de octubre, un alto el fuego mediado por la ONU se rompió, y ambas partes se acusaron mutuamente de violaciones. Para el 24 de octubre, Israel había rodeado al Tercer Ejército egipcio y la Ciudad de Suez, acercándose a 100 kilómetros (62 millas) de El Cairo. Egipto repelió con éxito nuevos avances israelíes en las batallas de Ismailia y Suez . Se impuso un segundo alto el fuego el 25 de octubre, poniendo fin oficialmente a la guerra.

La Guerra de Yom Kippur tuvo consecuencias significativas. El mundo árabe, humillado por la derrota de 1967, se sintió psicológicamente reivindicado por sus primeros éxitos en 1973. Mientras tanto, Israel, a pesar de los logros en el campo de batalla, reconoció que el futuro dominio militar era incierto. Estos cambios contribuyeron al proceso de paz entre israelíes y palestinos , que condujo a los Acuerdos de Camp David de 1978 , cuando Israel devolvió la península del Sinaí a Egipto, y al tratado de paz entre Egipto e Israel , la primera vez que un país árabe reconoció a Israel . Egipto se alejó de la Unión Soviética y finalmente abandonó el Bloque del Este .

Fondo

Conflicto árabe-israelí

La guerra fue parte del conflicto árabe-israelí , una disputa en curso que ha incluido muchas batallas y guerras desde la fundación del Estado de Israel en 1948. Durante la Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967, Israel había capturado la península del Sinaí de Egipto, aproximadamente la mitad de los Altos del Golán de Siria y los territorios de Cisjordania que habían estado en poder de Jordania desde 1948. [ 81]

El 19 de junio de 1967, poco después de la Guerra de los Seis Días, el gobierno israelí votó a favor de devolver el Sinaí a Egipto y los Altos del Golán a Siria a cambio de un acuerdo de paz permanente y la desmilitarización de los territorios devueltos. [82] [83] [84] Esta decisión no se hizo pública en ese momento, ni se comunicó a ningún estado árabe. El ministro de Asuntos Exteriores israelí, Abba Eban, ha dicho que se había comunicado, pero no parece haber ninguna prueba sólida que corrobore su afirmación; Israel no hizo ninguna propuesta formal de paz, ni directa ni indirectamente. [85] A los estadounidenses, que fueron informados por Eban de la decisión del Gabinete, no se les pidió que la comunicaran a El Cairo y Damasco como propuestas de paz oficiales, ni se les dio indicaciones de que Israel esperaba una respuesta. [86] [87] Eban rechazó la perspectiva de una paz mediada, insistiendo en la necesidad de negociaciones directas con los gobiernos árabes. [88]

La posición árabe, tal como se manifestó en septiembre de 1967 en la Cumbre Árabe de Jartum , fue la de rechazar cualquier acuerdo pacífico con el Estado de Israel. Los ocho Estados participantes —Egipto, Siria, Jordania, Líbano, Irak, Argelia, Kuwait y Sudán— aprobaron una resolución que más tarde se conocería como los “tres noes”: no habría paz, ni reconocimiento, ni negociación con Israel. Antes de eso, el rey Hussein de Jordania había declarado que no podía descartar la posibilidad de una “paz real y permanente” entre Israel y los Estados árabes. [89]

Las hostilidades armadas continuaron en una escala limitada después de la Guerra de los Seis Días y se intensificaron hasta convertirse en la Guerra de Desgaste , un intento de desgastar la posición israelí mediante una presión a largo plazo. [90] En diciembre de 1970, el presidente egipcio Anwar Sadat había señalado en una entrevista con The New York Times que, a cambio de una retirada total de la península del Sinaí, estaba dispuesto "a reconocer los derechos de Israel como un estado independiente según lo definido por el Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas ". [91] El 4 de febrero de 1971, Sadat pronunció un discurso ante la Asamblea Nacional egipcia en el que esbozó una propuesta según la cual Israel se retiraría del Canal de Suez y de la península del Sinaí junto con otros territorios árabes ocupados. [92]

Cuatro días después, el 8 de febrero de 1971, el diplomático sueco Gunnar Jarring propuso una iniciativa similar. Egipto respondió aceptando gran parte de las propuestas de Jarring, aunque difería en varios temas, por ejemplo en lo que respecta a la Franja de Gaza , y expresó su voluntad de alcanzar un acuerdo si también aplicaba las disposiciones de la Resolución 242 del Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas . Esta fue la primera vez que un gobierno árabe había declarado públicamente su disposición a firmar un acuerdo de paz con Israel. [91]

La primera ministra israelí, Golda Meir, reaccionó a la propuesta formando un comité para examinarla y examinar posibles concesiones. Cuando el comité concluyó por unanimidad que los intereses de Israel se verían favorecidos por una retirada total a las líneas internacionalmente reconocidas que dividen a Israel de Egipto y Siria, la devolución de la Franja de Gaza y, según la opinión mayoritaria, la devolución de la mayor parte de Cisjordania y Jerusalén Oriental, Meir se enfadó y archivó el documento. [93]

Estados Unidos se enfureció por la fría respuesta israelí a la propuesta de Egipto, y el secretario de Estado adjunto para Asuntos del Cercano Oriente, Joseph Sisco, informó al embajador israelí Yitzhak Rabin que "Israel sería considerado responsable de rechazar la mejor oportunidad de alcanzar la paz desde la creación del Estado". Israel respondió al plan de Jarring el 26 de febrero describiendo su disposición a hacer algún tipo de retirada, al tiempo que declaraba que no tenía intención de volver a las líneas anteriores al 5 de junio de 1967. [ 94] Al explicar la respuesta, Eban dijo al Knesset que las líneas anteriores al 5 de junio de 1967 "no pueden asegurar a Israel contra la agresión". [95] Jarring estaba decepcionado y culpó a Israel por negarse a aceptar una retirada completa de la península del Sinaí. [94]

Estados Unidos consideraba a Israel un aliado en la Guerra Fría y había estado suministrando suministros al ejército israelí desde los años 1960. El asesor de seguridad nacional estadounidense, Henry Kissinger, creía que el equilibrio de poder regional dependía del mantenimiento del dominio militar de Israel sobre los países árabes y que una victoria árabe en la región fortalecería la influencia soviética. La posición de Gran Bretaña, por otra parte, era que la guerra entre árabes e israelíes sólo podría evitarse mediante la aplicación de la Resolución 242 del Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas y el retorno a las fronteras anteriores a 1967. [96]

Sadat también tenía importantes preocupaciones internas que lo impulsaban a querer la guerra. "Los tres años desde que Sadat asumió el poder... fueron los más desmoralizadores en la historia de Egipto... Una economía desecada se sumó al desaliento de la nación. La guerra era una opción desesperada". [97] Casi un año antes de la guerra, en una reunión el 24 de octubre de 1972, con su Consejo Supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas , Sadat declaró su intención de ir a la guerra con Israel incluso sin el apoyo soviético adecuado. [98]

En febrero de 1973, Sadat hizo una propuesta final de paz que habría incluido la retirada israelí de la península del Sinaí, que comunicó a Kissinger a través de su asesor Mohammad Hafez Ismail , y que Kissinger le comunicó a Meir. Meir rechazó la propuesta de paz a pesar de saber que la única alternativa plausible era ir a la guerra con Egipto. [99]

Previo a la guerra

El presidente egipcio Anwar Sadat

Cuatro meses antes de que estallara la guerra, Kissinger hizo una oferta a Ismail, el emisario de Sadat. Kissinger proponía devolver la península del Sinaí al control egipcio y una retirada israelí de todo el Sinaí, salvo algunos puntos estratégicos. Ismail dijo que volvería con la respuesta de Sadat, pero nunca lo hizo. Sadat ya estaba decidido a ir a la guerra. Sólo una garantía estadounidense de que Estados Unidos cumpliría con todo el programa árabe en un breve período de tiempo podría haber disuadido a Sadat. [100]

Sadat declaró que Egipto estaba dispuesto a "sacrificar un millón de soldados egipcios" para recuperar el territorio perdido. [101] Desde finales de 1972, Egipto inició un esfuerzo concentrado para aumentar sus fuerzas, recibiendo aviones de combate MiG-21 , misiles antiaéreos SA-2 , SA-3 , SA-6 y SA-7 , tanques T-55 y T-62 , armas antitanque RPG-7 y el misil antitanque guiado AT-3 Sagger de la Unión Soviética y mejorando sus tácticas militares, basadas en las doctrinas soviéticas del campo de batalla. Los generales políticos, que habían sido en gran parte responsables de la derrota en 1967, fueron reemplazados por otros competentes. [102]

Los soviéticos no tenían muy buenas perspectivas de que Sadat tuviera éxito en una guerra. Advirtieron que cualquier intento de cruzar el fortificado Canal de Suez provocaría enormes pérdidas. Tanto los soviéticos como los estadounidenses buscaban en ese momento una distensión y no tenían ningún interés en ver desestabilizado Oriente Medio. En una reunión de junio de 1973 con el presidente estadounidense Richard Nixon , el líder soviético Leonid Brezhnev había propuesto que Israel se retirara a su frontera de 1967. Brezhnev dijo que si Israel no lo hacía, "tendremos dificultades para evitar que la situación militar se agrave", una indicación de que la Unión Soviética no había podido frenar los planes de Sadat. [103]

Entre mayo y agosto de 1973, el ejército egipcio realizó ejercicios militares cerca de la frontera, y Ashraf Marwan advirtió erróneamente que Egipto y Siria lanzarían un ataque sorpresa a mediados de mayo. El ejército israelí se movilizó con su Alerta Azul y Blanca, en respuesta tanto a las advertencias como a los ejercicios, a un costo considerable. Estos ejercicios llevaron a algunos israelíes a desestimar los preparativos de guerra reales -y la advertencia de Marwan justo antes de que se lanzara el ataque- como otro ejercicio. [104]

En la semana previa al Yom Kippur , el ejército egipcio realizó un ejercicio de entrenamiento de una semana junto al Canal de Suez. La inteligencia israelí, al detectar grandes movimientos de tropas hacia el canal, los descartó como simples ejercicios de entrenamiento. También se detectaron movimientos de tropas sirias hacia la frontera, así como la cancelación de permisos y un llamado a filas de reservas en el ejército sirio. Estas actividades se consideraron desconcertantes pero no una amenaza porque la inteligencia israelí sugirió que no atacarían sin Egipto, y Egipto no atacaría hasta que llegara el armamento que querían. A pesar de esta creencia, Israel envió refuerzos a los Altos del Golán. Estas fuerzas resultaron fundamentales durante los primeros días de la guerra. [104] : 190–191, 208 

Del 27 al 30 de septiembre, el ejército egipcio convocó a dos grupos de reservistas para participar en estos ejercicios. Dos días antes del estallido de la guerra, el 4 de octubre, el mando egipcio anunció públicamente la desmovilización de una parte de los reservistas convocados el 27 de septiembre para calmar las sospechas israelíes. Se desmovilizaron alrededor de 20.000 soldados y, posteriormente, a algunos de ellos se les dio permiso para realizar la Umrah (peregrinación) a La Meca. [105]

Según el general egipcio El-Gamasy, "por iniciativa del personal de operaciones, revisamos la situación sobre el terreno y desarrollamos un marco para la operación ofensiva planificada. Estudiamos las características técnicas del Canal de Suez, el reflujo y el flujo de las mareas, la velocidad de las corrientes y su dirección, las horas de oscuridad y de luz de la luna, las condiciones meteorológicas y las condiciones relacionadas en el Mediterráneo y el mar Rojo". [74] Explicó además diciendo: "El sábado 6 de octubre de 1973 (10 de Ramadán de 1393) fue el día elegido para la opción de septiembre-octubre. Las condiciones para un cruce eran buenas, era un día de ayuno en Israel, y la luna en ese día, 10 de Ramadán, brilló desde el atardecer hasta la medianoche". [74] La guerra coincidió ese año con el mes musulmán de Ramadán , cuando muchos soldados musulmanes ayunan . Por otra parte, el hecho de que el ataque se lanzara en Yom Kippur puede haber ayudado a Israel a reunir más fácilmente reservas desde sus hogares y sinagogas porque los caminos y las líneas de comunicación estaban en gran parte abiertos, lo que facilitó la movilización y el transporte de los militares. [106]

A pesar de negarse a participar, el rey Hussein de Jordania "se había reunido con Sadat y Assad en Alejandría dos semanas antes. Dadas las sospechas mutuas que prevalecían entre los líderes árabes, era poco probable que le hubieran comunicado ningún plan de guerra específico. Pero era probable que Sadat y Assad hubieran planteado la perspectiva de una guerra contra Israel en términos más generales para tantear la posibilidad de que Jordania se uniera a ella". [107]

En la noche del 25 de septiembre, Hussein voló en secreto a Tel Aviv para advertir a Meir de un inminente ataque sirio. “¿Van a ir a la guerra sin los egipcios?”, preguntó la señora Meir. El rey dijo que no lo creía. “Creo que ellos [Egipto] cooperarían”. [ 108 ] Esta advertencia fue ignorada y la inteligencia israelí indicó que Hussein no había dicho nada que no se supiera ya. A lo largo de septiembre, Israel recibió once advertencias de guerra de fuentes bien situadas. Sin embargo, el director general del Mossad , Zvi Zamir, siguió insistiendo en que la guerra no era una opción árabe, incluso después de la advertencia de Hussein. [109] Zamir comentaría más tarde que “simplemente no los creíamos capaces [de la guerra]”. [109]

El día antes de la guerra, el general Ariel Sharon recibió fotografías aéreas y otros datos de inteligencia de parte de Yehoshua Saguy , su oficial de inteligencia divisional. Sharon se dio cuenta de que la concentración de fuerzas egipcias a lo largo del canal superaba con creces todo lo observado durante los ejercicios de entrenamiento, y que los egipcios habían acumulado todo su equipo de cruce a lo largo del canal. Entonces llamó al general Shmuel Gonen , quien lo había reemplazado como jefe del Comando Sur, y le expresó su certeza de que la guerra era inminente. [110]

La preocupación de Zamir aumentó el 4 y 5 de octubre, cuando se detectaron más señales de un ataque inminente. Los asesores soviéticos y sus familias abandonaron Egipto y Siria, aviones de transporte que se pensaba que estaban cargados con equipo militar aterrizaron en El Cairo y Damasco , y fotografías aéreas revelaron que las concentraciones egipcias y sirias de tanques, infantería y misiles tierra-aire (SAM) estaban en un nivel sin precedentes. Según documentos desclasificados de la Comisión Agranat , el general de brigada Yisrael Lior (secretario/agregado militar de Meir) afirmó que el Mossad sabía por Marwan que se iba a producir un ataque bajo la apariencia de un ejercicio militar una semana antes de que ocurriera, pero el proceso de pasar la información a la oficina del primer ministro fracasó. [111]

En la noche del 5 al 6 de octubre, Marwan informó incorrectamente a Zamir que un ataque conjunto sirio-egipcio se llevaría a cabo al atardecer. [112] Fue esta advertencia en particular, combinada con una gran cantidad de otras advertencias, lo que finalmente impulsó al Alto Mando israelí a entrar en acción. Apenas horas antes de que comenzara el ataque, se dieron órdenes de un llamamiento parcial a las reservas israelíes . [113]

Preparación israelí

Al enterarse del inminente ataque, la Primera Ministra de Israel, Golda Meir, tomó la controvertida decisión de no lanzar un ataque preventivo.

La primera ministra Golda Meir, el ministro de Defensa Moshe Dayan y el jefe del Estado Mayor David Elazar se reunieron a las 8:05 am de la mañana del Yom Kippur, seis horas antes de que comenzara la guerra. [114] Elazar propuso una movilización de toda la fuerza aérea y cuatro divisiones blindadas, o entre 100.000 y 120.000 tropas, mientras que Dayan favoreció una movilización de la fuerza aérea y dos divisiones blindadas, o alrededor de 70.000 tropas. Meir eligió la propuesta de Elazar. [115] Elazar argumentó a favor de un ataque preventivo contra los aeródromos sirios al mediodía, los misiles sirios a las 3:00 pm y las fuerzas terrestres sirias a las 5:00 pm:

Cuando terminaron las presentaciones, la primera ministra dudó un momento, pero luego tomó una decisión clara: no habría ningún ataque preventivo. Israel podría necesitar pronto la ayuda estadounidense y era imperativo que no se le culpara de iniciar la guerra. "Si atacamos primero, no recibiremos ayuda de nadie", dijo. [114]

Antes de la guerra, Kissinger y Nixon advirtieron constantemente a Meir que no debía ser responsable de iniciar una guerra en Oriente Medio, [116] y el 6 de octubre de 1973, Kissinger envió otro despacho desaconsejando un ataque preventivo. [117] [118] Israel dependía totalmente de los Estados Unidos para el reabastecimiento militar y era sensible a cualquier cosa que pudiera poner en peligro esa relación. A las 10:15 am, Meir se reunió con el embajador estadounidense Kenneth Keating para informarle que Israel no tenía la intención de iniciar una guerra preventivamente y pidió que los esfuerzos estadounidenses se dirigieran a prevenir la guerra. [78] [119]

Kissinger instó a los soviéticos a utilizar su influencia para impedir la guerra, se puso en contacto con Egipto para comunicarle a Israel el mensaje de no tomar medidas preventivas y envió mensajes a otros gobiernos árabes para conseguir su ayuda en favor de la moderación. Estos últimos esfuerzos fueron inútiles. [120] Según Kissinger, si Israel hubiera atacado primero, no habría recibido "ni un clavo". [121] [122]

Frente del Sinaí

Restos del avión Sukhoi Su-7 egipcio derribado sobre el Sinaí el 6 de octubre, Museo de la Fuerza Aérea Israelí

Los egipcios se habían preparado para un asalto a través del canal y desplegaron cinco divisiones con un total de 100.000 soldados, 1.350 tanques y 2.000 cañones y morteros pesados ​​para el ataque. Frente a ellos estaban 450 soldados de la Brigada de Jerusalén , distribuidos en 16 fuertes a lo largo del canal. Había 290 tanques israelíes en todo el Sinaí, divididos en tres brigadas blindadas, [123] de las cuales sólo una estaba desplegada cerca del canal cuando comenzaron las hostilidades. [124]

El 6 de octubre se establecieron grandes cabezas de puente en la orilla este. Las fuerzas blindadas israelíes lanzaron contraataques del 6 al 8 de octubre, pero a menudo fueron fragmentados y no contaban con el apoyo adecuado y fueron rechazados principalmente por los egipcios que utilizaban misiles antitanque portátiles. Entre el 9 y el 12 de octubre, la respuesta estadounidense fue un llamamiento a un alto el fuego en el lugar. [125] Las unidades egipcias generalmente no avanzaban más allá de una franja poco profunda por miedo a perder la protección de sus baterías SAM, que estaban situadas en la orilla oeste del canal. En la Guerra de los Seis Días, la Fuerza Aérea israelí había bombardeado a los indefensos ejércitos árabes; esta vez, Egipto había fortificado fuertemente su lado de las líneas de alto el fuego con baterías SAM proporcionadas por la Unión Soviética. [126] [127]

El 9 de octubre, las FDI decidieron concentrar sus reservas y aumentar sus suministros mientras los egipcios permanecían a la defensiva estratégica. Nixon y Kissinger se abstuvieron de reabastecer a gran escala armas a Israel. A falta de suministros, el gobierno israelí aceptó a regañadientes un alto el fuego que entró en vigor el 12 de octubre, pero Sadat se negó a hacerlo. [128] Los soviéticos iniciaron un puente aéreo de armas a Siria y Egipto. El interés global de Estados Unidos era demostrar que las armas soviéticas no podían dictar el resultado de la lucha, abasteciendo a Israel. Con un puente aéreo en pleno apogeo, Washington estaba dispuesto a esperar hasta que el éxito israelí en el campo de batalla pudiera persuadir a los árabes y a los soviéticos de poner fin a la lucha. [129]

Fuerzas egipcias cruzando el Canal de Suez

Los israelíes decidieron contraatacar cuando los blindados egipcios intentaron expandir la cabeza de puente más allá del paraguas protector de los misiles antiaéreos. La respuesta, llamada en código Operación Gazelle , se lanzó el 15 de octubre. Las fuerzas de las FDI encabezadas por la división de Ariel Sharon atravesaron el corredor de Tasa y cruzaron el Canal de Suez al norte del Gran Lago Amargo . Después de intensos combates, las FDI avanzaron hacia El Cairo y avanzaron hacia el sur por la orilla este del Gran Lago Amargo y en la extensión sur del canal hasta el puerto de Suez . [130] El avance israelí hacia El Cairo se detuvo con un nuevo alto el fuego el 24 de octubre. [ cita requerida ]

Ataque egipcio

La guerra de 1973 en el Sinaí, del 6 al 15 de octubre

Anticipándose a un rápido contraataque blindado israelí con tres divisiones blindadas, [131] los egipcios habían armado su fuerza de asalto con un gran número de armas antitanque portátiles : granadas propulsadas por cohetes y los menos numerosos pero más avanzados misiles guiados Sagger , que resultaron devastadores para los primeros contraataques blindados israelíes. Cada una de las cinco divisiones de infantería que iban a cruzar el canal había sido equipada con cohetes RPG-7 y granadas RPG-43 y reforzada con un batallón de misiles guiados antitanque, ya que no tendrían ningún apoyo blindado durante casi 12 horas. [132] Además, los egipcios habían construido rampas separadas en los puntos de cruce, que alcanzaban una altura de hasta 21 metros (69 pies) para contrarrestar el muro de arena israelí, proporcionar fuego de cobertura para la infantería atacante y contrarrestar los primeros contraataques blindados israelíes. [133]

El ejército egipcio se esforzó mucho por encontrar una forma rápida y eficaz de abrir una brecha en las defensas israelíes . Los israelíes habían construido grandes muros de arena de 18 metros de alto con una pendiente de 60 grados y reforzados con hormigón en la línea de flotación. Los ingenieros egipcios experimentaron inicialmente con cargas explosivas y excavadoras para despejar los obstáculos, antes de que un oficial subalterno propusiera utilizar cañones de agua a alta presión. La idea se puso a prueba y se comprobó que era acertada, y se importaron varios cañones de agua a alta presión de Gran Bretaña y Alemania del Este. Los cañones de agua abrieron una brecha en los muros de arena de manera eficaz utilizando agua del canal. [134]

Restos de un A-4 Skyhawk israelí en exhibición en el museo de guerra de Egipto.
Aviones de combate egipcios Sukhoi Su-7 realizan ataques aéreos sobre la línea Bar Lev el 6 de octubre

A las 14:00 horas del 6 de octubre, comenzó la Operación Badr con un gran ataque aéreo. Más de 200 aviones egipcios llevaron a cabo ataques simultáneos contra tres bases aéreas, baterías de misiles Hawk , tres centros de mando, posiciones de artillería y varias instalaciones de radar. [135] Los aeródromos de Refidim y Bir Tamada quedaron temporalmente fuera de servicio y se infligieron daños a una batería Hawk en Ophir. El asalto aéreo se acompañó de un bombardeo de más de 2.000 piezas de artillería durante un período de 53 minutos contra la línea Bar Lev y los puestos de mando y bases de concentración de la retaguardia. [136]

El autor Andrew McGregor afirmó que el éxito del primer ataque anuló la necesidad de un segundo ataque planeado. [137] [138] [139] Egipto reconoció la pérdida de cinco aviones durante el ataque. Kenneth Pollack escribió que 18 aviones egipcios fueron derribados y que estas pérdidas provocaron la cancelación de la segunda oleada planificada. [140] En un enfrentamiento notable durante este período, un par de F-4E Phantoms israelíes desafiaron a 28 MiG egipcios sobre Sharm el-Sheikh y en media hora, derribaron siete u ocho MiG sin pérdidas. [141] [142] Uno de los pilotos egipcios muertos fue el capitán Atef Sadat , medio hermano del presidente Sadat. [143]

Simultáneamente, 14 bombarderos egipcios Tupolev Tu-16 atacaron objetivos israelíes en el Sinaí con misiles Kelt , mientras que otros dos Tupolev egipcios dispararon dos misiles Kelt contra una estación de radar en el centro de Israel. [141] Un misil fue derribado por un caza israelí Mirage que patrullaba, y el segundo cayó al mar. El ataque fue un intento de advertir a Israel de que Egipto podría tomar represalias si bombardeaba objetivos en las profundidades del territorio egipcio. [144]

Un Mirage III israelí derribado por un MiG-21 egipcio

Al amparo del bombardeo de artillería inicial, la fuerza de asalto egipcia de 32.000 infantes comenzó a cruzar el canal en doce oleadas en cinco zonas de cruce separadas, desde las 14:05 hasta las 17:30, en lo que se conoció como El Cruce . [145] Los egipcios impidieron que las fuerzas israelíes reforzaran la Línea Bar Lev y procedieron a atacar las fortificaciones israelíes. Mientras tanto, los ingenieros cruzaron para abrir una brecha en el muro de arena. [146] [147] La ​​Fuerza Aérea israelí llevó a cabo operaciones de interdicción aérea para tratar de evitar que se erigieran los puentes, pero sufrió pérdidas por parte de las baterías SAM egipcias. Los ataques aéreos fueron ineficaces en general, ya que el diseño seccional de los puentes permitió reparaciones rápidas cuando eran alcanzados. [148]

A pesar de la feroz resistencia, la brigada de reserva israelí que guarnecía los fuertes de Bar-Lev fue abrumada. Según Shazly, en seis horas, quince puntos fuertes habían sido capturados mientras las fuerzas egipcias avanzaban varios kilómetros hacia el Sinaí. El relato de Shazly fue cuestionado por Kenneth Pollack, quien señaló que en su mayor parte, los fuertes solo cayeron ante repetidos asaltos de fuerzas superiores o asedios prolongados durante muchos días. [149] La fortificación más septentrional de la Línea Bar Lev, cuyo nombre en código era " Fuerte Budapest ", resistió repetidos asaltos y permaneció en manos israelíes durante toda la guerra. Una vez que se colocaron los puentes, la infantería adicional con las armas antitanque portátiles y sin retroceso restantes comenzó a cruzar el canal, mientras que los primeros tanques egipcios comenzaron a cruzar a las 20:30. [150]

Los egipcios también intentaron desembarcar varias unidades de comandos transportadas por helicópteros en varias zonas del Sinaí para obstaculizar la llegada de las reservas israelíes. Este intento resultó desastroso, ya que los israelíes derribaron hasta 20 helicópteros, lo que provocó numerosas bajas. [151] [152] El mayor general israelí (en reserva) Chaim Herzog estimó que las pérdidas de helicópteros egipcios ascendieron a 14. [153] Otras fuentes afirman que "varios" helicópteros fueron derribados con "pérdida total de vidas" y que los pocos comandos que lograron pasar fueron ineficaces y no representaron más que una "molestia". [154] Kenneth Pollack afirmó que, a pesar de sus grandes pérdidas, los comandos egipcios lucharon excepcionalmente duro y crearon un pánico considerable, lo que llevó a los israelíes a tomar precauciones que obstaculizaron su capacidad de concentrarse en detener el asalto a través del canal. [155]

Las fuerzas egipcias avanzaron aproximadamente de 4 a 5 kilómetros ( 2+12 a 3 millas) en el desierto del Sinaí con dos ejércitos (ambos del tamaño de un cuerpo de ejército según los estándares occidentales, incluida la 2.ª División de Infantería en el Segundo Ejército del norte). A la mañana siguiente, unos 850 tanques habían cruzado el canal. [136] En su relato de la guerra, Saad El Shazly señaló que para la mañana del 7 de octubre, los egipcios habían perdido 280 soldados y 20 tanques, aunque este relato es discutido. [156] [157]

Un MiG-17 egipcio derribado durante un combate aéreo sobre Sharm el-Sheikh

La mayoría de los soldados israelíes que defendían la Línea Bar Lev resultaron heridos y unos 200 fueron hechos prisioneros. [42] [158] [159] En los días siguientes, algunos defensores de la Línea Bar Lev lograron romper el cerco egipcio y regresar a sus líneas o fueron rescatados durante posteriores contraataques israelíes. Durante los días siguientes, la IAF desempeñó un papel mínimo en los combates, en gran medida porque era necesaria para hacer frente al ataque sirio simultáneo, y en última instancia más amenazador, en los Altos del Golán. [160]

Las fuerzas egipcias consolidaron entonces sus posiciones iniciales. El 7 de octubre, las cabezas de puente se ampliaron otros 4 km ( 2 millas) .+12  milla), al mismo tiempo que rechazaba los contraataques israelíes. En el norte, la 18. a División egipcia atacó la ciudad de El-Qantarah el-Sharqiyya , enfrentándose a las fuerzas israelíes en la ciudad y sus alrededores. La lucha allí se llevó a cabo a corta distancia, y a veces fue cuerpo a cuerpo. Los egipcios se vieron obligados a despejar la ciudad edificio por edificio. Al anochecer, la mayor parte de la ciudad estaba en manos egipcias. El-Qantarah estaba completamente despejada a la mañana siguiente. [161]

Mientras tanto, los comandos egipcios lanzados desde el aire el 6 de octubre comenzaron a encontrarse con reservas israelíes a la mañana siguiente. Ambos bandos sufrieron grandes pérdidas, pero los comandos tuvieron éxito en ocasiones en retrasar el movimiento de las reservas israelíes al frente. Estas operaciones especiales a menudo llevaron a confusión y ansiedad entre los comandantes israelíes, quienes elogiaron a los comandos egipcios. [162] [163] Esta opinión fue contradicha por otra fuente que afirmó que pocos comandos lograron alcanzar sus objetivos y que, por lo general, no eran más que una molestia. [164] Según Abraham Rabinovich , solo los comandos cerca de Baluza y los que bloquearon el camino a Fort Budapest tuvieron un éxito mensurable. De los 1.700 comandos egipcios insertados detrás de las líneas israelíes durante la guerra, 740 murieron (muchos en helicópteros derribados) y 330 fueron hechos prisioneros. [165]

Contraataque israelí fallido

Un tanque israelí M60 Patton destruido en el Sinaí

El 7 de octubre, David Elazar visitó a Shmuel Gonen, comandante del Comando Sur de Israel —que había asumido el cargo sólo tres meses antes tras el retiro de Ariel Sharon— y se reunió con los comandantes israelíes. Los israelíes planeaban un contraataque cauteloso para el día siguiente por parte de la 162 División Blindada de Avraham Adan . [166] El mismo día, la IAF llevó a cabo la Operación Tagar , con el objetivo de neutralizar las bases de la Fuerza Aérea egipcia y su escudo de defensa antimisiles. [167] [168]

Siete bases aéreas egipcias resultaron dañadas, con la pérdida de dos A-4 Skyhawks y sus pilotos. Otros dos ataques planeados fueron cancelados debido a la creciente necesidad de poder aéreo en el frente sirio. La IAF llevó a cabo ataques aéreos adicionales contra las fuerzas egipcias en la orilla este del canal, supuestamente infligiendo grandes pérdidas. Los aviones israelíes habían llevado a cabo cientos de salidas contra objetivos egipcios al día siguiente, pero el escudo SAM egipcio infligió grandes pérdidas. Las pérdidas de aeronaves de la IAF ascendieron a tres aviones por cada 200 salidas, una tasa insostenible. Los israelíes respondieron ideando rápidamente nuevas tácticas para frustrar las defensas aéreas egipcias. [167] [168]

Los restos de los blindados israelíes y egipcios se encuentran enfrentados entre sí, lo que da testimonio de la ferocidad del combate cerca del Canal de Suez.

El 8 de octubre, después de que Elazar se marchara, Gonen cambió los planes basándose en informes de campo excesivamente optimistas. La división de Adan estaba compuesta por tres brigadas con un total de 183 tanques. Una de las brigadas todavía estaba en camino hacia la zona y participaría en el ataque al mediodía, junto con una brigada de infantería mecanizada de apoyo con 44 tanques adicionales. [169] [170] El contraataque israelí se dirigió hacia los puntos fuertes de Bar Lev, frente a la ciudad de Ismailia , contra la infantería egipcia atrincherada. En una serie de ataques mal coordinados que se encontraron con una dura resistencia de los tanques egipcios, la artillería y la infantería armada con cohetes antitanque, los israelíes fueron rechazados con grandes pérdidas. [171]

Un ataque israelí inicial con unos 25 tanques atravesó las primeras tropas egipcias y logró llegar a 800 metros del canal antes de ser atacados con fuego fulminante. Los israelíes perdieron 18 tanques en cuestión de minutos y la mayoría de los comandantes murieron o resultaron heridos. A esto le siguió un segundo ataque por parte de elementos de dos brigadas israelíes, que tenían problemas de comunicación y coordinación. Los egipcios permitieron que los israelíes avanzaran y luego los rodearon en una zona de aniquilación preparada antes de abrir fuego, aniquilando a la mayor parte de la fuerza israelí en 13 minutos. Los egipcios destruyeron más de 50 tanques israelíes y capturaron ocho intactos. [171]

Esa tarde, las fuerzas egipcias avanzaron una vez más para profundizar sus cabezas de puente, y como resultado, los israelíes perdieron varias posiciones estratégicas. Los ataques israelíes posteriores para recuperar el terreno perdido resultaron inútiles. [171] Hacia el anochecer, un contraataque egipcio fue rechazado con la pérdida de 50 tanques egipcios por la 143 División Blindada israelí, que estaba dirigida por Ariel Sharon, quien había sido reinstalado como comandante de división al comienzo de la guerra. Gawrych, citando fuentes egipcias, documentó las pérdidas de tanques egipcios hasta el 13 de octubre en 240. [172]

Estabilización temporal

Un tanque israelí Centurión operando en el Sinaí

Según Herzog, el 9 de octubre las líneas del frente se habían estabilizado. Los egipcios no pudieron seguir avanzando y los ataques blindados egipcios del 9 y el 10 de octubre fueron rechazados con grandes pérdidas. [173] Sin embargo, esta afirmación fue cuestionada por Shazly, quien afirmó que los egipcios continuaron avanzando y mejorando sus posiciones hasta bien entrado el 10 de octubre. Señaló un enfrentamiento, en el que participaron elementos de la 1.ª Brigada de Infantería, adscrita a la 19.ª División, que capturaron Aaiún Mousa, al sur de Suez. [174]

La 1.ª Brigada Mecanizada egipcia lanzó un ataque fallido hacia el sur a lo largo del Golfo de Suez en dirección a Ras Sudar . Al abandonar la seguridad del paraguas SAM, la fuerza fue atacada por aviones israelíes y sufrió grandes pérdidas. [174] [175]

Blindados egipcios abandonados o destruidos que son recogidos por personal de las FDI, 12 de octubre de 1973

Entre el 10 y el 13 de octubre, ambas partes se abstuvieron de realizar acciones a gran escala y la situación se mantuvo relativamente estable. Ambas partes lanzaron ataques a pequeña escala y los egipcios utilizaron helicópteros para desembarcar comandos detrás de las líneas israelíes. Algunos helicópteros egipcios fueron derribados y las fuerzas de comando que lograron aterrizar fueron rápidamente destruidas por las tropas israelíes. En un enfrentamiento clave el 13 de octubre, se detuvo una incursión egipcia particularmente grande y murieron cerca de cien comandos egipcios. [110]

Batalla del Sinaí

El 14 de octubre se produjo un enfrentamiento conocido ahora como la Batalla del Sinaí . En preparación para el ataque, helicópteros egipcios desplegaban 100 comandos cerca de la carretera lateral para interrumpir la retaguardia israelí. Una unidad de reconocimiento israelí los sometió rápidamente, matando a 60 y tomando numerosos prisioneros. Todavía heridos por las extensas pérdidas que habían sufrido sus comandos el primer día de la guerra, los egipcios no pudieron o no quisieron implementar otras operaciones de comando que se habían planeado en conjunción con el ataque blindado. [176]

El general Shazly se opuso firmemente a cualquier avance hacia el este que dejara a sus tanques sin una cobertura aérea adecuada. Su decisión fue desestimada por el general Ismail y Sadat, cuyos objetivos eran apoderarse de los estratégicos pasos de Mitla y Gidi y del centro neurálgico israelí en Refidim, con lo que esperaban aliviar la presión sobre los sirios (que para entonces estaban a la defensiva) al obligar a Israel a trasladar divisiones del Golán al Sinaí. [177] [178]

La guerra de 1973 en el Sinaí, del 15 al 24 de octubre

Se ordenó al 2.º y 3.º Ejércitos que atacaran hacia el este en seis ataques simultáneos sobre un frente amplio, dejando atrás cinco divisiones de infantería para mantener las cabezas de puente. Las fuerzas atacantes, compuestas por entre 800 y 1.000 tanques, no tendrían cobertura de misiles antiaéreos, por lo que se encargó a la Fuerza Aérea Egipcia (EAF) su defensa contra los ataques aéreos israelíes. Las unidades blindadas y mecanizadas iniciaron el ataque el 14 de octubre con apoyo de artillería. Se enfrentaron a entre 700 y 750 tanques israelíes. [179] [180]

En este caso, el avance blindado egipcio sufrió graves pérdidas. En lugar de concentrar sus fuerzas de maniobra, a excepción del avance del wadi , las unidades egipcias lanzaron ataques frontales contra las defensas israelíes que esperaban. [181] Al menos 250 tanques egipcios y unos 200 vehículos blindados fueron destruidos. [182] [183] ​​[184] [185] Las bajas egipcias superaron las 1.000. [185] Menos de 40 tanques israelíes fueron alcanzados, y todos ellos, menos seis, fueron reparados por equipos de mantenimiento israelíes y devueltos al servicio, [183] ​​mientras que las bajas israelíes ascendieron a 665. [186]

Kenneth Pollack atribuyó el éxito de una incursión de un comando israelí a principios del 14 de octubre contra un sitio de interceptación de señales egipcio en Jebel Ataqah, lo que perturbó gravemente el mando y control egipcios y contribuyó a su desintegración durante el enfrentamiento. [187] La ​​inteligencia israelí también había detectado señales de que los egipcios se estaban preparando para un importante avance blindado ya el 12 de octubre. [188]

Avance israelí y cruce del Canal de Suez

Tanques israelíes cruzando el Canal de Suez

En ese momento, el general Sharon abogó por un cruce inmediato en Deversoir, en el extremo norte del Gran Lago Amargo. Antes, el 9 de octubre, una fuerza de reconocimiento adscrita a la Brigada del coronel Amnon Reshef había detectado una brecha entre el Segundo y el Tercer Ejército egipcio en ese sector. [180] Según el general Gamasy, la brecha había sido descubierta por un avión espía estadounidense SR-71 . [189]

Los israelíes siguieron el fallido ataque egipcio del 14 de octubre con un contraataque multidivisional a través de la brecha entre el Segundo y el Tercer Ejército egipcios. La 143.ª División de Sharon, ahora reforzada con una brigada de paracaidistas comandada por el coronel Danny Matt , recibió la tarea de establecer cabezas de puente en las orillas este y oeste del canal. Las 162.ª y 252.ª Divisiones Blindadas, comandadas por los generales Avraham Adan y Kalman Magen, respectivamente, cruzarían entonces la brecha hacia la orilla oeste del canal y girarían hacia el sur, rodeando al Tercer Ejército. [190]

En la noche del 15 de octubre, 750 paracaidistas del coronel Matt cruzaron el canal en botes inflables. [191] Pronto se les unieron tanques, transportados en balsas motorizadas, e infantería adicional. La fuerza no encontró resistencia al principio y se dispersó en grupos de asalto, atacando convoyes de suministros, emplazamientos de misiles antiaéreos, centros logísticos y cualquier otra cosa de valor militar, dando prioridad a los misiles antiaéreos. Los ataques a los emplazamientos de misiles antiaéreos abrieron un agujero en la pantalla antiaérea egipcia y permitieron a la IAF atacar objetivos terrestres egipcios de forma más agresiva. [192]

En la noche del 15 de octubre, 20 tanques israelíes y siete vehículos blindados bajo el mando del coronel Haim Erez cruzaron el canal y penetraron 12 kilómetros (7,5 millas) en Egipto, tomando a los egipcios por sorpresa. Durante las primeras 24 horas, la fuerza de Erez atacó sitios de misiles SAM y columnas militares con impunidad, incluida una importante incursión en bases de misiles egipcias el 16 de octubre, en la que se destruyeron tres bases de misiles egipcias, junto con varios tanques, sin pérdidas israelíes. En la mañana del 17 de octubre, la fuerza fue atacada por la 23.ª Brigada Blindada egipcia, pero logró rechazar el ataque. En ese momento, los sirios ya no representaban una amenaza creíble y los israelíes pudieron trasladar su poder aéreo al sur en apoyo de la ofensiva. [193] La combinación de un paraguas SAM egipcio debilitado y una mayor concentración de cazabombarderos israelíes significó que la IAF fue capaz de aumentar en gran medida las salidas contra objetivos militares egipcios, incluidos convoyes, blindados y aeródromos. Los puentes egipcios que cruzan el canal resultaron dañados por los ataques aéreos y de artillería israelíes. [1]

Los aviones israelíes comenzaron a atacar los emplazamientos de misiles SAM y los radares egipcios, lo que llevó al general Ismail a retirar gran parte del equipo de defensa aérea de los egipcios. Esto, a su vez, dio a la IAF una libertad aún mayor para operar en el espacio aéreo egipcio. Los aviones israelíes también atacaron y destruyeron cables de comunicación subterráneos en Banha , en el delta del Nilo , obligando a los egipcios a transmitir mensajes selectivos por radio, que podían ser interceptados. Aparte de los cables en Banha, Israel se abstuvo de atacar la infraestructura económica y estratégica tras una amenaza egipcia de tomar represalias contra las ciudades israelíes con misiles Scud . Los aviones israelíes bombardearon las baterías egipcias Scud en Port Said varias veces. [1] [194]

La Fuerza Aérea egipcia intentó interceptar las salidas de la IAF y atacar a las fuerzas terrestres israelíes, pero sufrió grandes pérdidas en combates aéreos y por las defensas aéreas israelíes, al tiempo que infligía pérdidas a aviones ligeros. Las batallas aéreas más duras tuvieron lugar sobre el norte del delta del Nilo, donde los israelíes intentaron repetidamente destruir las bases aéreas egipcias. [1] [194] Aunque los israelíes tendían a salir victoriosos en las batallas aéreas, una notable excepción fue la batalla aérea de Mansoura , cuando una incursión israelí contra las bases aéreas egipcias de Tanta y Mansoura fue rechazada por aviones de combate egipcios. [195]

Asegurando la cabeza de puente

Una posición israelí con una ametralladora RPD capturada domina el Canal de Suez el 16 de octubre de 1973

A pesar del éxito que los israelíes estaban teniendo en la orilla oeste, los generales Bar-Lev y Elazar ordenaron a Sharon que se concentrara en asegurar la cabeza de puente en la orilla este. Se le ordenó que despejara los caminos que conducían al canal, así como una posición conocida como la Granja China , justo al norte de Deversoir, el punto de cruce israelí. Sharon se opuso y solicitó permiso para expandir y salir de la cabeza de puente en la orilla oeste, argumentando que tal maniobra causaría el colapso de las fuerzas egipcias en la orilla este. Pero el alto mando israelí insistió, creyendo que hasta que la orilla este estuviera segura, las fuerzas en la orilla oeste podrían ser aisladas. Sharon fue desautorizado por sus superiores y cedió. [196]

El 16 de octubre, envió a la brigada de Amnon Reshef a atacar la granja china. Otras fuerzas de las FDI atacaron a las fuerzas egipcias atrincheradas que dominaban los caminos hacia el canal. Después de tres días de combates encarnizados y cuerpo a cuerpo, los israelíes lograron desalojar a las fuerzas egipcias, numéricamente superiores. Los israelíes perdieron alrededor de 300 muertos, 1.000 heridos y 56 tanques. Los egipcios sufrieron más bajas, incluidos 118 tanques destruidos y 15 capturados. [197] [198] [199] [200] [201] [202]

Respuesta egipcia al cruce israelí

Soldados israelíes durante la batalla de Ismailia . Uno de ellos tiene un RPG-7 egipcio capturado .

Mientras tanto, los egipcios no comprendieron la extensión y magnitud del cruce israelí, ni apreciaron su intención y propósito. Esto se debió en parte a los intentos de los comandantes de campo egipcios de ocultar los informes sobre el cruce israelí [203] y en parte a la falsa suposición de que el cruce del canal era simplemente una distracción para una importante ofensiva de las FDI dirigida al flanco derecho del Segundo Ejército. [204] En consecuencia, el 16 de octubre, el general Shazly ordenó a la 21.ª División Blindada que atacara hacia el sur y a la 25.ª Brigada Blindada Independiente equipada con T-62 que atacara hacia el norte en una acción de pinza para eliminar la amenaza percibida para el Segundo Ejército. [205]

Los egipcios no lograron explorar la zona y no sabían que, para entonces, la 162.ª División Blindada de Adán se encontraba en las inmediaciones. Además, la 21.ª y la 25.ª no lograron coordinar sus ataques, lo que permitió que la división del general Adán se enfrentara a cada fuerza por separado. Adán concentró primero su ataque en la 21.ª División Blindada, destruyendo entre 50 y 60 tanques egipcios y obligando al resto a retirarse. Luego giró hacia el sur y tendió una emboscada a la 25.ª Brigada Blindada Independiente, destruyendo 86 de sus 96 tanques y todos sus vehículos blindados, mientras perdía tres tanques. [205]

Tanques israelíes M48 Patton destruidos en las orillas del Canal de Suez

La artillería egipcia bombardeó el puente israelí sobre el canal en la mañana del 17 de octubre, logrando varios impactos. La Fuerza Aérea egipcia lanzó repetidos ataques, algunos con hasta 20 aviones, para destruir el puente y las balsas, dañando el puente. Los egipcios tuvieron que cerrar sus bases de misiles antiaéreos durante estos ataques, lo que permitió que los cazas israelíes interceptaran a los egipcios. Los egipcios perdieron 16 aviones y siete helicópteros, mientras que los israelíes perdieron seis aviones. [206]

El puente resultó dañado y el cuartel general de los paracaidistas israelíes, que se encontraba cerca del puente, también fue alcanzado; su comandante y su adjunto resultaron heridos. Durante la noche, el puente fue reparado, pero sólo un puñado de fuerzas israelíes logró cruzar. Según Chaim Herzog, los egipcios continuaron atacando la cabeza de puente hasta el alto el fuego, utilizando artillería y morteros para disparar decenas de miles de proyectiles en la zona del cruce. Los aviones egipcios intentaron bombardear el puente todos los días y los helicópteros lanzaron misiones suicidas, intentando lanzar barriles de napalm sobre el puente y la cabeza de puente. [1]

Los puentes sufrieron múltiples daños y tuvieron que ser reparados por la noche. Los ataques causaron numerosas bajas y muchos tanques se hundieron cuando sus balsas fueron alcanzadas. Los comandos egipcios y los hombres rana con apoyo blindado lanzaron un ataque terrestre contra la cabeza de puente, que fue rechazado con la pérdida de 10 tanques. Dos contraataques egipcios posteriores también fueron rechazados. [1]

Tras el fracaso de los contraataques del 17 de octubre, el Estado Mayor egipcio empezó a darse cuenta poco a poco de la magnitud de la ofensiva israelí. A primera hora del 18 de octubre, los soviéticos mostraron a Sadat imágenes satelitales de las fuerzas israelíes que operaban en la ribera occidental. Alarmado, Sadat envió a Shazly al frente para evaluar la situación de primera mano. Ya no confiaba en que sus comandantes de campo le proporcionaran informes precisos. [207] Shazly confirmó que los israelíes tenían al menos una división en la ribera occidental y estaban ampliando su cabeza de puente. Abogó por retirar la mayor parte de los blindados egipcios de la ribera oriental para hacer frente a la creciente amenaza israelí en la ribera occidental. Sadat rechazó esta recomendación de plano e incluso amenazó a Shazly con un tribunal militar. [208] Ahmad Ismail Ali recomendó que Sadat impulsara un alto el fuego para evitar que los israelíes explotaran sus éxitos. [207]

Fuerzas israelíes en el Canal de Suez

Un tanque egipcio destruido

Las fuerzas israelíes ya estaban cruzando el canal en dos puentes, uno de ellos de diseño israelí, y en balsas motorizadas. Los ingenieros israelíes, bajo el mando del general de brigada Dan Even  [he], habían trabajado bajo el intenso fuego egipcio para levantar los puentes, y más de 100 personas murieron y cientos más resultaron heridas. [209] El cruce fue difícil debido al fuego de artillería egipcio, aunque a las 4:00 am, dos de las brigadas de Adán estaban en la orilla oeste del canal. En la mañana del 18 de octubre, las fuerzas de Sharon en la orilla oeste lanzaron una ofensiva hacia Ismailia, haciendo retroceder lentamente a la brigada de paracaidistas egipcia que ocupaba la muralla de arena hacia el norte para ampliar la cabeza de puente. [1] [210] Algunas de sus unidades intentaron avanzar hacia el oeste, pero fueron detenidas en el cruce de caminos de Nefalia. La división de Adán avanzó hacia el sur en dirección a la ciudad de Suez, mientras que la división de Magen avanzó hacia el oeste en dirección a El Cairo y hacia el sur en dirección a Adabiya. [211] [212]

El 19 de octubre, una de las brigadas de Sharon continuó empujando a los paracaidistas egipcios hacia el norte, en dirección a Ismailia, hasta que los israelíes estuvieron a 8 o 10 km de la ciudad. Sharon esperaba apoderarse de la ciudad y, de ese modo, cortar las líneas logísticas y de suministro de la mayor parte del Segundo Ejército egipcio. La segunda brigada de Sharon comenzó a cruzar el canal. Los elementos de vanguardia de la brigada se trasladaron al campamento de Abu Sultan, desde donde se trasladaron al norte para tomar Orcha, una base logística egipcia defendida por un batallón de comandos. Los soldados de infantería israelíes despejaron las trincheras y los búnkeres, a menudo enzarzándose en combates cuerpo a cuerpo, mientras los tanques se movían junto a ellos y disparaban contra las secciones de trincheras que se encontraban al frente. La posición fue asegurada antes del anochecer. Más de 300 egipcios murieron y 50 fueron hechos prisioneros, mientras que los israelíes perdieron 16 muertos. [213]

La caída de Orcha provocó el colapso de la línea defensiva egipcia, lo que permitió que más tropas israelíes llegaran a la muralla de arena. Allí pudieron disparar en apoyo de las tropas israelíes que se encontraban frente a Missouri Ridge, una posición ocupada por Egipto en la línea Bar-Lev que podía representar una amenaza para el cruce israelí. El mismo día, los paracaidistas israelíes que participaban en el avance de Sharon hicieron retroceder a los egipcios lo suficiente como para que los puentes israelíes quedaran fuera de la vista de los observadores de la artillería egipcia, aunque los egipcios continuaron bombardeando la zona. [213]

Mientras los israelíes avanzaban hacia Ismailia, los egipcios libraron una batalla que los detuvo, retirándose a posiciones defensivas más al norte, a medida que se veían sometidos a una presión cada vez mayor por la ofensiva terrestre israelí, junto con los ataques aéreos. El 21 de octubre, una de las brigadas de Sharon ocupaba las afueras de la ciudad, pero se enfrentaba a una feroz resistencia de los paracaidistas y comandos egipcios. El mismo día, la última unidad restante de Sharon en la orilla este atacó Missouri Ridge. Shmuel Gonen había exigido que Sharon capturara la posición, y Sharon había ordenado el ataque a regañadientes. El asalto fue precedido por un ataque aéreo que provocó la huida de cientos de soldados egipcios y el atrincheramiento de miles de otros. [214] [215]

Un batallón israelí atacó desde el sur, destruyendo 20 tanques e invadiendo posiciones de infantería antes de ser detenido por misiles Sagger y campos minados. Otro batallón atacó desde el suroeste e infligió fuertes pérdidas a los egipcios, pero su avance se detuvo después de que ocho tanques fueran destruidos. Los soldados israelíes supervivientes lograron contener un asalto de infantería egipcia mientras perdían dos soldados antes de rendirse. Dos de los soldados israelíes lograron esconderse y escapar de vuelta a las líneas israelíes. Los israelíes lograron ocupar un tercio de la cordillera de Missouri. El ministro de Defensa, Moshe Dayan, anuló las órdenes de los superiores de Sharon de continuar el ataque. [214] [215] Sin embargo, los israelíes continuaron expandiendo sus posiciones en la orilla este. Según los israelíes, la cabeza de puente de las FDI tenía 40 km (25 millas) de ancho y 32 km (20 millas) de profundidad a finales del 21 de octubre. [216]

Soldados egipcios recogen los cuerpos de los soldados israelíes muertos durante la Batalla de Ismailia.

El 22 de octubre, los defensores egipcios de Ismailia ocupaban su última línea de defensa. Alrededor de las 10:00 horas, los israelíes reanudaron el ataque, avanzando hacia Jebel Mariam, Abu 'Atwa y Nefisha. Los paracaidistas en Jebel Mariam se enzarzaron en intensos combates pero, gracias a su posición ventajosa, pudieron repeler el ataque a última hora de la tarde. Mientras tanto, los israelíes concentraron el fuego de artillería y mortero contra las posiciones de Sa'iqa en Abu 'Atwa y Nefisha. Al mediodía, elementos israelíes de avanzada se enfrentaron a una unidad de reconocimiento de Sa'iqa y los israelíes perdieron dos tanques y un semioruga. A la 1:00 horas, una compañía de paracaidistas israelíes atacó Abu 'Atwa sin explorar primero el terreno, y fue emboscada y aniquilada. El ataque terminó después de que los paracaidistas sufrieran más de cincuenta bajas y perdieran cuatro tanques.

Al mismo tiempo, dos compañías de tanques y una infantería mecanizada atacaron Nefisha, apoyadas por un apoyo aéreo cercano. El batallón de comandos egipcios Sa'iqa a cargo de Nefisha logró repeler el ataque después de un combate prolongado y duro que se redujo a distancias muy cortas. Los israelíes perdieron tres tanques, dos semiorugas y una gran cantidad de hombres. Por su parte, los comandos Sa'iqa en Nefisha perdieron 24 muertos, incluidos cuatro oficiales, y 42 heridos, incluidos tres oficiales. Edgar O'Ballance menciona un contraataque de los Sa'iqa que tuvo lugar durante la tarde y que hizo retroceder a algunas de las tropas de Sharon a lo largo del canal Sweetwater. [217] El ataque israelí había sido completamente derrotado. [218] [219]

Las fuerzas israelíes no lograron llegar a Ismailia y rodear la ciudad. El avance israelí sobre Ismailia fue detenido a 10 km (6 mi) al sur de la ciudad. Las FDI no lograron cortar los suministros al Segundo Ejército egipcio ni ocupar Ismailia . Los egipcios registraron una victoria táctica y estratégica en la defensa de Ismailia, deteniendo un cerco de sus grandes fuerzas en la orilla este del Canal de Suez y asegurando que sus líneas de suministro permanecieran abiertas.

En el frente norte, los israelíes también atacaron Port Said, enfrentándose a tropas egipcias y una unidad tunecina de 900 hombres, que libraron una batalla defensiva. [220] El gobierno egipcio afirmó que la ciudad fue bombardeada repetidamente por aviones israelíes y que cientos de civiles murieron o resultaron heridos. [221]

Adán y Magen avanzaron hacia el sur, derrotando decisivamente a los egipcios en una serie de enfrentamientos, aunque a menudo encontraron una determinada resistencia egipcia, y ambos bandos sufrieron grandes bajas. [210] Adán avanzó hacia el área del Canal de Sweetwater, planeando irrumpir en el desierto circundante y atacar las colinas de Geneifa, donde se ubicaban muchos sitios de SAM. Las tres brigadas blindadas de Adán se desplegaron, una avanzando a través de las colinas de Geneifa, otra a lo largo de una carretera paralela al sur de ellas y la tercera avanzando hacia Mina. Las brigadas de Adán encontraron resistencia de las fuerzas egipcias atrincheradas en el cinturón verde del área del Canal de Sweetwater . Las otras brigadas de Adán también fueron detenidas por una línea de campamentos e instalaciones militares egipcias. Adán también fue acosado por la Fuerza Aérea egipcia. [222]

Los israelíes avanzaron lentamente, eludiendo las posiciones egipcias siempre que fue posible. Después de que se les negara el apoyo aéreo debido a la presencia de dos baterías SAM que habían sido traídas al frente, Adan envió dos brigadas para atacarlos. Las brigadas se deslizaron más allá de la infantería egipcia atrincherada, alejándose del cinturón verde por más de 8 km (5 mi), y lucharon contra múltiples contraataques egipcios. Desde una distancia de 4 km ( 2+12  mi), bombardearon y destruyeron los SAM, lo que permitió a la IAF proporcionar a Adan apoyo aéreo cercano. [222] Las tropas de Adan avanzaron a través del cinturón verde y se abrieron paso hasta las colinas de Geneifa, enfrentándose con tropas egipcias, kuwaitíes y palestinas dispersas. Los israelíes se enfrentaron con una unidad blindada egipcia en Mitzeneft y destruyeron múltiples sitios SAM. Adan también capturó el aeropuerto Fayid , que posteriormente fue preparado por tripulaciones israelíes para servir como base de suministro y para sacar en avión a los soldados heridos. [223]

Dieciséis kilómetros al oeste del Lago Amargo, la brigada del coronel Natke Nir arrolló a una brigada de artillería egipcia que había estado participando en el bombardeo de la cabeza de puente israelí. Decenas de artilleros egipcios murieron y muchos más fueron hechos prisioneros. Dos soldados israelíes también murieron, incluido el hijo del general Moshe Gidron . Mientras tanto, la división de Magen se movió hacia el oeste y luego hacia el sur, cubriendo el flanco de Adán y finalmente moviéndose al sur de la ciudad de Suez hasta el Golfo de Suez. [224]

El alto el fuego y las nuevas batallas

Cuando entró en vigor el alto el fuego, Israel había perdido territorio en el lado este del Canal de Suez ante Egipto. , pero ganó territorio al oeste del canal y en los Altos del Golán. .
Un soldado con una Uzi junto a una señal de tráfico que dice "ISMAILIA 36"
Un soldado israelí en el camino a Ismailia

El 22 de octubre, el Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas aprobó (por 14 votos a favor y 0 en contra) la Resolución 338 , en la que se pedía un alto el fuego, negociado en gran medida entre los Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética. En ella se pedía a los beligerantes que cesaran de inmediato toda actividad militar. El alto el fuego debía entrar en vigor 12 horas después, a las 18:52 horas, hora israelí. [225] Como era de noche, era imposible que la vigilancia por satélite determinara dónde estaban las líneas del frente cuando se suponía que terminarían los combates. [226] El Secretario de Estado de los Estados Unidos, Henry Kissinger, le comunicó al Primer Ministro Meir que no se opondría a una acción ofensiva durante la noche anterior a la entrada en vigor del alto el fuego. [227]

Varios minutos antes de que entrara en vigor el alto el fuego, fuerzas egipcias o personal soviético en Egipto dispararon tres misiles Scud contra objetivos israelíes. Este fue el primer uso en combate de misiles Scud. Un Scud tuvo como objetivo el puerto de Arish y dos la cabeza de puente israelí en el Canal de Suez. Uno alcanzó un convoy de suministros israelí y mató a siete soldados. [228] Cuando llegó el momento del alto el fuego, la división de Sharon no había logrado capturar Ismailia ni cortar las líneas de suministro del Segundo Ejército, pero las fuerzas israelíes estaban a solo unos cientos de metros de su objetivo en el sur: la última carretera que unía El Cairo y Suez. [229]

El avance de Adán hacia el sur había dejado a las unidades israelíes y egipcias dispersas por todo el campo de batalla, sin líneas claras entre ellas. Mientras las unidades egipcias e israelíes trataban de reagruparse, estallaron tiroteos regulares. Durante la noche, Elazar informó que los egipcios estaban atacando en un intento de recuperar tierra en varios lugares, y que nueve tanques israelíes habían sido destruidos. Pidió permiso a Dayan para responder a los ataques y Dayan aceptó. Israel luego reanudó su avance hacia el sur. [230]

No está claro qué bando disparó primero [231], pero los comandantes de campo israelíes utilizaron las escaramuzas como justificación para reanudar los ataques. Cuando Sadat protestó por las supuestas violaciones de la tregua por parte de Israel, Israel dijo que las tropas egipcias habían disparado primero. William B. Quandt señaló que, independientemente de quién disparó primero tras el alto el fuego, fue el ejército israelí el que avanzó más allá de las líneas de alto el fuego del 22 de octubre. [232]

El 23 de octubre, Adán reanudó su ataque. [233] Las tropas israelíes terminaron su avance hacia el sur, capturaron la última carretera auxiliar al sur del puerto de Suez y rodearon al Tercer Ejército egipcio al este del Canal de Suez. [234] Los israelíes transportaron entonces enormes cantidades de equipo militar a través del canal, lo que según Egipto violaba el alto el fuego. [231] Los aviones egipcios lanzaron repetidos ataques en apoyo del Tercer Ejército, a veces en grupos de hasta 30 aviones, pero sufrieron graves pérdidas. [10]

Batalla de Suez

Los blindados y paracaidistas israelíes también entraron en Suez en un intento de capturar la ciudad, pero fracasaron tras ser confrontados por soldados egipcios y fuerzas de milicias locales reclutadas apresuradamente. Fueron rodeados y la columna blindada fue emboscada y severamente golpeada, mientras que los paracaidistas fueron objeto de un intenso fuego y muchos de ellos quedaron atrapados dentro de un edificio local. La columna blindada y parte de la fuerza de infantería fueron evacuadas durante el día, mientras que el principal contingente de la fuerza de paracaidistas finalmente logró salir corriendo de la ciudad y regresar a las líneas israelíes. Los israelíes habían perdido 80 muertos y 120 heridos, con mínimas bajas egipcias, sin ninguna ganancia táctica. Israel realizó dos sondas más en Suez, una el 25 y otra el 28, pero ambas fueron rechazadas. [233] [235] [236]

El Tercer Ejército de Egipto atrapado

Kissinger se enteró del cerco del Tercer Ejército poco después. [237] Kissinger consideró que la situación presentaba a los Estados Unidos una tremenda oportunidad y que Egipto dependía de los Estados Unidos para impedir que Israel destruyera su ejército atrapado. La posición podría ser aprovechada más tarde para permitir que los Estados Unidos mediaran en la disputa y alejaran a Egipto de la influencia soviética. Como resultado, los Estados Unidos ejercieron una enorme presión sobre los israelíes para que se abstuvieran de destruir el ejército atrapado, incluso amenazando con apoyar una resolución de la ONU que exigiera que los israelíes se retiraran a sus posiciones del 22 de octubre si no permitían que llegaran al ejército suministros no militares. En una llamada telefónica con el embajador israelí Simcha Dinitz , Kissinger le dijo al embajador que la destrucción del Tercer Ejército egipcio "es una opción que no existe". [238]

El gobierno israelí también tenía sus propias motivaciones para no destruir el Tercer Ejército. Entre ellas, la posibilidad de utilizar al Tercer Ejército cercado como moneda de cambio para poner fin al bloqueo egipcio del estrecho de Bab-el-Mandel en el Mar Rojo y negociar una repatriación de los prisioneros de guerra israelíes capturados por Egipto. El estado de agotamiento de las FDI, la posibilidad de que humillar a Egipto destruyendo el Tercer Ejército haría que Sadat se volviera más belicoso y poco dispuesto a cesar las hostilidades, y los intensos temores de Israel de que la Unión Soviética interviniera militarmente en caso de que el Tercer Ejército fuera destruido fueron razones adicionales para que Israel decidiera finalmente no destruirlo. [239]

A pesar de estar rodeado, el Tercer Ejército logró mantener su integridad de combate al este del canal y mantener sus posiciones defensivas, para sorpresa de muchos. [240] Según Trevor N. Dupuy , los israelíes, los soviéticos y los estadounidenses sobreestimaron la vulnerabilidad del Tercer Ejército en ese momento. No estaba al borde del colapso, y escribió que si bien una renovada ofensiva israelí probablemente lo superaría, esto no era una certeza. [241]

David T. Buckwalter coincide en que, a pesar del aislamiento del Tercer Ejército, no estaba claro si los israelíes podrían haber protegido a sus fuerzas en la orilla oeste del canal de un determinado asalto egipcio y aún así mantener una fuerza suficiente a lo largo del resto del frente. [242] Esta evaluación fue cuestionada por Patrick Seale , quien afirmó que el Tercer Ejército estaba "al borde del colapso". [243] La posición de Seale fue apoyada por PR Kumaraswamy, quien escribió que la intensa presión estadounidense impidió que los israelíes aniquilaran al Tercer Ejército varado. [244]

Herzog señaló que, dada la situación desesperada del Tercer Ejército, en términos de verse privado de todo suministro y de la reafirmación de la superioridad aérea israelí, la destrucción del Tercer Ejército era inevitable y podría haberse logrado en un período muy breve. [245] El propio Shazly describió la difícil situación del Tercer Ejército como "desesperada" y clasificó su cerco como una "catástrofe demasiado grande para ocultarla". [246] Señaló además que "el destino del Tercer Ejército egipcio estaba en manos de Israel. Una vez que el Tercer Ejército estuvo rodeado por tropas israelíes, cada pedazo de pan que se enviaba a nuestros hombres se pagaba con el cumplimiento de las demandas israelíes". [247]

Poco antes de que entrara en vigor el alto el fuego, un batallón de tanques israelí avanzó hacia Adabiya y la tomó con el apoyo de la Armada israelí . Se tomaron unos 1.500 prisioneros egipcios y unos cien soldados egipcios se reunieron justo al sur de Adabiya, donde resistieron a los israelíes. Los israelíes también llevaron a cabo su tercera y última incursión en Suez. Consiguieron algunos avances, pero no lograron entrar en el centro de la ciudad. Como resultado, la ciudad quedó dividida por la calle principal, con los egipcios manteniendo el centro de la ciudad y los israelíes controlando las afueras, las instalaciones portuarias y la refinería de petróleo, rodeando de manera efectiva a los defensores egipcios. [1] [248]

Batallas de posguerra

En la mañana del 26 de octubre, el Tercer Ejército egipcio violó el alto el fuego al intentar abrirse paso entre las fuerzas israelíes que lo rodeaban. El ataque fue repelido por las fuerzas aéreas y terrestres israelíes. [249] Los egipcios también lograron avances menores en los ataques contra las fuerzas de Sharon en la zona de Ismailia. [1] Los israelíes reaccionaron bombardeando y atacando con artillería objetivos prioritarios en Egipto, incluidos puestos de mando y reservas de agua. [250] El frente estaba más tranquilo en el sector del Segundo Ejército en la zona norte del canal, donde ambos bandos en general respetaron el alto el fuego. [1]

Aunque la mayor parte de los combates más intensos terminaron el 28 de octubre, no se detuvieron hasta el 18 de enero de 1974. El Ministro de Defensa israelí, Moshe Dayan, declaró que:

El alto el fuego existía en el papel, pero el fuego continuo a lo largo del frente no era la única característica de la situación entre el 24 de octubre de 1973 y el 18 de enero de 1974. Este período intermedio también contenía la posibilidad siempre presente de una reanudación de la guerra a gran escala. Había tres variantes sobre cómo podría estallar, dos egipcias y una israelí. Un plan egipcio era atacar a las unidades israelíes al oeste del canal desde la dirección de El Cairo. El otro era cortar la cabeza de puente israelí del canal mediante una unión del Segundo y Tercer Ejércitos en la orilla este. Ambos planes se basaban en bombardeos masivos de artillería sobre las fuerzas israelíes, que no estaban bien fortificadas y que sufrirían grandes bajas. Por lo tanto, se pensó que Israel se retiraría de la orilla oeste, ya que era más sensible al tema de las vidas de los soldados. Egipto, en ese momento, tenía un total de 1.700 tanques de primera línea en ambos lados del frente del canal, 700 en la orilla este y 1.000 en la orilla oeste. También en la orilla oeste, en la segunda línea, había 600 tanques adicionales para la defensa de El Cairo. Tenía unas 2.000 piezas de artillería, unos 500 aviones operativos y al menos 130 baterías de misiles SAM posicionadas alrededor de nuestras fuerzas de modo de negarnos apoyo aéreo. [251]

Las FDI reconocieron la pérdida de 14 soldados durante este período de posguerra. Las pérdidas egipcias fueron mayores, especialmente en el sector controlado por Ariel Sharon, quien ordenó a sus tropas responder con una potencia de fuego masiva a cualquier provocación egipcia. [252] Se produjeron algunas batallas aéreas y los israelíes también derribaron varios helicópteros que intentaban reabastecer al Tercer Ejército. [11]

Situación final en el frente egipcio

Al final de la guerra, los israelíes habían avanzado hasta posiciones a unos 101 kilómetros de la capital de Egipto, El Cairo, y ocupaban 1.600 kilómetros cuadrados al oeste del Canal de Suez. [253] También habían cortado la carretera El Cairo-Suez y rodeado la mayor parte del Tercer Ejército de Egipto. Los israelíes también habían tomado muchos prisioneros después de que los soldados egipcios, incluidos muchos oficiales, comenzaran a rendirse en masa hacia el final de la guerra. [254] Los egipcios tenían una estrecha franja en la orilla este del canal, ocupando unos 1.200 kilómetros cuadrados del Sinaí. [254] Una fuente estimó que los egipcios tenían 70.000 hombres, 720 tanques y 994 piezas de artillería en la orilla este del canal. [255] Sin embargo, entre 30.000 y 45.000 de ellos estaban ahora rodeados por los israelíes. [256] [257]

A pesar de los éxitos tácticos de Israel al oeste del canal, el ejército egipcio se reformó y se organizó. En consecuencia, según Gamasy , la posición militar israelí se volvió "debilitada" por diferentes razones:

En primer lugar, Israel contaba ahora con una gran fuerza (unas seis o siete brigadas) en una zona de tierra muy limitada, rodeada por todos lados por barreras naturales o artificiales, o por las fuerzas egipcias. Esto lo colocaba en una posición débil. Además, existían dificultades para abastecer a esta fuerza, para evacuarla, en las largas líneas de comunicación y en el desgaste diario de hombres y equipo. En segundo lugar, para proteger a estas tropas, el mando israelí tuvo que asignar otras fuerzas (cuatro o cinco brigadas) para defender las entradas a la brecha en Deversoir. En tercer lugar, para inmovilizar las cabezas de puente egipcias en el Sinaí, el mando israelí tuvo que asignar diez brigadas para hacer frente a las cabezas de puente del Segundo y Tercer Ejército. Además, se hizo necesario mantener las reservas estratégicas en su máximo estado de alerta. Así pues, Israel se vio obligado a mantener su fuerza armada -y en consecuencia al país- movilizado durante un largo período, al menos hasta que la guerra llegara a su fin, porque el alto el fuego no marcó el fin de la guerra. No hay duda de que esto estaba en total conflicto con sus teorías militares. [258]

Egypt wished to end the war when it realized that the IDF canal crossing offensive could result in a catastrophe.[259] The Egyptians' besieged Third Army could not hold on without supply.[36][247] The Israeli Army advanced to 100 km from Cairo, which worried Egypt.[36] The Israeli army had open terrain and no opposition to advance further to Cairo; had they done so, Sadat's rule might have ended.[260]

Golan front

Initial Syrian attacks

A map of the fighting on the Golan Heights

In the Golan Heights, the Syrians attacked two Israeli armored brigades, an infantry brigade, two paratrooper battalions and eleven artillery batteries with five divisions (the 7th, 9th and 5th, with the 1st and 3rd in reserve) and 188 batteries. At the onset of the battle, the Israeli brigades of some 3,000 troops, 180 tanks and 60 artillery pieces faced off against three infantry divisions with large armor components comprising 28,000 Syrian troops, 800 tanks and 600 artillery pieces. In addition, the Syrians deployed two armored divisions from the second day onwards.[45][261][262]

To fight the opening phase of a possible battle, before reserves arrived, Israeli high command had, conforming to the original plan, allocated a single armored brigade, the 188th, accepting a disparity in tank numbers of eighteen to one.[263] When the warning by King Hussein of an imminent Syrian attack was conveyed, Elazar at first only assigned two additional tank companies from 7th Armored Brigade: "We'll have one hundred tanks against their eight hundred. That ought to be enough".[264] Eventually, his deputy, Israel Tal, ordered the entire 7th Armored Brigade to be brought up.[265]

Efforts had been made to improve the Israeli defensive position. The "Purple Line" ran along a series of low dormant volcanic cones, "tels", in the north and deep ravines in the south. It was covered by a continuous tank ditch, bunker complexes and dense minefields. Directly west of this line a series of tank ramps were constructed: earthen platforms on which a Centurion tank could position itself with only its upper turret and gun visible, offering a substantial advantage when duelling the fully exposed enemy tanks.[266]

The Syrians began their attack at 14:00 with an airstrike by about a hundred aircraft and a fifty-minute artillery barrage. The two forward infantry brigades, with an organic tank battalion, of each of the three infantry divisions then crossed the cease-fire lines, bypassing United Nations observer posts. They were covered by mobile anti-aircraft batteries, and equipped with bulldozers to fill-in anti-tank ditches, bridge-layer tanks to overcome obstacles and mine-clearance vehicles. These engineering vehicles were priority targets for Israeli tank gunners and took heavy losses, but Syrian infantry at points demolished the tank ditch, allowing their armor to cross.[267]

At 14:45, two hundred men from the Syrian 82nd Paratrooper Battalion descended on foot from Mount Hermon and around 17:00 took the Israeli observation base on the southern slope, with its advanced surveillance equipment. A small force dropped by four helicopters simultaneously placed itself on the access road south of the base.[268] Specialised intelligence personnel were captured. Made to believe that Israel had fallen, they disclosed much sensitive information.[269] A first Israeli attempt on 8 October to retake the base from the south was ambushed and beaten off with heavy losses.[270]

President Hafez al-Assad (right) with soldiers, 1973

During the afternoon 7th Armored Brigade was still kept in reserve and the 188th Armored Brigade held the frontline with only two tank battalions, the 74th in the north and the 53rd in the south.[271] The northern battalion waged an exemplary defensive battle against the forward brigades of the Syrian 7th Infantry Division, destroying fifty-nine Syrian tanks for minimal losses.[272] The southern battalion destroyed a similar number, but facing four Syrian tank battalions from two divisions had a dozen of its own tanks knocked out.[273] At bunker complex 111, opposite Kudne in Syria, the defending company beat off "determined" and "bravely" pressed attacks by the Syrian 9th Infantry Division; by nightfall it was reduced to three tanks, with only sixty-nine anti-tank rounds between them.[274] Further successful resistance by the southern battalion was contingent on reinforcements.[273]

Direct operational command of the Golan had at first been given to the 188 AB commander, Yitzhak Ben-Shoham, who ordered the 7th AB to concentrate at Wasset.[275] The 7th AB commander, Avigdor Ben-Gal, resented obeying an officer of equal rank and went to the Northern Command headquarters at Nafah, announcing he would place his force in the northern sector at the "Quneitra Gap", a pass south of the Hermonit peak and the main access to the Golan Heights from the east. Northern Command was in the process of moving their headquarters to Safed in Galilee and the senior staff officers were absent at this moment, having expected the Syrian attack to start at 18:00. Operations officer Lieutenant-Colonel Uri Simhoni therefore improvised an allocation of the tactical reserves, thereby largely deciding the course of the battle.[276]

The Armored School Centurion Tank Battalion (71st TB) was kept in general reserve. The 77th Tank Battalion of 7th AB was sent to Quneitra. Two companies of the 75th Mechanised Infantry Battalion, arrived in the morning, of the same brigade were sent to the southern sector. Also 82nd TB had to reinforce the south. However, Ben-Gal had split off a company of this battalion to serve as a reserve for his own brigade.[277] Another company, soon after arriving in the south, was ambushed by an infiltrated Syrian commando force armed with Sagger missiles and almost entirely wiped out.[278] As a result, effective reinforcement of the southern Golan sector was limited to just a single tank company.[279]

At 16:00, Yitzhak Hofi, head Northern Command, shortly visited Nafah and split command of the Golan front: the north would be the responsibility of 7th AB, to which 53rd TB would be transferred. Command of 188th AB would be limited to the south, taking over 82nd TB.[280] The first wave of the Syrian offensive had failed to penetrate, but at nightfall a second, larger, wave was launched. For this purpose each of the three infantry divisions, also committing their organic mechanised brigade with forty tanks, had been reinforced by an armored brigade of about ninety tanks. Two of these brigades were to attack the northern sector, four the southern sector.[281]

Defense of the Quneitra Gap

An Israeli Centurion tank. It was considered in many respects superior to the Soviet T-54/55.[282]

Over four days of fighting, the 7th Armored Brigade in the north under Avigdor Ben-Gal managed to hold the rocky hill line defending the northern flank of their headquarters in Nafah, inflicting heavy losses on the Syrians. During the night of 6/7 October it beat off an attack of the Syrian 78th Armoured Brigade, attached to the 7th Infantry Division.[283] On 7 October, 7th AB had to send part of its reserves to the collapsing southern sector. Replenishment from the Nafah matériel stock became impossible. Syrian High Command, understanding that forcing the Quneitra Gap would ensure a total victory on the Golan, decided to commit its strategic armored reserves.[284]

During the night of 7/8 October, the independent 81st Armored Brigade, equipped with modern T-62's and part of the presidential guard, attacked but was beaten off.[284] After this fight, the Israeli brigade would refer to the gap as the "Valley of Tears".[285] Syrian Brigadier-General Omar Abrash, commander of the 7th Infantry Division, was killed on 8 October when his command tank was hit as he was preparing an attempt by 121st Mechanised Brigade to bypass the gap through a more southern route.[286]

Having practiced on the Golan Heights numerous times, Israeli gunners made effective use of mobile artillery.[267] During night attacks, however, the Syrian tanks had the advantage of active-illumination infrared night-vision equipment, which was not a standard Israeli equipment. Instead, some Israeli tanks were fitted with large xenon searchlights which were useful in illuminating and locating enemy positions, troops and vehicles. The close distances during night engagements, negated the usual Israeli superiority in long-range duels. 77th Tank Battalion commander Avigdor Kahalani in the Quneitra Gap generally managed to hold a second tank ramp line.[267]

Israeli artillery pounds Syrian forces near the Valley of Tears

In the afternoon of 9 October, Syrian command committed the Republican Guard independent 70th Armored Brigade, equipped with T-62's and BMP-1s.[287] To hold the gap, 7th AB could by now muster only some two dozen tanks, elements from the 77th, 74th, 82nd and 71st Tank Battalion. Israeli command had directed all reserves to the threatened southern sector, trusting that the northern sector was secure. Fighting in daylight proved to be advantageous to the Syrians: the better armored T-62's were hard to destroy at long range and their high-velocity 115 mm U-5TS smoothbore guns were quite accurate at medium ranges, despite the lack of a rangefinder.[288]

Taking losses and hit by an intense artillery barrage, the Israeli Centurions withdrew from their tank ramps. The situation was restored by an ad hoc force of thirteen tanks formed by Lt. Col. Yossi Ben-Hanan from repaired vehicles and stray crews. The Syrians abandoned their last breakthrough attempt, having lost since 6 October some 260 tanks in the Quneitra Gap.[288]

Syrian breakthrough in the Southern Golan

In the southern sector, the Israeli Barak Armored Brigade had to defend a much flatter terrain.[289] It also faced two-thirds of the Syrian second wave, while fielding at this time less than a third of the operational Israeli tanks. Beside these objective draw-backs, it suffered from ineffective command. Ben-Shoham initially still had his headquarters in Nafah, far from his sector. He did not realise a full war was in progress and tended to spread the 53rd TB platoons along the entire line, to stop any Syrian incursion. Also, he failed to coordinate the deployment of 82nd TB and 53rd TB.[290]

The commander of 53rd TB, Lieutenant-Colonel Oded Eres, sent the two arriving companies of 82nd TB to his right flank and centre.[291] No further reinforcement materialising, he urgently ordered the southern company to the north again; it was ambushed on the way. His left flank at Kudne remained unreinforced, although the defending company had increased the number of operational tanks to eight. This was the main axis of the Syrian 9th Infantry Division and its commander, Colonel Hassan Tourkmani, ordered the remnants of an organic tank battalion to be sacrificed forcing the minefield belt.[292] Subsequently, the Syrian 51st Armored Brigade bypassed bunker complex 111 after dark. It then overran the Israeli supply compound at the Hushniya cross-roads.[293]

Parts of the 75th Mechanised Infantry Battalion had been concentrated at Hushniya, but they did not consist of its two organic tank companies; they were M-113 units. Lacking modern antitank weapons, Israeli infantry was ineffective at stopping Syrian armor.[294] The 51st AB passing through the Kudne/Rafid Gap turned northwest to move along the Petroleum Road or "Tapline Road", which provided a diagonal route across the heights, running straight from Hushniya to Nafah, the Israeli Golan headquarters, in the rear of the Quneitra Gap.[295]

Abandoned Syrian T-62 tanks on the Golan Heights

Israeli command was initially slow to realise that a breakthrough had taken place. Their main concern was that the Syrians would occupy some forward bunker complex or settlement.[296] The fact that the defending tank platoons were still intact was seen as proof that the line had not been broken. Ben-Shoham around 18:30 moved his headquarters to the south. Reports of Syrian radio traffic at Hushniya, of Israeli reserve tanks passing columns of Syrian tanks in the dark and of enemy tanks moving at the rear of the observation post on Tel Saki, were dismissed by him as misidentifications.[297] Only when two tanks parked in the dark near his staff vehicles and were recognised for T-55s when hastily driving away upon being hailed, he understood that a large Syrian tank unit had infiltrated his lines.[298]

As a result, no regular units were directed to block a Syrian advance to Nafah. Ben-Shoham had ordered Lieutenant Zvika Greengold, who, about to be trained as a tank company commander, had arrived at Nafah unattached to any combat unit, to gather some crews and follow him to the south with a few tanks to take command of the bunker complex 111 and 112 tank forces which had lost all officers. Five kilometres (three miles) south of Nafah base, Greengold was warned by a truck convoy that there were Syrian tanks ahead.[299] These belonged to the 452st Tank Battalion, hurrying north to surprise Nafah.[300]

Confronted at short range with a first group of three T-55's, Greengold's Centurion destroyed them in quick succession. He then moved parallel to the road to the south, hitting advancing Syrian tanks in the flank and destroying another ten until he approached Hushniya. From this the commander of 452st TB, Major Farouk Ismail, concluded that he had been ambushed by a strong Israeli tank unit and concentrated his remaining vehicles in a defensive position at Hushniya.[300] Greengold decided not to reveal how precarious the Israeli situation was, in radio contact with Ben-Shoham hiding the fact that his "Force Zvika" consisted of only a single tank.[301]

The next 9th Infantry Division unit to participate in the second wave, the 43rd Mechanised Infantry Brigade, entered the Golan at Kudne, but then sharply turned to the right advancing over the lateral "Reshet" road behind the Purple Line in the direction of Quneitra. Israeli 1st Infantry Brigade elements warned 7th Armored Brigade of the danger. Ben Gal then released the 82nd TB company he had held back, commanded by Captain Meir "Tiger" Zamir, and sent it to the south to cover his flank. Zamir ambushed the Syrian brigade; directing their fire with the xenon light projector on one of his tanks his company destroyed a dozen vehicles.[302] At dawn he surprised the enemy column from the rear and dispersed the remnants of 43 MIB, having knocked-out all of its forty tanks.[303]

Israeli strategic response

Around midnight, Hofi, at Safed, began to understand the magnitude of the Syrian breakthrough. He warned chief-of-staff Elazar that the entire Golan might be lost. Overhearing this message, an alarmed Dayan decided to personally visit the Northern Command headquarters.[304] In the late night, Hofi informed Dayan that an estimated three hundred Syrian tanks had entered the southern Golan. No reserves were available to stop a Syrian incursion into Galilee. Visibly shaken by this news, the Israeli minister of defence ordered the Jordan bridges to be prepared for detonation.[305]

Next, he contacted Benjamin Peled, commander of the Israeli Air Force. He shocked Peled by announcing that the Third Temple was about to fall. The IAF had just made a successful start with Operation Tagar, a very complex plan to neutralise the Egyptian AA-missile belt. Overruling objections by Peled, Dayan ordered to immediately carry out Operation Doogman 5 instead, the destruction of the Syrian SAM-belt, to allow the IAF to halt the Syrian advance.[306]

As there was no time to obtain recent information on the location of the batteries,[307] the attempt was a costly failure. The Israelis destroyed only one Syrian missile battery but lost six Phantom II aircraft.[308] As a result, the IAF was unable to make a significant contribution to the defensive battle on the Golan. Over both fronts together, on 7 October only 129 bombardment sorties were flown.[309] It also proved impossible to restart Tagar, curtailing IAF operations on the Sinai front for the duration of the war.[310]

Less pessimistic than Dayan, Elazar was not ready yet to abandon the Golan Heights.[311] Israeli High Command had a strategic reserve, consisting of the 146th Ugda that was earmarked for Central Command, controlling the eastern border with Jordan. In the evening of 6 October, Elazar had considered sending this division to the collapsing Sinai front in view of the initial defensive success at the Golan. The unexpected crisis led to an about-face. Priority was given to the north because of its proximity to Israeli population centers at Tiberias, Safed, Haifa and Netanya. Elazar ordered that, after mobilisation, the 146th Ugda was to reconquer the southern Golan.[312]

This division would take some time to deploy. Some smaller units could be quickly mobilised to bolster the defenses. The Syrians had expected it to take at least twenty-four hours for Israeli reserves to reach the front lines; in fact, they began to join the fight only nine hours after the war began, twelve hours after the start of the mobilisation.[313] The Golan position had been at only 80% of its planned strength for the defensive phase of a full war with Syria.[314] Northern Command had a headquarters reserve consisting of a unnumbered rapid deployment Centurion tank battalion. Also, the 71st Mechanised Infantry Battalion, with two organic tank companies, of the 188th AB had not yet been activated. During the night of 6/7 October these two battalions were gradually brought up.[315]

Around 01:00 on 7 October, the 36th Ugda was activated as a divisional headquarters under Brigadier Rafael Eitan, to take direct command of the northern front.[316] The 7th AB did not have this division as its original destination. It was an elite active General Headquarters reserve, moved from the Sinai to the Golan in reaction to the Syrian build-up. Under the original mobilisation Plan Gir ("Chalk"), the 36th Ugda was to be expanded by the 179th Armored Brigade. In the evening of 6 October, it was considered to send this brigade to the Sinai instead but this option was abandoned after the Syrian breakthrough. To speed up the relocation of 7th AB to the north, this brigade had left its tanks at Tasa, the main mobilisation complex of the Sinai, and used the stocked vehicles of the 179th AB to rebuild itself at Nafah.[317]

In turn, the 179th AB began to mobilise in eastern Galilee, from the mobilisation complex at the foot of the Golan Heights, using the stocked vehicles of the 164th Armoured Brigade. This latter brigade was earmarked for the 240th Ugda, a division to be held in reserve. Assuming that a sustained Syrian offensive would have led to crippling Arab tank losses, 36th Ugda and 240th Ugda were in the prewar planning intended to execute an advance in the direction of Damascus, Operation Ze'ev Aravot ("Desert Wolf"). All remaining stocked Centurions in the north were eventually used to rebuild 7th and 188th AB in the night of 9/10 October. The 164th AB was ultimately sent to the Sinai, to activate itself using the old 7th AB matériel.[317]

The 679th Armored Brigade was intended to join the 240th Ugda and ordered to mobilise at noon 6 October.[318] Reservists of both brigades arriving at the Galilee army depots were quickly assigned to tanks and sent to the front, without waiting for the crews they trained with to arrive,[319] machine guns to be installed, or the tank guns to be calibrated, a time-consuming process known as bore-sighting.[320] Elements of such larger units were during 7 October fed into the battle piece-meal.[321]

Collapse of the Israeli 188th Armored Brigade

The Syrian first and second wave had in total numbered about six hundred tanks, half of which had been lost by the morning of 7 October. By this time, the Israelis had committed about 250 tanks to battle.[322] Of the initially arriving reserves, the 71 MIB was used to block an advance by the westernmost elements of the Syrian 9th Infantry Division towards the Bnot Yaacov Bridge, the crucial connection between Galilee and Nafah. During the late evening of 6 October, the NCTB advanced from Nafah towards Hushniya, attempting to seal the breakthrough point. The attack, running into prepared positions occupied by a superior force of T-55s, was a dismal failure, leaving all of its officers dead or wounded. Greengold incorporated the remnants of the unit into his "Force Zvika".[323]

By the early morning of 7 October, all attempts to patch the breach in the main defensive line of the southern sector became futile because also the center and right flank of the 188th AB had started to collapse.[324] During the night, it had largely managed to hold its ground against continuous attacks, inflicting severe losses on the Syrians with accurate cannon fire, hoping to buy time for reserve forces to reach the front lines. Some tank crews sacrificed themselves rather than voluntarily give ground.[262] Gradually, the fighting subsided.[325]

Dawn revealed that the Syrian 5th Infantry Division under the cover of darkness had at numerous points bridged the tank ditch and cleared corridors through the minefield belt. The situation of 188th AB was rendered even more hazardous by the presence in its rear of the Syrian 9th Infantry Division. It was decided to abandon the southern Golan. In the night, many artillery and logistic units had already withdrawn, some slipping through the columns of 9th ID, others being destroyed by them. Civilian Jewish settlements had been evacuated. The same now happened with most fortifications,[326] except bunker complex 116.[327]

Ben-Shoham with his staff outflanked the Syrian penetration via a western route and reached the north.[328] The 82nd TB company that had reinforced the center, commanded by Eli Geva, had the previous evening destroyed about thirty Syrian tanks. It now successfully crossed the axis of 9th ID to the north.[329] Of the originally thirty-six tanks of 53rd TB, twelve remained. Eres hid them in the crater of Tel Faris,[324] where a surveillance base was located. During the late evening of 7 October, he would successfully break out to the west.[330]

An abandoned Syrian T-55 tank

The Syrian 5th ID subsequently occupied the plateau of the southern Golan. Ben-Shoham tried to maintain a foothold on the access roads by small groups of APCs manned by the 50th Paratrooper Battalion,[331] but these were easily brushed aside. The Syrian 47th Armored Brigade advanced along the escarpment to the north, in the direction of the Bnot Yaacov Bridge. The 132nd Mechanised Infantry Brigade positioned itself east of El Al, on the road along the Jordan border, running to the south of Lake Tiberias. Israeli General Dan Lener in the late night activated the divisional headquarters of the 210th Ugda to take control over the sector between the lake and the Bnot Yaacov Bridge but he had no regular units to hold this line.[332]

For the moment, he could do little more than personally halt retreating troops and vehicles on the more southern Arik Bridge and send them over the River Jordan again. Israeli command feared that the Syrians would quickly exploit this situation by advancing into Galilee. Dayan in the morning of 7 October called Shalhevet Freier, the director-general of the Israel Atomic Energy Commission, to a meeting with Golda Meir to discuss the possible arming of nuclear weapons. Meir rejected this option.[333] The Syrian mechanised brigades in this area did not continue the offensive but began to entrench themselves in strong defensive positions. They had been forbidden by Al-Assad to approach the River Jordan, for fear of triggering an Israeli nuclear response.[334]

The original Syrian offensive plan Al-Aouda ("The Return"), devised by Major-General Adul Habeisi, had emphasized the element of tactical surprise. It was known to the Syrians that the 188th AB normally rotated its two tank battalions on the Purple Line, so that on any given moment just thirty-three tanks were guarding the tank ditch. Infiltrations by commando teams armed with Saggers were planned to quickly isolate these ten tank platoons from reinforcement by tactical reserves.[335] Simultaneously, helicopter-borne commando attacks at the Jordan bridges, landing during conditions of dusk to avoid the IAF, would isolate the Golan Heights from strategic reinforcements.[336]

Night attacks by the three Syrian infantry divisions would then fragment the weakly-held forward Israeli defensive positions. To conclude the operation and deter any Israeli attempt to reconquer the Golan, the Syrian 1st and 3rd Armored Division would advance onto the plateau. This way, it was hoped to take the Golan within thirty hours.[336] Coordination with Egypt forced a change of plans. The Egyptians wanted hostilities to start at noon;[337] in the end they agreed to a compromise time of 14:00.[338] The Syrian helicopter attacks were cancelled.[339] Now uncertain of a successful outcome, the Syrians became less committed to the attack. They decided to keep one armored division as a strategic reserve, together with the two presidential guard independent armored brigades, which fielded the most modern tank matériel.[340]

Israel retakes the southern Golan

The aftermath of an Israeli airstrike on the Syrian General Staff headquarters in Damascus

The tide in the Golan began to turn as arriving Israeli reserve forces were able to contain the Syrian advance. Beginning on 8 October, the Israelis began pushing the Syrians back towards the pre-war ceasefire lines, inflicting heavy tank losses. The Israelis, who had suffered heavy casualties during the first three days of fighting, also began relying more heavily on artillery to dislodge the Syrians at long-range.[citation needed]

On 9 October, the Syrians launched a counterattack north of Quneitra. As part of the operation, they attempted to land heli-borne troops in the vicinity of El Rom. The counterattack was repulsed, and four Syrian helicopters were shot down with total loss of life.[341] Syrian FROG-7 artillery rockets struck the Israeli Air Force base of Ramat David, killing a pilot and injuring several soldiers. Additional missiles struck civilian settlements. In retaliation, seven Israeli F-4 Phantoms flew into Syria and struck the Syrian General Staff Headquarters in Damascus. One Israeli Phantom was shot down.[342][better source needed] The strike prompted the Syrians to transfer air defense units from the Golan Heights to the home front, allowing the IAF greater freedom of action.[267]

By 10 October, the last Syrian unit in the central sector was pushed back across the Purple Line, the pre-war ceasefire line. After four days of intense and incessant combat, the Israelis had succeeded in ejecting the Syrians from the entire Golan.[267]

Israeli advance towards Damascus

A decision now had to be made—whether to stop at the post-1967 border or to continue advancing into Syrian territory. The Israeli High Command spent all of 10 October debating well into the night. Some favored disengagement, which would allow soldiers to be redeployed to the Sinai (Shmuel Gonen's defeat at Hizayon in the Sinai had taken place two days earlier). Others favored continuing the attack into Syria, towards Damascus, which would knock Syria out of the war; it would also restore Israel's image as the supreme military power in the Middle East and would give Israel a valuable bargaining chip once the war ended.[343]

Others countered that Syria had strong defenses—antitank ditches, minefields, and strongpoints—and that it would be better to fight from defensive positions in the Golan Heights (rather than the flat terrain deeper in Syria) in the event of another war with Syria. However, Prime Minister Golda Meir realized the most crucial point of the whole debate:

It would take four days to shift a division to the Sinai. If the war ended during this period, the war would end with a territorial loss for Israel in the Sinai and no gain in the north—an unmitigated defeat. This was a political matter and her decision was unmitigating—to cross the purple line. ... The attack would be launched tomorrow, Thursday, 11 October.[343]

Quneitra village after Israeli shelling, showing a church and an elevated car

On 11 October, Israeli forces pushed into Syria and advanced towards Damascus along the Quneitra-Damascus road until 14 October, encountering stiff resistance by Syrian reservists in prepared defenses. Three Israeli divisions broke the first and second defensive lines near Sasa, and conquered a further 50 square kilometres of territory in the Bashan salient. From there, they were able to shell the outskirts of Damascus, only 40 km away, using M107 heavy artillery.[citation needed] The Israeli Army advanced to within 30 km of Damascus.[36]

On 12 October, Israeli paratroopers from the elite Sayeret Tzanhanim reconnaissance unit launched Operation Gown, infiltrating deep into Syria and destroying a bridge in the tri-border area of Syria, Iraq, and Jordan. The operation disrupted the flow of weapons and troops to Syria. During the operation, the paratroopers destroyed a number of tank transports and killed several Syrian soldiers. There were no Israeli casualties.[344]

Arab military intervention

As the Syrian position deteriorated, Jordan sent an expeditionary force into Syria. King Hussein, who had come under intense pressure to enter the war, told Israel of his intentions through U.S. intermediaries, in the hope that Israel would accept that this was not a casus belli justifying an attack on Jordan. Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Dayan declined to offer any such assurance, but said that Israel had no intention of opening another front.[345] Iraq also sent an expeditionary force to Syria, consisting of the 3rd and 6th Armoured Divisions, some 30,000 men, 250–500 tanks, and 700 APCs.[5][46][346] Israeli jets attacked Iraqi forces as they arrived in Syria.[347]

The Iraqi divisions were a strategic surprise for the IDF, which had expected 24-hour-plus advance intelligence of such moves. This turned into an operational surprise, as the Iraqis attacked the exposed southern flank of the advancing Israeli armor, forcing its advance units to retreat a few kilometres in order to prevent encirclement. Combined Syrian, Iraqi and Jordanian counterattacks prevented any further Israeli gains. However, they were unable to push the Israelis back from the Bashan salient, and suffered heavy losses in their engagements with the Israelis. The most effective attack took place on 20 October, though Arab forces lost 120 tanks in that engagement.[347]

The Syrian Air Force attacked Israeli columns, but its operations were highly limited because of Israeli air superiority, and it suffered heavy losses in dogfights with Israeli jets. On 23 October, a large air battle took place near Damascus during which the Israelis shot down 10 Syrian aircraft. The Syrians claimed a similar toll against Israel.[348] The IDF also destroyed the Syrian missile defense system. The Israeli Air Force utilized its air superiority to attack strategic targets throughout Syria, including important power plants, petrol supplies, bridges and main roads. The strikes weakened the Syrian war effort, disrupted Soviet efforts to airlift military equipment into Syria, and disrupted normal life inside the country.[349]

On 22 October, the Golani Brigade and Sayeret Matkal commandos recaptured the outpost on Mount Hermon, after a hard-fought battle that involved hand-to-hand combat and Syrian sniper attacks. An unsuccessful attack two weeks prior had cost the Israelis 23 dead and 55 wounded and the Syrians 29 dead and 11 wounded, while this second attack cost Israel an additional 55 dead and 79 wounded.[350] An unknown number of Syrians were also killed and some were taken prisoner. An IDF D9 bulldozer supported by infantry forced its way to the peak. An Israeli paratroop force landing by helicopter took the corresponding Syrian Hermon outposts on the mountain, killing more than a dozen Syrians while losing one dead and four wounded. Seven Syrian MiGs and two Syrian helicopters carrying reinforcements were shot down as they attempted to intercede.[351]

Northern front de-escalation

On 22 October, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 338 calling for a ceasefire.[4] Following the UN-backed ceasefire, there were ongoing artillery exchanges and skirmishes, and Israeli forces continued to occupy positions deep within Syria.[352] Some aerial engagements took place, and both sides lost several aircraft.[11] Amid mounting international pressure and further UN resolutions calling for a ceasefire, the war finally came to a close on 26 October.[353] Israel and Egypt signed a formal cease-fire agreement on 11 November, and this was followed the with a disengagement agreement on 18 January the next year.[353]

Hostilities between Israel and Syria continued, and on 4 February 1974, 500 Cubans joined a Syrian tank division at Mount Hermon in an attack against Israeli forces, sparking a war of attrition in the Golan Heights.[7][a] It ended only in 31 May with a ceasefire between Israel and Syria.[353]

Jordanian participation

The U.S. pressed King Hussein to keep Jordan out of the war.[354] Though King Hussein initially refrained from entering the conflict, on the night of 12–13 October Jordanian troops deployed to the Jordanian-Syrian frontier to buttress Syrian troops, and Jordanian forces joined Syrian and Iraqi assaults on Israeli positions on 16 and 19 October. Hussein sent a second brigade to the Golan front on 21 October.[355] According to historian Assaf David, declassified U.S. documents show that the Jordanian participation was only a token to preserve King Hussein's status in the Arab world.[356] The documents reveal that Israel and Jordan had a tacit understanding that the Jordanian units would try to stay out of the fighting and Israel would try to not attack them.[356]

Naval operations

A diagram of the Battle of Baltim

On the first day of the war, Egyptian missile boats bombarded Israeli positions on the Sinai coast; targeting Rumana, Ras Beyron, Ras Masala and Ras Sudar on the Mediterranean and Sharm el-Sheikh on the Red Sea coast of the Sinai Peninsula. Egyptian frogmen raided the oil installations at Bala'eem, disabling the massive driller.[357] Several small naval engagements took place on 7 October, including the Battle of Latakia and Battle of Marsa Talamat.[358]

A Syrian Styx missile fired at an Israeli missile boat

The Battle of Baltim, which took place on 8–9 October off the coast of Baltim and Damietta, ended in a decisive Israeli victory. Six Israeli missile boats heading towards Port Said encountered four Egyptian missile boats coming from Alexandria. In an engagement lasting about forty minutes, the Israelis evaded Egyptian Styx missiles using electronic countermeasures and sank three of the Egyptian missile boats with Gabriel missiles and gunfire.[359][360][361][362][363] The Battles of Latakia and Baltim "drastically changed the operational situation at sea to Israeli advantage".[364]

Five nights after the Battle of Baltim, five Israeli patrol boats entered the Egyptian anchorage at Ras Ghareb, where over fifty Egyptian small patrol craft and armed fishing boats mobilized for the war effort and loaded with troops, ammunition, and supplies bound for the Israeli side of the Gulf were based. In the battle that followed, 19 Egyptian boats were sunk, while others remained bottled up in port.[248]

The Israeli Navy had control of the Gulf of Suez during the war, which made possible the continued deployment of an Israeli SAM battery near an Israeli naval base close to the southern end of the Suez Canal, depriving the Egyptian Third Army of air support and preventing it from moving southward and attempting to capture the southern Sinai.[365]

On 18 October, Israeli frogmen set off an explosion that severed two underwater communications cables off Beirut, one of which led to Alexandria and the other to Marseilles. As a result, telex and telecommunications between the West and Syria were severed, and were not restored until the cables were repaired on 27 October. The cables had also been used by the Syrians and Egyptians to communicate with each other in preference to using radio, which was monitored by Israeli, U.S. and Soviet intelligence. Egypt and Syria resorted to communicating via a Jordanian radio station in Ajloun, bouncing the signals off a U.S. satellite.[366]

A Syrian oil terminal in Baniyas after being shelled by Israeli Sa'ar 3-class missile boats

Having decisively beaten the Egyptian and Syrian navies, the Israeli Navy had the run of the coastlines. Israeli missile boats utilized their 76 mm cannons and other armaments to strike targets along the Egyptian and Syrian coastlines, including wharves, oil tank farms, coastal batteries, radar stations, airstrips, and other targets of military value. The Israeli Navy even attacked some of Egypt's northernmost SAM batteries.[367][368] The Israeli Navy's attacks were carried out with minimal support from the IAF (only one Arab naval target was destroyed from the air during the entire war).[248]

The Egyptian Navy managed to enforce a blockade at Bab-el-Mandeb. Eighteen million tons of oil had been transported yearly from Iran to Israel through the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. The blockade was enforced by two Egyptian destroyers and two submarines, supported by ancillary craft. Shipping destined for Israel through the Gulf of Eilat was halted by the Egyptians. The Israeli Navy had no means of lifting the blockade due to the long range involved, and the Israeli Air Force, apparently also incapable of lifting the blockade, did not challenge it. The blockade was lifted on 1 November, after Israel used the surrounded Egyptian Third Army as a bargaining chip. The Egyptians unsuccessfully attempted to blockade the Israeli Mediterranean coastline, and mined the Gulf of Suez to prevent the transportation of oil from the Bala'eem and Abu Rudeis oil fields in southwestern Sinai to Eilat in southern Israel. Two oil tankers, of 48,000 ton and 2,000 ton capacity, sank after hitting mines in the Gulf.[369][370]

According to Admiral Ze'ev Almog, the Israeli Navy escorted tankers from the Gulf to Eilat throughout the war, and Israeli tankers sailing from Iran were directed to bypass the Red Sea. As a result of these actions and the failure of Egypt's Mediterranean blockade, the transport of oil, grain and weapons to Israeli ports was made possible throughout nearly the entire war. A post-war survey found that during the entire war period, Israel suffered no oil shortages, and even sold oil to third parties affected by the Arab oil embargo.[248] This claim was disputed by Edgar O'Ballance, who claimed that no oil went to Israel during the blockade, and the Eilat-Ashdod pipeline was empty by the end of the war.[371]

Israel responded with a counter-blockade of Egypt in the Gulf of Suez. The Israeli blockade was enforced by naval vessels based at Sharm el-Sheikh and on the Sinai coast facing the Gulf of Suez. The Israeli blockade substantially damaged the Egyptian economy. According to historian Gammal Hammad, Egypt's principal ports, Alexandria and Port Safaga, remained open to shipping throughout the war.[357] Throughout the war, the Israeli Navy enjoyed complete command of the seas both in the Mediterranean approaches and in the Gulf of Suez.[372]

During the last week of the war, Egyptian frogmen carried out three or four raids on Eilat. The attacks caused minor damage, but created some alarm.[366]

According to Israeli and Western sources, the Israelis lost no vessels in the war.[359][360][373][374] Israeli vessels were "targeted by as many as 52 Soviet-made anti-ship missiles", but none hit their targets.[375] According to historian Benny Morris, the Egyptians lost seven missile boats and four torpedo boats and coastal defense craft, while the Syrians lost five missile boats, one minesweeper, and one coastal defense vessel.[373]

U.S.–Soviet naval standoff

The war saw the largest naval confrontation between the United States Navy and Soviet Navy of the entire Cold War. As the United States and Soviet Union supported their respective allies, their fleets in the Mediterranean became increasingly hostile toward each other. The Soviet 5th Operational Squadron had 52 ships in the Mediterranean when the war began, including 11 submarines, some of which carried cruise missiles with nuclear warheads. The United States Sixth Fleet had 48, including two aircraft carriers, a helicopter carrier, and amphibious vessels carrying 2,000 marines.[376][377]

As the war continued, both sides reinforced their fleets. The Soviet squadron grew to 97 vessels including 23 submarines, while the US Sixth Fleet grew to 60 vessels including 9 submarines, 2 helicopter carriers, and 3 aircraft carriers. Both fleets made preparations for war, and US aircraft conducted reconnaissance over the Soviet fleet. The two fleets began to disengage following the ceasefire.[376][377]

Participation by other states

U.S. intelligence efforts

The U.S. intelligence community, including the CIA, failed to predict in advance the Egyptian–Syrian attack on Israel. A U.S. intelligence report as late as 4 October still stated that "We continue to believe that an outbreak of major Arab–Israeli hostilities remains unlikely for the immediate future".[378] However, one U.S. government source that was able to predict the approaching war was Roger Merrick, an analyst working for the INR (Bureau of Intelligence and Research in the State Department), but his conclusions were ignored at the time, and the report he had written to that effect was only rediscovered by U.S. government archive officials in 2013.[379]

U.S. aid to Israel

Based on intelligence estimates at the commencement of hostilities, American leaders expected the tide of the war to quickly shift in Israel's favor, and that Arab armies would be completely defeated within 72 to 96 hours.[380] On 6 October, Secretary of State Kissinger convened the National Security Council's official crisis management group, the Washington Special Actions Group, which debated whether the U.S. should supply additional arms to Israel. High-ranking representatives of the Defense and State Departments opposed such a move. Kissinger was the sole dissenter; he said that if the U.S. refused aid, Israel would have little incentive to conform to American views in postwar diplomacy. Kissinger argued the sending of U.S. aid might cause Israel to moderate its territorial claims, but this thesis raised a protracted debate whether U.S. aid was likely to make it more accommodating or more intransigent toward the Arab world.[381]

An Israeli M48 Patton captured by Egyptian forces

By 8 October, Israel had encountered military difficulties on both fronts. In the Sinai, Israeli efforts to break through Egyptian lines with armor had been thwarted, and while Israel had contained and begun to turn back the Syrian advance, Syrian forces were still overlooking the Jordan River and their air defense systems were inflicting a high toll on Israeli planes.[382][383][384] It became clear by 9 October that no quick reversal in Israel's favor would occur and that IDF losses were unexpectedly high.[385]

During the night of 8–9 October, an alarmed Dayan told Meir that "this is the end of the third temple."[383] He was warning of Israel's impending total defeat, but "Temple" was also the code word for Israel's nuclear weapons.[384] Dayan raised the nuclear topic in a cabinet meeting, warning that the country was approaching a point of "last resort".[386] That night, Meir authorized the assembly of thirteen 20-kiloton-of-TNT (84 TJ) tactical nuclear weapons for Jericho missiles at Sdot Micha Airbase and F-4 Phantom II aircraft at Tel Nof Airbase.[384] They would be used if absolutely necessary to prevent total defeat, but the preparation was done in an easily detectable way, likely as a signal to the United States.[386] Kissinger learned of the nuclear alert on the morning of 9 October. That day, President Nixon ordered the commencement of Operation Nickel Grass, an American airlift to replace all of Israel's material losses.[75]

Anecdotal evidence suggests that Kissinger told Sadat that the reason for the U.S. airlift was that the Israelis were close to "going nuclear".[384] However, subsequent interviews with Kissinger, Schlesinger, and William Quandt suggested that the nuclear aspect was not a major factor in the decision to re-supply. These officials cited the ongoing Soviet re-supply effort and Sadat's early rejection of a ceasefire as the primary motivators.[387] European countries refused to allow U.S. airplanes carrying supplies for Israel to refuel at their bases, fearing an Arab oil embargo, with the exception of Portugal and the Netherlands. Portugal permitted the United States to use the leased base of Lajes Field in the Azores,[388][389][390] and the defence minister of the Netherlands, apparently acting without consulting his cabinet colleagues, secretly authorised the use of Dutch airfields.[391] Greece, then under the dictatorial rule of the Regime of the Colonels, declared itself neutral in the conflict. However, the Greek junta permitted the United States to use communications facilities within Greece and the airports at Athens and at Souda Naval Base to facilitate its assistance to Israel, though it refused to allow the Americans to use its strategically important bases in Cyprus.[392]

A cargo plane with its access door open, men, and a tank
An M60 delivered during Operation Nickel Grass

Israel began receiving supplies via U.S. Air Force cargo airplanes on 14 October,[393] although some equipment had arrived on planes from Israel's national airline El Al before this date. By that time, the IDF had advanced deep into Syria and was mounting a largely successful invasion of the Egyptian mainland from the Sinai, but had taken severe material losses. According to Abraham Rabinovich, "while the American airlift of supplies did not immediately replace Israel's losses in equipment, it did allow Israel to expend what it did have more freely".[394]

By the end of Nickel Grass, the United States had shipped 22,395 tons of matériel to Israel. 8,755 tons of it arrived before the end of the war.[395] American C-141 Starlifter and C-5 Galaxy aircraft flew 567 missions throughout the airlift.[396] El Al planes flew in an additional 5,500 tons of matériel in 170 flights.[397][398] The airlift continued after the war until 14 November. The United States delivered approximately 90,000 tons of materiel to Israel by sealift by the beginning of December, using 16 ships.[395] 33,210 tons of it arrived by November.[399]

By the beginning of December, Israel had received between 34 and 40 F-4 fighter-bombers, 46 A-4 attack airplanes, 12 C-130 cargo airplanes, 8 CH-53 helicopters, 40 unmanned aerial vehicles, 200 M-60/M-48A3 tanks, 250 APCs, 226 utility vehicles, 12 MIM-72 Chaparral surface-to-air missile systems, three MIM-23 Hawk SAM systems, 36 155 mm artillery pieces, seven 175 mm artillery pieces, and large quantities of 105 mm, 155 mm and 175 mm ammunition. State of the art equipment, such as the AGM-65 Maverick missile and the BGM-71 TOW, weapons that had only entered production one or more years prior, as well as highly advanced electronic jamming equipment, was also sent. Most of the combat airplanes arrived during the war, and many were taken directly from USAF units. Most of the large equipment arrived after the ceasefire. The total cost of the equipment was approximately US$800 million (US$5.49 billion today).[397][398][400][401]

On 13 and 15 October, Egyptian air defense radar detected an aircraft at an altitude of 25,000 metres (82,000 ft) and a speed of Mach 3 (3,700 km/h; 2,300 mph), making it impossible to intercept either by fighter or SAM missiles. The aircraft proceeded to cross the whole of the canal zone, the naval ports of the Red Sea (Hurghada and Safaga), flew over the airbases and air defenses in the Nile delta, and finally disappeared from radar screens over the Mediterranean Sea. The speed and altitude were those of the U.S. SR-71 Blackbird. According to Egyptian commanders, the intelligence provided by the reconnaissance flights helped the Israelis prepare for the Egyptian attack on 14 October and assisted it in conducting Operation Stouthearted Men.[402][403][404]

Aid to Egypt and Syria

Soviet supplies

Two damaged armored personnel carriers. An Israeli flag is next to them.
A Syrian BMP-1 captured by Israeli forces

Starting on 9 October, the Soviet Union began supplying Egypt and Syria by air and by sea. The Soviets airlifted 12,500–15,000 tons of supplies, of which 6,000 tons went to Egypt, 3,750 tons went to Syria and 575 tons went to Iraq. General Shazly, the former Egyptian chief of staff, claimed that more than half of the airlifted Soviet hardware actually went to Syria. According to Ze'ev Schiff, Arab losses were so high and the attrition rate so great that equipment was taken directly from Soviet and Warsaw Pact stores to supply the airlift.[405] Antonov An-12 and An-22 aircraft flew over 900 missions during the airlift.[406]

The Soviets supplied another 63,000 tons, mainly to Syria, by means of a sealift by 30 October.[407][408] Historian Gamal Hammad asserts that 400 T-55 and T-62 tanks supplied by the sealift were directed towards replacing Syrian losses, transported from Odessa on the Black Sea to the Syrian port of Latakia. Hammad claimed that Egypt did not receive any tanks from the Soviets.[409] The sealift may have included Soviet nuclear weapons, which were not unloaded but kept in Alexandria harbor until November to counter the Israeli nuclear preparations, which Soviet satellites had detected. Soviet intelligence informed Egypt that Israel had armed three nuclear weapons.[410]

American concern over possible evidence of nuclear warheads for the Soviet Scud missiles in Egypt contributed to Washington's decision to go to DEFCON 3.[384] According to documents declassified in 2016, the move to DEFCON 3 was motivated by CIA reports indicating that the Soviet Union had sent a ship to Egypt carrying nuclear weapons along with two other amphibious vessels.[411]

Soviet active aid

On the Golan front, Syrian forces received direct support from Soviet technicians and military personnel. At the start of the war, there were an estimated 2,000 Soviet personnel in Syria, of whom 1,000 were serving in Syrian air defense units. Soviet technicians repaired damaged tanks, SAMs and radar equipment, assembled fighter jets that arrived via the sealift, and drove tanks supplied by the sealift from ports to Damascus. On both the Golan and Sinai fronts, Soviet military personnel retrieved abandoned Israeli military equipment for shipment to Moscow.[412]

Soviet advisors were reportedly present in Syrian command posts "at every echelon, from battalion up, including supreme headquarters". Some Soviet military personnel went into battle with the Syrians, and it was estimated that 20 were killed in action and more were wounded. In July 1974, Israeli Defense Minister Shimon Peres informed the Knesset that high-ranking Soviet officers had been killed on the Syrian front during the war. There were strong rumors that a handful were taken prisoner, but this was denied. However, it was noted that certain Soviet Jews were allowed to emigrate just after the war, leading to suspicions of a covert exchange. The Observer wrote that seven Soviets in uniform were taken prisoner after surrendering when the Israelis overran their bunker. The Israelis reportedly took the prisoners to Ramat David Airbase for interrogation, and treated the incident with great secrecy.[413][414]

Soviet fighter pilots stationed in Egypt as advisors and instructors may have participated in combat operations. There are several references to Soviet personnel being captured which were never officially confirmed, including a US State Department mention of a report from an Israeli Air Force pilot which claimed that two Soviet MiG pilots had been captured, and the account of an Israeli paratrooper reservist who claimed that while mopping up bunkers near Suez City, his force captured four or five Soviet officers. Israeli officers who reported great difficulty in command and control due to jamming of their radio frequencies attributed the improved jamming capabilities they were facing to the Soviets. According to Gideon Remez and Isabella Ginor, Soviet Spetsnaz commandos twice conducted raids behind Israeli lines on the Egyptian front in the early days of the war and captured two Israeli Centurion tanks after killing their crews so that their upgraded guns could be studied.[415]

Israeli military intelligence reported that Soviet-piloted MiG-25 Foxbat interceptor/reconnaissance aircraft overflew the Canal Zone.[416]

Soviet intervention threat

24 October. A UN-arranged meeting between IDF Lt. Gen. Haim Bar-Lev and Egyptian Brigadier General Bashir Sharif in Sinai.[417]

On 9 October, the Soviet cultural center in Damascus was damaged during an IAF airstrike, and two days later, the Soviet merchant ship Ilya Mechnikov was sunk by the Israeli Navy during a battle off Syria. The Soviets condemned Israeli actions, and there were calls within the government for military retaliation. The Soviets ultimately reacted by deploying two destroyers off the Syrian coast. Soviet warships in the Mediterranean were authorized to open fire on Israeli combatants approaching Soviet convoys and transports. There were several recorded instances of Soviet ships exchanging fire with Israeli forces. In particular, the Soviet minesweeper Rulevoi and the medium landing ship SDK-137, guarding Soviet transport ships at the Syrian port of Latakia, fired on approaching Israeli jets.[418]

During the cease-fire, Henry Kissinger mediated a series of exchanges with the Egyptians, Israelis and the Soviets. On 24 October, Sadat publicly appealed for American and Soviet contingents to oversee the ceasefire; it was quickly rejected in a White House statement. Kissinger also met with Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin to discuss convening a peace conference with Geneva as the venue. Later in the evening (9:35 pm) of 24–25 October, Brezhnev sent Nixon a "very urgent" letter.[419][420]

In that letter, Brezhnev began by noting that Israel was continuing to violate the ceasefire and it posed a challenge to both the U.S. and USSR. He stressed the need to "implement" the ceasefire resolution and "invited" the U.S. to join the Soviets "to compel observance of the cease-fire without delay". He then threatened "I will say it straight that if you find it impossible to act jointly with us in this matter, we should be faced with the necessity urgently to consider taking appropriate steps unilaterally. We cannot allow arbitrariness on the part of Israel."[419][420]

Kissinger immediately passed the message to White House Chief of Staff Alexander Haig, who met with Nixon for 20 minutes around 10:30 pm, and reportedly empowered Kissinger to take any necessary action.[419] Kissinger immediately called a meeting of senior officials, including Haig, Defense Secretary James Schlesinger and CIA Director William Colby. The Watergate scandal had reached its apex, and Nixon was so agitated and discomposed that they decided to handle the matter without him:

When Kissinger asked Haig whether [Nixon] should be wakened, the White House chief of staff replied firmly 'No.' Haig clearly shared Kissinger's feelings that Nixon was in no shape to make weighty decisions.[421]

The meeting produced a conciliatory response, which was sent (in Nixon's name) to Brezhnev. At the same time, it was decided to increase the DEFCON from four to three. Lastly, they approved a message to Sadat (again, in Nixon's name) asking him to drop his request for Soviet assistance, and threatening that if the Soviets were to intervene, so would the United States.[421]

The Soviets placed seven airborne divisions on alert and airlift was marshaled to transport them to the Middle East. An airborne command post was set up in the southern Soviet Union, and several air force units were also alerted. "Reports also indicated that at least one of the divisions and a squadron of transport planes had been moved from the Soviet Union to an airbase in Yugoslavia".[422]

The Soviets quickly detected the increased American defense condition, and were astonished and bewildered at the response. "Who could have imagined the Americans would be so easily frightened," said Nikolai Podgorny. "It is not reasonable to become engaged in a war with the United States because of Egypt and Syria," said Premier Alexei Kosygin, while KGB chief Yuri Andropov added that "We shall not unleash the Third World War."[423] The letter from the U.S. cabinet arrived during the meeting. Brezhnev decided that the Americans were too nervous, and that the best course of action would be to wait to reply.[424] The next morning, the Egyptians agreed to the American suggestion, and dropped their request for assistance from the Soviets, bringing the crisis to an end.

Other countries

A plaque commemorating the supply of eight East German Air Force MiG-21s to Syria during the war, on display at the Flugplatzmuseum Cottbus

In total, Arab countries added up to 100,000 troops to Egypt and Syria's frontline ranks, and about 20,000 troops stationed in Jordanian territory.[38] Besides Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq, several other Arab states were also involved in this war, providing additional weapons and financing. In addition to its forces in Syria, Iraq sent a single Hawker Hunter squadron to Egypt. The squadron quickly gained a reputation amongst Egyptian field commanders for its skill in air support, particularly in anti-armor strikes.[425]

However, nearly all Arab reinforcements came with no logistical plan or support, expecting their hosts to supply them, and in several cases causing logistical problems. On the Syrian front, a lack of coordination between Arab forces led to several instances of friendly fire.[5][2]

Non-state participants:

Palestinian attacks from Lebanese territory

During the course of the war, Palestinian militias from southern Lebanon launched several attacks on Israeli border communities. All of the attempts to infiltrate Israel failed, and 23 militants were killed and four were captured during the clashes. Most of the activity was focused on Katyusha rocket and anti-tank missile fire on Israeli border communities. In the attacks some civilians were injured, mostly lightly and damage was made to property. On 10 October, after Palestinian militants fired some 40 rockets on Israeli communities, Chief of Staff David Elazar and chief of the Northern Command Yitzhak Hofi requested permission to send a force into Lebanon to root out Palestinian militants, but the request was declined by Defense Minister Moshe Dayan, who did not want to divert forces from the Syrian front.[438][439]

UN-backed ceasefire

A 1974 news report about warfare on the Golan prior to the May disengagement accords

On 24 October, the UNSC passed Resolution 339, serving as a renewed call for all parties to adhere to the ceasefire terms established in Resolution 338. Most heavy fighting on the Egyptian front ended by 26 October, but clashes along the ceasefire lines and a few airstrikes on the Third Army took place. With some Israeli advances taking place, Kissinger threatened to support a UN withdrawal resolution, but before Israel could respond, Egyptian national security advisor Hafez Ismail sent Kissinger a stunning message—Egypt was willing to enter into direct talks with Israel, provided that it agree to allow non-military supplies to reach the Third Army and to a complete ceasefire.

About noon on 25 October, Kissinger appeared before the press at the State Department. He described the various stages of the crisis and the evolution of U.S. policy. He reviewed the first two weeks of the crisis and the nuclear alert, reiterated opposition to U.S. and Soviet troops in the area and more strongly opposed unilateral Soviet moves. He then reviewed the prospects for a peace agreement, which he termed "quite promising", and had conciliatory words for Israel, Egypt and even the USSR. Kissinger concluded his remarks by spelling out the principles of a new U.S. policy toward the Arab–Israeli conflict saying:[440]

Our position is that ... the conditions that produced this war were clearly intolerable to the Arab nations and that in the process of negotiations it will be necessary to make substantial concessions. The problem will be to relate the Arab concern for the sovereignty over the territories to the Israeli concern for secure boundaries. We believe that the process of negotiations between the parties is an essential component of this.

Quandt considers, "It was a brilliant performance, one of his most impressive." One hour later the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 340. This time the ceasefire held, and the fourth Arab–Israeli war was over.

Disengagement

UN Emergency Forces at Kilometre 101, November 1973

Disengagement talks took place on 28 October 1973, at "Kilometre 101" between Israeli Major General Aharon Yariv and Egyptian Major General Abdel Ghani el-Gamasy. Ultimately, Kissinger took the proposal to Sadat, who agreed. United Nations checkpoints were brought in to replace Israeli ones, nonmilitary supplies were allowed to pass, and prisoners-of-war were to be exchanged.

A summit conference in Geneva followed in December 1973. All parties to the war—Israel, Syria, Jordan and Egypt—were invited to a joint effort by the Soviet Union and the United States to finally usher peace between the Arabs and Israelis. This conference was recognized by UN Security Council Resolution 344 and was based on the Resolution 338, calling for a "just and durable peace". Nevertheless, the conference was forced to adjourn on 9 January 1974, as Syria refused attendance.[441]

After the failed conference, Henry Kissinger started conducting shuttle diplomacy, meeting with Israel and the Arab states directly. The first concrete result of this was the initial military disengagement agreement, signed by Israel and Egypt on 18 January 1974. The agreement commonly known as Sinai I had the official name of Sinai Separation of Forces Agreement. Under its terms, Israel agreed to pull back its forces from the areas West of Suez Canal, which it had occupied since the end of hostilities. Moreover, Israeli forces were also pulled back on the length of the whole front to create security zones for Egypt, UN and Israel, each roughly ten kilometres wide. Thus Israel gave up its advances reaching beyond the Suez canal, but it still held nearly all of Sinai. It became the first of many such Land for Peace agreements where Israel gave up territory in exchange for treaties.[442]

On the Syrian front, skirmishes and artillery exchanges continued taking place. Shuttle diplomacy by Henry Kissinger eventually produced a disengagement agreement on 31 May 1974, based on exchange of prisoners-of-war, Israeli withdrawal to the Purple Line and the establishment of a UN buffer zone. The agreement ended the skirmishes and exchanges of artillery fire that had occurred frequently along the Israeli-Syrian ceasefire line. The UN Disengagement and Observer Force (UNDOF) was established as a peacekeeping force in the Golan.

The peace discussion at the end of the war was the first time that Arab and Israeli officials met for direct public discussions since the aftermath of the 1948 war.

Reactions

Response in Israel

Though the war reinforced Israel's military deterrence, it had a stunning effect on the population in Israel. Following their victory in the Six-Day War, the Israeli military had become complacent. The shock and sudden reversals that occurred at the beginning of the war inflicted a terrible psychological blow to the Israelis, who had hitherto experienced no serious military challenges.[443]

A protest against the Israeli government started four months after the war ended. It was led by Motti Ashkenazi, commander of Budapest, the northernmost of the Bar-Lev forts and the only one during the war not to be captured by the Egyptians.[444] Anger against the Israeli government (and Dayan in particular) was high. Shimon Agranat, President of the Israeli Supreme Court, was asked to lead an inquiry, the Agranat Commission, into the events leading up to the war and the setbacks of the first few days.[445]

Shmuel Gonen, commander of the Southern front, was recommended by the initial report to be relieved of active duty.[446] He was forced to leave the army after the publication of the Commission's final report, on 30 January 1975, which found that "he failed to fulfill his duties adequately, and bears much of the responsibility for the dangerous situation in which our troops were caught."[447][better source needed]

Rather than quieting public discontent, the report—which "had stressed that it was judging the ministers' responsibility for security failings, not their parliamentary responsibility, which fell outside its mandate"—inflamed it. Although it had absolved Meir and Dayan of all responsibility, public calls for their resignations (especially Dayan's) intensified.[446]

On 11 April 1974, Golda Meir resigned. Her cabinet followed suit, including Dayan, who had previously offered to resign twice and was turned down both times by Meir. A new government was seated in June and Yitzhak Rabin, who had spent most of the war as an advisor to Elazar in an unofficial capacity, became prime minister.[448]

Response in Egypt

General Shazly had angered Sadat for advocating the withdrawal of Egyptian forces from Sinai to meet the Israeli incursion on the West Bank of the Canal. Six weeks after the war, he was relieved of command and forced out of the army, ultimately going into political exile for years. Upon his return to Egypt, he was placed under house arrest.[449]

Following his release, he advocated the formation of a "Supreme High Committee" modeled after Israel's Agranat Commission in order to "probe, examine and analyze" the performance of Egyptian forces and the command decisions made during the war, but his requests were completely ignored.[450] He published a book, banned in Egypt, that described Egypt's military failings and the sharp disagreements he had with Ismail and Sadat in connection with the prosecution of the war.[451]

The commanders of the Second and Third Armies, Generals Khalil and Wasel, were also dismissed from the army.[449] The commander of the Egyptian Second Army at the start of the war, General Mamoun, suffered a heart attack,[citation needed] or, alternatively, a breakdown, after the Egyptian defeat during the 14 October Sinai tank battle, and was replaced by General Khalil.[452][453]

Response in Syria

In Syria, Colonel Rafik Halawi, the Druze commander of an infantry brigade that had collapsed during the Israeli breakthrough, was executed before the war even ended.[dubiousdiscuss][449] He was given a quick hearing and sentenced to death;[dubiousdiscuss] his execution was immediate.[dubiousdiscuss][454] Military historian Zeev Schiff referred to him as Syria's "sacrificial lamb".[454] The Syrians however offered vehement denials that Halawi was executed and expended great efforts trying to debunk the allegation.[455] They claimed he was killed in battle with Israel and threatened severe punishment to anyone repeating the allegation of execution.[455]

Their concern stemmed from a desire to maintain Syrian Druze loyalty to Assad's regime and prevent Syrian Druze from siding with their co-religionists in Israel.[455] On 7 July 1974, Halawi's remains were removed from a Syrian military hospital and he was interred in Damascus at the "Cemetery of the Martyrs of the October War" in the presence of many Syrian dignitaries.[455] One analyst noted that the presence of so many high-level officials was unusual and attributed it to Syrian efforts to quell any suggestion of execution.[455]

Response in the Soviet Union

According to Chernyaev, on 4 November 1973, Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev said:

We have offered them (the Arabs) a sensible way for so many years. But no, they wanted to fight. Fine! We gave them technology, the latest, the kind even Vietnam didn't have. They had double superiority in tanks and aircraft, triple in artillery, and in air defense and anti-tank weapons they had absolute supremacy. And what? Once again they were beaten. Once again they scrammed [sic]. Once again they screamed for us to come save them. Sadat woke me up in the middle of the night twice over the phone, "Save me!" He demanded to send Soviet troops, and immediately! No! We are not going to fight for them.[456]

Arab oil embargo

In response to U.S. support of Israel, the Arab members of OPEC, led by King Faisal of Saudi Arabia, decided to reduce oil production by 5% per month on 17 October. On 19 October, President Nixon authorized a major allocation of arms supplies and $2.2 billion in appropriations for Israel. In response, Saudi Arabia declared an embargo against the United States, later joined by other oil exporters and extended against the Netherlands and other countries, causing the 1973 energy crisis.[457]

Aftermath

Analyses differ on the militarily outcome of the war; as an Israeli victory by military historians,[465] and by others, as a military stalemate.[475]

Egyptian–Israeli disengagement agreement

Another Egyptian–Israeli disengagement agreement, the Sinai Interim Agreement, was signed in Geneva on 4 September 1975, and was commonly known as Sinai II. This agreement led Israel to withdraw from another 20–40 km with UN forces buffering the vacated area. After the agreement, Israel still held more than two-thirds of Sinai, which would prove to be a valuable bargaining chip in the coming negotiations.[476]

Egyptian–Israeli Camp David Accords

Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin acknowledge applause during a joint session of Congress in Washington, D.C., during which President Jimmy Carter announced the results of the Camp David Accords, 18 September 1978.

The Yom Kippur War upset the status quo in the Middle East, and the war served as a direct antecedent of the 1978 Camp David Accords.[242] The impetus for the talks came when United States President Jimmy Carter invited both Sadat and Begin to a summit at Camp David to negotiate a final peace. The talks took place from 5–17 September 1978. Ultimately, the talks succeeded, and Israel and Egypt signed the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty in 1979. Israel subsequently withdrew its troops and settlers from the Sinai, in exchange for normal relations with Egypt and a lasting peace, with the last Israeli troops exiting on 26 April 1982.[477]

The Accords resulted in the Egypt–Israel peace treaty, the first ever between Israel and an Arab state. According to George Friedman, the war gave the Israelis increased respect for the Egyptian military and decreased their confidence in their own, and caused the Israelis to be uncertain whether they could defeat Egypt in the event of another war. At the same time, the Egyptians recognized that despite their improvements, they were defeated in the end, and became doubtful that they could ever defeat Israel militarily. Therefore, a negotiated settlement made sense to both sides.[478] Many in the Arab world were outraged at Egypt's peace with Israel. Sadat, in particular, became deeply unpopular both in the Arab world and in his own country. Egypt was suspended from the Arab League until 1989. Until then, Egypt had been "at the helm of the Arab world".[479]

U.S. military doctrine

U.S. military studies of the Yom Kippur War played a major role in shaping U.S. military doctrine in subsequent decades,[480][481] particularly because the U.S. Army's Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) was established only three months before the onset of the war. U.S. Army Chief of Staff Gen. Creighton Abrams, TRADOC Commander Gen. William E. DePuy, and other Army leaders saw Israel's strategic and doctrinal conditions between 1967 and 1973 as similar to NATO's position in Europe, and thus they undertook a deep study of Israel's warfighting in 1973 to derive insights for war against the Soviet Union.[481]

Soon after the war, U.S. Army civilian analysts and senior officers such as Gen. Donn A. Starry visited the IDF and compiled "lessons" for the Army to learn after the war.[481] These lessons covered the improved lethality and accuracy of anti-tank and anti-air missiles, the importance of superior training for tank crews, the necessity of cover and concealment during movement, and the importance of combined arms warfare.[481] In 1976, TRADOC revised the Army's FM 100–5 Operations field manual and promoted an operational concept of "Active Defense", with a strong emphasis on tactical proficiency tied to the performance of advanced weapons systems like those observed in the Yom Kippur War fighting.[482] Gen. DePuy visited Israel in 1976, where he toured Yom Kippur War battlefields and observed Israeli field training. He used these insights to encourage reforms of U.S. Army training to ease the Army's transition to a more professional force after the end of the military draft in 1973.[481]

In May 1977, Gen. Starry (soon to succeed DePuy as TRADOC commander) returned to Israel and toured Yom Kippur War sites on the Golan Heights, guided by Raful Eitan and Moshe Peled.[481] Starry used his observations to address problems left unaddressed by the Active Defense doctrine, such as how best to fight follow-on echelons after the first battle. TRADOC's 1982 revision of FM 100–5 replaced Active Defense with an offense-oriented operational doctrine known as AirLand Battle, which formed the basis of the American plan for Operation Desert Storm in 1991.[481][482]

Casualties

A downed Israeli Mirage

Israel suffered between 2,521[13][55][62] and 2,800 killed in action.[56] An additional 7,250[483] to 8,800[56] soldiers were wounded. Some 293 Israelis were captured.[63] Approximately 400 Israeli tanks were destroyed. Another 600 were disabled but returned to service after repairs.[59] A major Israeli advantage, noted by many observers, was their ability to quickly return damaged tanks to combat.[484]

The Israeli Air Force lost 102 airplanes: 32 F-4s, 53 A-4s, 11 Mirages and 6 Super Mysteres. Two helicopters, a Bell 205 and a CH-53, were lost.[60] According to Defense Minister Moshe Dayan, nearly half of these were shot down during the first three days of the war.[68] IAF losses per combat sortie were less than in the Six-Day War of 1967.[485]

Arab casualties were known to be much higher than Israel's. Precise figures are difficult to ascertain as Egypt and Syria never disclosed official figures. The lowest casualty estimate is 8,000 (5,000 Egyptian and 3,000 Syrian) killed and 18,000 wounded.[56] The highest estimate is 18,500 (15,000 Egyptian and 3,500 Syrian) killed.[62] Most estimates lie somewhere in between the two, with the Insight Team of London's The Sunday Times putting combined Egyptian and Syrian losses at 16,000 killed.[13] Another source cites a figure of some 15,000 dead and 35,000 wounded.[66] U.S. estimates placed Egyptian casualties at 13,000.[486] Iraq lost 278 killed and 898 wounded, while Jordan suffered 23 killed and 77 wounded.[64] 170 Moroccans were killed.[487] Some 8,372 Egyptians, 392 Syrians, 13 Iraqis and 6 Moroccans were taken prisoner.[63][488]

Arab tank losses amounted to 2,250[66][489] though Gawrych cites a figure of 2,300.[67] 400 of these fell into Israeli hands in good working order and were incorporated into Israeli service.[66] Between 341[56] and 514[68] Arab aircraft were shot down. According to Herzog, 334 of these aircraft were shot down by the IAF in air-to-air combat for the loss of only five Israeli planes.[68] The Sunday Times Insight Team notes Arab aircraft losses of 450.[13] Nineteen Arab naval vessels, including 10 missile boats, were sunk for no Israeli losses.[69]

Atrocities

Syrian atrocities

Syria ignored the Geneva Conventions and many Israeli prisoners of war were tortured or killed.[490] Advancing Israeli forces, re-capturing land taken by the Syrians early in the war, came across the bodies of 28 Israeli soldiers who had been blindfolded with their hands bound and summarily executed.[491] In a December 1973 address to the National Assembly, Syrian Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass stated that he had awarded one soldier the Medal of the Republic for killing 28 Israeli prisoners with an axe, decapitating three of them and eating the flesh of one of his victims.[492][493]

The Syrians employed brutal interrogation techniques utilizing electric shocks to the genitals. A number of Israeli soldiers taken prisoner on Mount Hermon were executed. Near the village of Hushniye, the Syrians captured 11 administrative personnel from the Golan Heights Force, all of whom were later found dead, blindfolded, and with their hands tied behind their backs. Within Hushniye, seven Israeli prisoners were found dead, and another three were executed at Tel Zohar. Syrian prisoners who fell into Israeli captivity confirmed that their comrades killed IDF prisoners.[494]

A soldier from the Moroccan contingent fighting with Syrian forces was found to be carrying a sack filled with the body parts of Israeli soldiers which he intended to take home as souvenirs. The bodies of Israeli prisoners who were killed were stripped of their uniforms and found clad only in their underpants, and Syrian soldiers removed their dog tags to make identification of the bodies more difficult.[495]

Some Israeli POWs reported having their fingernails ripped out while others were described as being turned into human ashtrays as their Syrian guards burned them with lit cigarettes.[496] A report submitted by the chief medical officer of the Israeli army notes that, "the vast majority of (Israeli) prisoners were exposed during their imprisonment to severe physical and mental torture. The usual methods of torture were beatings aimed at various parts of the body, electric shocks, wounds deliberately inflicted on the ears, burns on the legs, suspension in painful positions and other methods."[497]

Following the conclusion of hostilities, Syria would not release the names of prisoners it was holding to the International Committee of the Red Cross and in fact, did not even acknowledge holding any prisoners despite the fact they were publicly exhibited by the Syrians for television crews.[498] The Syrians, having been thoroughly defeated by Israel, were attempting to use their captives as their sole bargaining chip in the post-war negotiations.[499] One of the most famous Israeli POWs was Avraham Lanir, an Israeli pilot who bailed out over Syria and was taken prisoner.[500] Lanir died under Syrian interrogation.[141][501][502] When his body was returned in 1974, it exhibited signs of torture.[501]

Egyptian atrocities

Israeli historian Aryeh Yitzhaki estimated that the Egyptians killed about 200 Israeli soldiers who had surrendered. Yitzhaki based his claim on army documents. In addition, dozens of Israeli prisoners were beaten and otherwise mistreated in Egyptian captivity.[503]

Individual Israeli soldiers gave testimony of witnessing comrades killed after surrendering to the Egyptians, or seeing the bodies of Israeli soldiers found blindfolded with their hands tied behind their backs. Avi Yaffe, a radioman serving on the Bar-Lev Line, reported hearing calls from other soldiers that the Egyptians were killing anyone who tried to surrender, and also obtained recordings of soldiers who were saved from Egyptian firing squads.[504]

Issachar Ben-Gavriel, an Israeli soldier who was captured at the Suez Canal, claimed that out of his group of 19 soldiers who surrendered, 11 were shot dead. Another soldier claimed that a soldier in his unit was captured alive but beaten to death during interrogation.[504] Photographic evidence of such executions exists, though some of it has never been made public. Photos were also found of Israeli prisoners who were photographed alive in Egyptian captivity, but were returned to Israel dead.[503][505]

In 2013, the Israeli government declassified documents detailing Egyptian atrocities against prisoners of war, recording the deaths of at least 86 Israeli POWs at the hands of Egyptian forces. In an interview Israeli major general Herzl Shafir recalled instances of these accounts, including that of an injured prisoner who was murdered when an Egyptian doctor "disconnected him from the oxygen and kept him from getting an intravenous drip." He noted that statistics on the number of people killed was still unclear.[506]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Castro dispatched 500 Cuban tank commanders to Syria.[53]

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Edgar O'Ballance (1979). No Victor, No Vanquished: The Yom Kippur War (1979 ed.). Barrie & Jenkins. pp. 28–370. ISBN 978-0-214-20670-2.
  2. ^ a b c Shazly (2003), p. 278.
  3. ^ "An unknown story from the Yom Kippur war: Israeli F-4s vs North Korean MiG-21s". The Aviationist. 24 June 2013. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Rabinovich, pp. 464–465.
  5. ^ a b c d e Hussain, Hamid (November 2002). "Opinion: The Fourth round – A Critical Review of 1973 Arab–Israeli War". Defence Journal. Archived from the original on 16 January 2009.
  6. ^ a b c Mahjoub Tobji (2006). Les officiers de Sa Majesté: Les dérives des généraux marocains 1956–2006. 107: Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-63015-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  7. ^ a b c Ra’anan, G. D. (1981). The Evolution of the Soviet Use of Surrogates in Military Relations with the Third World, with Particular Emphasis on Cuban Participation in Africa. Santa Monica: Rand Corporation. p. 37
  8. ^ a b c Shazly (2003), pp. 83–84.
  9. ^ a b Cenciotti, David. "Israeli F-4s Actually Fought North Korean MiGs During the Yom Kippur War". Business Insider.
  10. ^ a b c Nicolle, David & Cooper, Tom: Arab MiG-19 and MiG-21 units in combat.
  11. ^ a b c d Aloni, Shlomo: Arab–Israeli Air Wars, 1947–82.
  12. ^ a b Herzog (1975), Foreword.
  13. ^ a b c d e Insight Team of the London Sunday Times, p. 450.
  14. ^ Luttwak; Horowitz (1983). The Israeli Army. Cambridge, MA: Abt Books. ISBN 978-0-89011-585-5.
  15. ^ Rabinovich (2004). The Yom Kippur War. Schocken Books. p. 498.
  16. ^ Kumaraswamy, PR (2000). Revisiting The Yom Kippur War. Psychology Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-7146-5007-4.
  17. ^ a b Johnson & Tierney 2009, pp. 177, 180.
  18. ^ Liebman, Charles (July 1993). "The Myth of Defeat: The Memory of the Yom Kippur war in Israeli Society" (PDF). Middle Eastern Studies. 29 (3). London: Frank Cass: 411. doi:10.1080/00263209308700958. ISSN 0026-3206. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2013.
  19. ^ "Milestones: 1969–1976 - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
  20. ^ Simon Dunstan (18 September 2007). The Yom Kippur War: The Arab-Israeli War of 1973. Bloomsbury USA. p. 205. ISBN 978-1-84603-288-2.[permanent dead link]
  21. ^ a b Asaf Siniver (2013). The Yom Kippur War: Politics, Legacy, Diplomacy. Oxford University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-19-933481-0. (p. 6) "For most Egyptians the war is remembered as an unquestionable victory—militarily as well as politically ... The fact that the war ended with Israeli troops stationed in the outskirts of Cairo and in complete encirclement of the Egyptian third army has not dampened the jubilant commemoration of the war in Egypt." (p. 11) "Ultimately, the conflict provided a military victory for Israel, but it is remembered as 'the earthquake' or 'the blunder'"
  22. ^ a b Ian Bickerton (2012). The Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Guide for the Perplexed. A&C Black. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-4411-2872-0. the Arab has suffered repeated military defeats at the hand of Israel in 1956, 1967, and 1973
  23. ^ a b P.R. Kumaraswamy (2013). Revisiting the Yom Kippur War. Routledge. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-136-32888-6. (p. 184) "Yom Kippur War ... its final outcome was, without doubt, a military victory  ... " (p. 185) " ...  in October 1973, that despite Israel's military victory"
  24. ^ Loyola, Mario (7 October 2013). "How We Used to Do It – American diplomacy in the Yom Kippur War". National Review. p. 1. Retrieved 2 December 2013.
  25. ^ See[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]
  26. ^ Tolchin, Martin; Tolchin, Susan J. (30 October 2007). A World Ignited: How Apostles of Ethnic, Religious, and Racial Hatred Torch the Globe. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-4617-1165-0. The themes of defeat and victory played important roles in Sadat's famous pursuit of peace with Israel. In Cairo, a bridge and statues are among the symbols that celebrate the "October 6 victory." What was that victory? It turned out to be what the rest of the world called the "Yom Kippur War," the war between Egypt and Israel in 1973. The reason that no one else referred to the war as a "victory" was that most historians regarded it as a stalemate rather than a clear triumph for either side.
  27. ^ Kacowicz, Arie Marcelo (1994). Peaceful Territorial Change. Univ of South Carolina Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-87249-989-8. The Camp David Agreements should be understood against the background of the Yom Kippur War and its political, military, and economic implications. The Israeli military achievements on the battlefield, balanced by the Egyptian psychological victory in political terms, created a complex situation of military stalemate and political ripeness for striking a diplomatic bargain between the parties.
  28. ^ Porter, Bruce D. (25 July 1986). The USSR in Third World Conflicts: Soviet Arms and Diplomacy in Local Wars 1945-1980. Cambridge University Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-521-31064-2. Although Moscow managed against considerable odds to salvage from the Yom Kippur war a military stalemate and a moral victory for the Arabs, it suffered almost total collapse of its influence in Egypt shortly thereafter.
  29. ^ Lansford, Tom (4 November 2011). 9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq: A Chronology and Reference Guide. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-59884-420-7. In 1973, Israel was attacked by a coalition of Arab states in the Yom Kippur War (Ramadan War). The conflict ended in a military stalemate.
  30. ^ Bailey, Clinton (4 March 2019). Jordan's Palestinian Challenge, 1948-1983: A Political History. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-70916-6.
  31. ^ McKernan, Bethan; Heights, Golan (23 August 2024). "'The next days were hell': How the Yom Kippur war realigned the Middle East". The Observer. {{cite news}}: Missing |author2= (help)
  32. ^ "The October Arab-Israeli War of 1973: What happened?". 23 August 2024.
  33. ^ "Summary of "Tactical Stalemates"". 23 August 2024.
  34. ^ Middleton, Drew (23 August 2024). "Who Lost the Yom Kippur War? A Military Inventory of the Middle East". The Atlantic.
  35. ^ See[26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]
  36. ^ a b c d e Morris, 2011, Righteous Victims, p. 437
  37. ^ Morris, 2011 p. 433, "Bashan ... 500 square kilometers ... which brought it within 20 miles [32 km] of Damascus"
  38. ^ a b c d e Rabinovich. The Yom Kippur War. p. 54.
  39. ^ Insight Team of the London Sunday Times, pp. 372–373.
  40. ^ a b c The number reflects artillery units of caliber 100 mm and up
  41. ^ Herzog (1975), p. 239.
  42. ^ a b Shazly (2003), p. 244.
  43. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 272.
  44. ^ Haber & Schiff, pp. 30–31.
  45. ^ a b Major George E. Knapp (1992). "4: Antiarmor Operations on the Golan Heights". Combined Arms in battle since 1939. U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. Archived from the original on 7 May 2010. Retrieved 1 June 2009.
  46. ^ a b c Rabinovich, p. 314.
  47. ^ Bar-On, Mordechai (2004). A Never Ending Conflict. Greenwood Publishing. p. 170.
  48. ^ a b Neil Partrick (2016). Saudi Arabian Foreign Policy: Conflict and Cooperation. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-85772-793-0.
  49. ^ a b "بطولات السعوديين حاضرة.. في الحروب العربية". Okaz. 17 November 2019. Archived from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
  50. ^ a b "Saudi Arabian Military Activity Against Israel". CMU. May 1978. Archived from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  51. ^ a b Touchard, Laurent (7 November 2013). "Guerre du Kippour : quand le Maroc et l'Algérie se battaient côte à côte". Jeune Afrique. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  52. ^ a b c "Le jour où Hassan II a bombardé Israël". Le Temps. Archived from the original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
  53. ^ a b Williams, John Hoyt (1 August 1988). "Cuba: Havana's Military Machine". The Atlantic. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
  54. ^ The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965–1991. Routledge. 2004. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-134-26933-4.
  55. ^ a b Schiff, A History of the Israeli Army, p. 328.
  56. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Gawrych (2000), p. 243.
  57. ^ Journal "الأهرام","Al Ahram". 14 October 1974
  58. ^ Rabinovich. The Yom Kippur War. p. 497.
  59. ^ a b Rabinovich, p. 496
  60. ^ a b "White House Military Briefing" (PDF). Retrieved 22 October 2011.
  61. ^ "القوة الثالثة، تاريخ القوات الجوية المصرية." Third Power: History of Egyptian Air Force Ali Mohammed Labib. pp. 187
  62. ^ a b c d e Herzog, Encyclopaedia Judaica, Keter Publishing House, 1974, p. 87.
  63. ^ a b c d e f "Ministry of Foreign Affairs". Mfa.gov.il. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
  64. ^ a b c Dunstan, p. 200.
  65. ^ Rabinovich p. 497
  66. ^ a b c d Rabinovich, pp. 496–497.
  67. ^ a b Gawrych (2000), p. 244.
  68. ^ a b c d Herzog, p. 260.
  69. ^ a b Herzog (1975), p. 269.
  70. ^ (Hebrew: מלחמת יום הכיפורים, Milẖemet Yom HaKipurim, or מלחמת יום כיפור, Milẖemet Yom Kipur; Arabic: حرب أكتوبر, Ḥarb ʾUktōbar, or حرب تشرين, Ḥarb Tišrīn),
  71. ^ Rabinovich, Abraham (2004). The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter That Transformed the Middle East. Schoken Books. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-8052-1124-5.
  72. ^ Herzog (1975).
  73. ^ James Bean and Craig Girard (2001). "Anwar al-Sadat's grand strategy in the Yom Kippur War" (PDF). National War College. pp. 1, 8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
  74. ^ a b c El-Gamasy (1993). The October War: Memoirs of Field Marshal El-Gamasy of Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. p. 181.
  75. ^ a b Gutfeld, Arnon; Vanetik, Boaz (30 March 2016). "'A Situation That Had to Be Manipulated': The American Airlift to Israel During the Yom Kippur War". Middle Eastern Studies. 52 (3): 419–447. doi:10.1080/00263206.2016.1144393. S2CID 146890821. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
  76. ^ Rodman, David (29 July 2015). "The Impact of American Arms Transfers to Israel during the 1973 Yom Kippur War". Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs. 7 (3): 107–114. doi:10.1080/23739770.2013.11446570. S2CID 141596916. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
  77. ^ Levey, Zach (7 October 2008). "Anatomy of an airlift: United States military assistance to Israel during the 1973 war". Cold War History. 8 (4): 481–501. doi:10.1080/14682740802373552. S2CID 154204359. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
  78. ^ a b Quandt, William (2005). Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict Since 1967 (third ed.). California: University of California Press. pp. 104–105. ISBN 978-0-520-24631-7.
  79. ^ Hammad (2002), pp. 237–276
  80. ^ Gawrych (1996), p. 60.
  81. ^ Shlomo Ben-Ami (2005). Scars of War, Wounds of Peace: The Israeli–Arab Tragedy. Phoenix. ISBN 978-0-7538-2104-6.
  82. ^ Herzog, Heroes of Israel, p. 253.
  83. ^ Seth S. King (30 June 1967). "Israeli aims tied to 6 vital areas". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
  84. ^ Drew Middleton (1 June 1967). "Latin nations bid Israel withdraw". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
  85. ^ Raz, Avi (2013). "The Generous Peace Offer that was Never Offered: The Israeli Cabinet Resolution of June 19, 1967". Diplomatic History. 37 (1): 85–108. doi:10.1093/dh/dhs004. ISSN 0145-2096. JSTOR 44254276.
  86. ^ Shlaim, Avi (2014). The Iron Wall – Israel and the Arab World (paperback 2014 ed.). Penguin Books. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-14-103322-8. The decision of 19 June read, "Israel proposes the conclusion of a peace agreement with Egypt based on the international border and the security needs of Israel." The international border placed the Gaza strip within Israel's territory. ... it makes no mention of a request by Eban to transmit these terms to Egypt and Syria. ... One is left with the impression that Eban was more interested in using the cabinet decision of 19 June to impress the Americans than to engage the governments of Egypt and Syria in substantive negotiations
  87. ^ Shlomo Ben-Ami (2005). Scars of War, Wounds of Peace: The Israeli–Arab Tragedy. Phoenix. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-7538-2104-6. But was there on 19 June 1967 an Israeli peace overture towards Syria and Egypt? Did the Israeli cabinet end its deliberations on that day with a decision to convey concrete peace proposals to its Arab neighbors along the lines as discussed in the Cabinet, or perhaps ask the American administration to do so on its behalf? Notwithstanding Abba Eban's (Israeli Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1967) insistence that this was indeed the case, there seems to be no solid evidence to corroborate his claim. No formal peace proposal was made either directly or indirectly by Israel. The Americans, who were briefed of the Cabinet's decision by Eban, were not asked to convey it to Cairo and Damascus as official peace proposals, nor were they given indications that Israel expected a reply. At the meeting of 19 June the Israeli government developed policy guidelines; it did not discuss a peace initiative, nor did it ever formalise it as such.
  88. ^ Smith, Terrebce (15 August 1967). "A Mediated Peace Rejected by Eban". New York Times. Retrieved 16 September 2015.
  89. ^ "Eban rejects aid in settling crisis". The New York Times. 27 June 1967. p. 3. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
  90. ^ Gavriely-Nuri, Dalia (2013). The Normalization of War in Israeli Discourse, 1967–2008. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-7391-7260-5.
  91. ^ a b Podeh, Elie (2015). Chances for Peace: Missed Opportunities in the Arab-Israeli Conflict (first ed.). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. pp. 104–105. ISBN 978-1-4773-0561-4.
  92. ^ Gazit, Mordechai (January 1997). "Egypt and Israel – Was There a Peace Opportunity Missed in 1971?". Journal of Contemporary History. 32 (1): 97–115. doi:10.1177/002200949703200107. ISSN 0022-0094. S2CID 159846721. Retrieved 13 October 2023.
  93. ^ Podeh, p. 106.
  94. ^ a b Podeh p. 107.
  95. ^ "Sinai Pull-Back Rejected". Beaver County Times. 15 February 1971. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  96. ^ Hughes, Geraint (11 June 2008). "Britain, the Transatlantic Alliance, and the Arab-Israeli War of 1973". Journal of Cold War Studies. 10 (2): 3–40. doi:10.1162/jcws.2008.10.2.3. ISSN 1531-3298. S2CID 57566713. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
  97. ^ Rabinovich, p. 13.
  98. ^ Rabinovich, p. 25.
  99. ^ Bar-Joseph, Uri (July 2006). "Last Chance to Avoid War: Sadat's Peace Initiative of February 1973 and its Failure". Journal of Contemporary History. 41 (3): 545–556. doi:10.1177/0022009406064668. ISSN 0022-0094. S2CID 154116645. Retrieved 13 October 2023.
  100. ^ Henry Kissinger (2011). Years of Upheaval: The Second Volume of His Classic Memoirs. Simon and Schuster. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-85720-718-0. It was in France on 20 May 1973. ... We had a formal meeting on the upper floor and, after lunch, I walked with Ismail in the garden in the spring sunshine. In these beautiful ... Ismail remained cool to my scheme of separating sovereignty and security. He called this 'diluted sovereignty,' but said he would check with Sadat and let me know. I never heard from him. The American official who had found the meeting place reported to me that after I left, Ismail, visibly dispirited and glum, had sat alone in the garden for a long time contemplating the waterfall. ... For Ismail knew that Sadat was determined on war. Only an American guarantee that we would fulfill the entire Arab program in a brief time could have dissuaded him.
  101. ^ Morris 2001, p. 390.
  102. ^ Heikal, 22.
  103. ^ Rabinovich, p. 39.
  104. ^ a b Bar-Joseph, Uri (2016). The Angel: The Egyptian Spy Who Saved Israel. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 166–176, 221–222. ISBN 978-0-06-242013-8.
  105. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 207; Gawrych (1996), p. 24.
  106. ^ Schiff, p. 12
  107. ^ Rabinovich, p. 51.
  108. ^ Rabinovich, p. 50.
  109. ^ a b Rabinovich, p. 57.
  110. ^ a b Sharon, Gilad: Sharon: The Life of a Leader (2011).
  111. ^ Ginsburg, Mitch. "Mossad's tip-off ahead of Yom Kippur War did not reach prime minister, newly released papers show". The Times of Israel.
  112. ^ Blum, Howard (13 July 2007). "Who killed Ashraf Marwan?". The New York Times.
  113. ^ Doron Geller (27 November 2005). "Israeli Intelligence and the Yom Kippur War of 1973". Inside the Israeli Secret Service. The Jewish Agency for Israel. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  114. ^ a b Rabinovich, p. 89.
  115. ^ Gawrych (1996), p. 27.
  116. ^ William B. Quandt (1977). Decade of Decisions: American Policy Toward the Arab–Israeli Conflict, 1967–1976. University of California Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-520-03469-3. Kissinger and Nixon consistently warned Israel that she must not be responsible for initiating a Middle East war
  117. ^ "The national security archive, declassified archival records, The October War and U.S. Policy" (PDF).
  118. ^ Sachar, Howard M. A History of Israel from the Rise of Zionism to Our Time. Alfred A. Knopf, 2007, p. 755.
  119. ^ "Government of Israel Concern about possible Syrian and Egyptian attack today". United States Department of State. 6 October 1973. Retrieved 11 August 2010.
  120. ^ William B. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 105.
  121. ^ Rabinovich, p. 454.
  122. ^ Rabinovich, Abraham (12 September 2013). "Three years too late, Golda Meir understood how war could have been avoided". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
  123. ^ Rabinovich, prologue.
  124. ^ Rabinovich, p. 62.
  125. ^ William B. Quandt (2005). Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict Since 1967. 109–12. University of California Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-520-24631-7. between 9 October and 12 October ... the American response ... call for cease-fire ... in place ... arms for Israel began to flow in modest quantities
  126. ^ Abudi, Joseph (1 October 2003). "The missile did not bend the wing". Journal of the Israeli Air Force (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
  127. ^ Abudi, Joseph (October 2005). "[What between 'challenge' and 'model']" (PDF) (in Hebrew). The Fisher Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
  128. ^ William B. Quandt (2005). Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict Since 1967. 109–12. University of California Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-520-24631-7. Nixon and Kissinger held back on a full scale ... resupply effort ... short of supplies, the Israeli government reluctantly accepted a cease-fire in place on 12 October ... but ... Sadat refused
  129. ^ William B. Quandt (2005). Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict Since 1967. 114. University of California Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-520-24631-7. Soviet arms must not be allowed to dictate the outcome of the fighting. ... Israeli success on the battlefield had become an important factor in persuading the Arabs and the Soviets to bring the fighting to an end. ... With an airlift in full swing, Washington was prepared to wait until ... realities on the battlefield led to a change of Egyptian and Soviet calculations
  130. ^ William B. Quandt (2005). Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict Since 1967. 116. University of California Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-520-24631-7. it was of prime importance that the fighting should be ended ... when all parties could still emerge from the conflict with their vital interests and self esteem intact ... the airlift ... the Soviets must see that the united states could deliver more than they could; p. 123 the U.S. would not permit the destruction of the 3rd army corps.
  131. ^ Shazly (2003), pp. 224–225.
  132. ^ Shazly (2003), pp. 225–226.
  133. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 189.
  134. ^ Shazly (2003), pp. 55–56.
  135. ^ Gawrych (2000), p. 28.
  136. ^ a b Abouseada, Hamdy Sobhy (1980). The Crossing of the Suez Canal, 6 October 1973 (The Ramadan War) (PDF). USAWC strategy research project. U.S. Army War College. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-89141-043-0. OCLC 45004992. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 July 2009. Retrieved 4 October 2008.
  137. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 232.
  138. ^ Hammad, pp. 90–92, 108.
  139. ^ McGregor, Andrew (2006). A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War. Westport, Conn: Praeger Security International. ISBN 978-0-275-98601-8., p. 278.
  140. ^ Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness (Pollack), p. 108.
  141. ^ a b c Rabinovich, p. 115.
  142. ^ Pollack, p. 125.
  143. ^ Gawrych (2000), p. 81.
  144. ^ The Yom Kippur War 1973: The Sinai – Simon Dunstan and Kevin Lyles.
  145. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 228.
  146. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 229.
  147. ^ Nassar, Galal (8–14 October 1998). "Into the breach, dear friends". Al-Ahram Weekly. No. 398. Cairo. para. 10. Archived from the original on 6 May 2003.
  148. ^ Cohen, Israel's Best Defense, p. 354.
  149. ^ Pollack, p. 11.
  150. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 233.
  151. ^ Haber & Schiff, p. 32.
  152. ^ Schiff, p. 294.
  153. ^ Herzog (1975), p. 156.
  154. ^ Insight Team of the London Sunday Times, pp. 169, 170.
  155. ^ Pollack, Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948–1991, University of Nebraska Press, p. 110
  156. ^ "Israel Air Force". Iaf.org.il. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
  157. ^ Pollack, Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948–1991, University of Nebraska Press, p. 108.
  158. ^ Hammad, p. 133.
  159. ^ Nicolle & Cooper p. 40.
  160. ^ Pollack, p. 112.
  161. ^ Hammad, pp. 712–714.
  162. ^ Hammad, pp. 717–722
  163. ^ Gawrych (1996), p. 38. In his memoirs, Adan, commenting on one of the commando operations in the north, noted that "Natke's experience fighting the stubborn Egyptian commandos who tried to cut off the road around Romani showed again that this was not the Egyptian Army we had crushed in four days in 1967. We were now dealing with a well-trained enemy, fighting with skill and dedication."
  164. ^ Insight Team of the London Sunday Times, pp. 169–170.
  165. ^ Rabinovich, p. 354.
  166. ^ Gawrych (1996), pp. 41–42.
  167. ^ a b Dunstan and Lyles, p. 64.
  168. ^ a b [1] [dead link]
  169. ^ Gawrych (1996), pp. 43–44.
  170. ^ Rabinovich, p. 234.
  171. ^ a b c Gawrych (1996), pp. 44–52.
  172. ^ Gawrych (2000), pp. 192, 208.
  173. ^ Herzog, 1982, pp. 255–256.
  174. ^ a b Shazly (2003), p. 241.
  175. ^ Herzog 1982, p. 256.
  176. ^ Rabinovich, p. 353.
  177. ^ Herzog, 1982, p. 258.
  178. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 317.
  179. ^ Schiff, A History of the Israeli Army, p. 310.
  180. ^ a b Zabecki, David T. (3 December 2008). "Arab–Israeli Wars: 60 Years of Conflict". Historyandtheheadlines.abc-clio.com. Chinese Farm, Battle of The. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
  181. ^ Rabinovich, p. 355.
  182. ^ Haber & Schiff, p. 144.
  183. ^ a b Pollack, p. 117.
  184. ^ Van Creveld, Martin (1975). Military Lessons of the Yom Kippur War: Historical Perspectives (PDF). Sage. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-8039-0562-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2014.
  185. ^ a b Herzog, The Arab–Israeli Wars, Random House, p. 260.
  186. ^ "Yom Kippur War: Embattled Israeli Bridgehead at Chinese Farm". HistoryNet. 21 August 2006.
  187. ^ Pollack, Kenneth, Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948–91, University of Nebraska Press, pp. 116, 126 & 129.
  188. ^ Herzog, 1982, pp. 257–258.
  189. ^ El-Gamasy, p. 276.
  190. ^ Pollack, p. 118.
  191. ^ Rabinovich, pp. 374–375.
  192. ^ Rabinovich, pp. 389–391.
  193. ^ Pollack, p. 511.
  194. ^ a b Pollack, pp. 124–125
  195. ^ Dr. David Nicolle & Sherif Sharmy (24 September 2003). "Battle of el-Mansourah". Air Combat Information Group (ACIG). Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved 1 May 2009.
  196. ^ Rabinovich, p. 393.
  197. ^ Rabinovich, p. 425.
  198. ^ Sharon, Gilad: Sharon: The Life of A Leader (2011)
  199. ^ Rabinovich, p. 427.
  200. ^ Pollack, pp. 118–119.
  201. ^ Hammad (2002), pp. 335–408.
  202. ^ Gawrych (1996), pp. 62–64.
  203. ^ Pollack, p. 129
  204. ^ Pollack, p. 119.
  205. ^ a b Pollack, pp. 119–120.
  206. ^ Boyne, p. 181
  207. ^ a b Pollack, p. 120.
  208. ^ Rabinovich, p. 401.
  209. ^ Dunstan, p. 107.
  210. ^ a b Gawrych (2000), p. 223.
  211. ^ Herzog (1975), pp. 236–237.
  212. ^ Pollack, p. 122.
  213. ^ a b Rabinovich, pp. 428–429.
  214. ^ a b O'Ballance, p. 120.
  215. ^ a b Rabinovich, p. 445.
  216. ^ O'Ballance, p. 121.
  217. ^ O'Ballance (1997), p.249
  218. ^ Gawrych (2000), p. 220.
  219. ^ Dupuy (2002), p.529
  220. ^ O'Ballance, p. 122.
  221. ^ The Leader-Post, 25 October 1973, issue.
  222. ^ a b Boyne, p. 183.
  223. ^ Hoyne, p. 205.
  224. ^ Boyne, p. 214
  225. ^ Rabinovich, p. 452.
  226. ^ Rabinovich, p. 458.
  227. ^ "22 October Memorandum of Conversation between Meir and Kissinger" (PDF). Retrieved 28 March 2010.
  228. ^ Adan, p. 284.
  229. ^ Gawrych (2000), pp. 73–74.
  230. ^ Rabinovich, p. 463.
  231. ^ a b William Burr, ed. (7 October 2003). "The October War and U.S. Policy". nsarchive2.gwu.edu. The Collapse of the Ceasefire. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
  232. ^ William B. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 120.
  233. ^ a b Gawrych (1996), pp. 73.
  234. ^ Hammad, pp. 483, 487–490.
  235. ^ Rabinovich, pp. 466–475.
  236. ^ [2] Archived 2020-01-26 at the Wayback Machine"The experience represents one of the most humiliating failures in israeli modern history .. Analysis reveals there were three main factors that led to this stunning defeat."
  237. ^ Rabinovich, p. 465
  238. ^ Rabinovich, p. 487.
  239. ^ Winokur, Talia (27 February 2009). "'The Soviets were just an excuse': why Israel did not destroy the Egyptian Third Army". Cold War History. 9 (1): 59–78. doi:10.1080/14682740802573458. S2CID 154527628. Retrieved 19 February 2023.
  240. ^ Gawrych (2000), p. 74.
  241. ^ Dupuy, pp. 543–545, 589.
  242. ^ a b David T. Buckwalter, The 1973 Arab–Israeli War.
  243. ^ Seale, Patrick; McConville, Maureen (1988). The Struggle for the Middle East (Revision 1995 ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-520-06976-3.
  244. ^ Kumaraswamy, P. R. (2000). Revisiting the Yom Kippur War. Psychology Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-313-31302-8.
  245. ^ Herzog, Arab–Israeli Wars, p. 283.
  246. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 293.
  247. ^ a b Shazly (2003), p. 323.
  248. ^ a b c d "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 8 February 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  249. ^ "Department of State Operations Center, Situation Report in the Middle East as of 10/26/73" (PDF). Retrieved 22 October 2011.
  250. ^ Rabinovich, p. 486
  251. ^ Dayan, Moshe (1992). Story of My Life. Da Capo. p. 568.
  252. ^ Rabinovich, p. 493.
  253. ^ Rabinovich, p. 477.
  254. ^ a b Rabinovich, p. 467.
  255. ^ Neff, p. 306.
  256. ^ Johnson & Tierney (2009), p. 176.
  257. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 295.
  258. ^ El-Gamasy, p. 302.
  259. ^ Morris, 2011, Righteous Victims, p. 436
  260. ^ Kenneth W. Stein (1999). Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin, and the Quest for Arab–Israeli Peace. Psychology Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-415-92155-8. By putting a territorial noose around the Third army and sitting about sixty miles from Cairo, Israeli forces had open terrain and no opposition to move on Cairo; had they done so Sadat's rule might have ended.
  261. ^ Peter Caddick-Adams, "Golan Heights, battles of", The Oxford Companion to Military History, ed. Richard Holmes. Oxford University Press, 2001.[page needed]
  262. ^ a b O'Ballance (1978). Chapter 7: "The Syrians attack", pp. 119–146.
  263. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 158.
  264. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 57.
  265. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 64.
  266. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 159.
  267. ^ a b c d e Rashba, Gary (October 1998). "Yom Kippur War: Sacrificial Stand in the Golan Heights". Military History magazine via History.net.
  268. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 171.
  269. ^ Rabinovich (2017), pp. 172–173.
  270. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 282.
  271. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), pp. 88−105
  272. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 100.
  273. ^ a b Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 105
  274. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 103.
  275. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 161.
  276. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 162.
  277. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 107.
  278. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 118.
  279. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 170.
  280. ^ Rabinovich (2017), pp. 173–174.
  281. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 174.
  282. ^ Insight Team of the London Sunday Times, pp. 291–293.
  283. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), pp. 140–144.
  284. ^ a b Asher & Hammel (1987), pp. 193–197
  285. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 196.
  286. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 202.
  287. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 227.
  288. ^ a b Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 240
  289. ^ Rabinovich (2017), pp. 178–179.
  290. ^ Rabinovich (2017), pp. 163, 179.
  291. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 108.
  292. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), pp. 123–124.
  293. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 125.
  294. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 127.
  295. ^ Rabinovich, Abraham (25 September 1998). "Shattered Heights: Part 1". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 11 March 2005. Retrieved 9 June 2005.
  296. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 177.
  297. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 178.
  298. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 179.
  299. ^ Rabinovich (2017), pp. 182–183.
  300. ^ a b Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 136
  301. ^ Rabinovich (2017), pp. 184–185.
  302. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), pp. 138–139.
  303. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), pp. 158–159.
  304. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 187.
  305. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 194.
  306. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 195.
  307. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 198.
  308. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 199.
  309. ^ Bar-Joseph (2012), p. 220
  310. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 200.
  311. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 157.
  312. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 189.
  313. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 185.
  314. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 106.
  315. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), pp. 134–135.
  316. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 188.
  317. ^ a b Bar-Joseph (2012), p. 227
  318. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 170.
  319. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 190.
  320. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 209.
  321. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 171.
  322. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 218.
  323. ^ Rabinovich (2017), pp. 185–186.
  324. ^ a b Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 155
  325. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 193.
  326. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 206.
  327. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 233.
  328. ^ Rabinovich (2017), p. 207.
  329. ^ Rabinovich (2017), pp. 218–19.
  330. ^ Rabinovich (2017), pp. 231–233.
  331. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), pp. 136–137.
  332. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 178.
  333. ^ Rabinovich (2017), pp. 246–247.
  334. ^ Richard B. Parker (ed.), 2001, The October War – A Retrospective Gainesville: University of Florida Press, pp. 102–103, 119
  335. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 55.
  336. ^ a b Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 58
  337. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 60.
  338. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 64.
  339. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 65.
  340. ^ Asher & Hammel (1987), p. 63.
  341. ^ The Daily Telegraph, 9 October 1973 issue, p. 2
  342. ^ "The Air Raid on the Syrian General Command". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
  343. ^ a b Rabinovich, p. 304.
  344. ^ המלחמה שלי רב-אלוף שאול מופז (מיל):300 קילומטר בעומק סוריה (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2011. [unreliable source?]
  345. ^ Rabinovich, p. 433.
  346. ^ Pollack, Arabs at War, 2002, p. 167, gives total numbers for the Iraqi force by the end of the conflict as 60,000 men, more than 700 T-55 tanks, 500 APCs, more than 200 artillery pieces, two armored divisions, two infantry brigades, twelve artillery battalions, and a special forces brigade.
  347. ^ a b Dunstan, Simon: The Yom Kippur War: The Arab–Israeli War of 1973[page needed]
  348. ^ Situation Report in the Middle East as of 1200 EDT, 23 October 1973, Department of State Operations Center
  349. ^ Ophir, Noam (October 2006). צילו הארוך של הסקאד [The Long Shadow of the Scud] (in Hebrew). Israeli Air Force Official Website. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016.
  350. ^ Rabinovich, p. 450
  351. ^ Rabinovich, pp. 450–451.
  352. ^ Jonathan B. A. Bailey. Field Artillery and Firepower. Naval Institute Press, 2004, p. 398. ISBN 978-1-59114-029-0.
  353. ^ a b c "Yom Kippur War". Britannica. 15 October 2023.
  354. ^ William B. Quandt (2005). Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict Since 1967. 114. University of California Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-520-24631-7. The U.S. influence with king Hussein had helped keep Jordan out of the war.
  355. ^ Rodman, David (January 2012). "Friendly Enemies: Israel and Jordan in the 1973 Yom Kuppur War". The Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs. 6 (1): 96. doi:10.1080/23739770.2012.11446491. S2CID 151961941.
  356. ^ a b Ofer Aderet (12 September 2013). "Jordan and Israel cooperated during Yom Kippur War, documents reveal". Haaretz.
  357. ^ a b Hammad, pp. 100–101.
  358. ^ Almog, "Israel's Navy beat the odds", United States Naval Institute – Proceedings (March 1997), Vol. 123, Iss. 3; p. 106.
  359. ^ a b Dunstan, The Yom Kippur War, p. 114.
  360. ^ a b Bolia, Overreliance on Technology: Yom Kippur Case Study Archived 3 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  361. ^ Rabonovich, The Boats of Cherbourg, pp. 256–262.
  362. ^ Dupuy, Elusive Victory, pp. 562–563.
  363. ^ Herzog, The Arab–Israeli Wars, p. 312.
  364. ^ Vego, Naval Strategy and Operations in Narrow Seas (Routledge: 1999), at p. 151.
  365. ^ Almog, Ze'ev (March 1997). "Israel's Navy beat the odds" – United States Naval Institute – Proceedings (Annapolis: United States Naval Institute)[page needed]
  366. ^ a b O'Ballance, p. 157.
  367. ^ Insight Team of the London Sunday Times, pp. 212–213.
  368. ^ Safran, Nadav: Israel – The Embattled Ally, p. 312
  369. ^ El Gammasy, The October War, 1973 pp. 215–216.
  370. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 287.
  371. ^ O'Ballance, p. 160.
  372. ^ Herzog (1975), pp. 268–269.
  373. ^ a b Morris, Righteous Victims, p. 432.
  374. ^ Herzog, The Arab–Israeli Wars, p. 314.
  375. ^ Annati, "Anti-ship missiles and countermeasures" – part I (ASM), Naval Forces (2001), Vol. 22, Iss. 1; p. 20.
  376. ^ a b "The war that nearly was". The Jerusalem Post | Jpost.com.
  377. ^ a b "The little-known US-Soviet confrontation during Yom Kippur War". 31 July 2016.
  378. ^ "Matthew T. Penney, "Intelligence and the 1973 Arab–Israeli War" in President Nixon and the Role of Intelligence in the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, symposium held by CIA, 30 January 2013" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2014.
  379. ^ William Burr, ed. (5 March 2013). "State Department Intelligence and Research Predicted 1973 Arab–Israeli War". nsarchive2.gwu.edu. The National Security Archive (U.S.). Retrieved 10 March 2023.
  380. ^ 6 October conversation between Henry Kissinger, Brent Scowcroft and Chinese Ambassador to the United States Huan Chen. Transcript. George Washington University National Security Archive.
  381. ^ George Lenczowski, American Presidents and the Middle East (1990), p. 129.
  382. ^ William B. Quandt, Peace Process, p. 109.
  383. ^ a b "Violent Week: The Politics of Death". Time. 12 April 1976. Archived from the original on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 4 March 2011.
  384. ^ a b c d e Farr, Warner D. (September 1999), "The Third Temple's Holy of Holies: Israel's Nuclear Weapons", The Counterproliferation Papers, Future Warfare Series, retrieved 10 March 2023
  385. ^ 9 October 1973, conversation (8:20–8:40 am) between Israeli Ambassador to the United States Simcha Dinitz, military attaché General Mordechai Gur, Henry Kissinger, Brent Scowcroft, and Peter Rodman. Transcript George Washington University National Security Archive.
  386. ^ a b Cohen, Avner (6 October 2003). "Opinion | The Last Nuclear Moment". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
  387. ^ Colby, Elbridge; Cohen, Avner; McCants, William; Morris, Bradley; Rosenau, William (April 2013). "The Israeli 'Nuclear Alert' of 1973: Deterrence and Signaling in Crisis" (PDF). CNA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 October 2014.
  388. ^ Del Pero, Mario (23 August 2011). "'Which Chile, Allende?' Henry Kissinger and the Portuguese revolution". Cold War History. 11 (4): 625–657. doi:10.1080/14682745.2010.494301. S2CID 218576108. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
  389. ^ "A tale of two fleets: a Russian perspective on the 1973 Naval standoff in the Mediterranean". Thefreelibrary.com. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  390. ^ Easly, David (4 November 2010). "Leadership lessons from history". Lajes Field. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016.
  391. ^ [3] Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  392. ^ Sakkas, John (23 January 2007). "The Greek dictatorship, the USA and the Arabs, 1967–1974". Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans. 6 (3): 245–257. doi:10.1080/1461319042000296804. S2CID 154266308. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
  393. ^ Krisinger, Chris J. "Operation Nickel Grass – Airlift in Support of National Policy" Archived 5 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Aerospace Power Journal, Spring 1989.
  394. ^ Rabinovich, p. 491.
  395. ^ a b Haber & Schiff, p. 382.
  396. ^ John Lacomia. "Remember When ... Operation Nickel Grass". Travis: Air Force. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
  397. ^ a b Shazly (2003), pp. 275–276.
  398. ^ a b Haber & Schiff, p. 282.
  399. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 276. "... the USA mounted a seaborne resupply operation of 33,210 tons by 30 October."
  400. ^ Gawrych (1996), p. 56.
  401. ^ "McDonnell F-4 Phantom: Essential Aircraft in the Air Warfare in the Middle East". Historynet.com. 12 June 2006. Archived from the original on 28 April 2011. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
  402. ^ El Gamasy, The October War, 1973, p. 276.
  403. ^ Shazly (2003), pp. 251–252.
  404. ^ O'Ballance, p. 182.
  405. ^ Schiff, 303
  406. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 275.
  407. ^ Shazly (2003), pp. 274–275. Shazly states that " ...  the Soviet Union mounted a sea-borne resupply operation: no less than 63,000 tons, mainly to Syria, by 30 October"
  408. ^ Quandt, 25–26 (pdf pp. 37–38), gives the airlift total as approximately 12,500 tons; Quandt 23 (pdf p. 35) gives the sealift total as approximately 63,000 tons.
  409. ^ Hammad, p. 382.
  410. ^ "Strategic Doctrine – Israel". nuke.fas.org.
  411. ^ Naftali, Tim (26 August 2016). "CIA reveals its secret briefings to Presidents Nixon and Ford". CNN. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
  412. ^ Rabinovich, p. 325.
  413. ^ O'Ballance, pp. 165–166.
  414. ^ Porter, Bruce D.  The USSR in Third World Conflicts, Soviet Arms and Diplomacy in Local Wars, p. 135.
  415. ^ Remez, Gideon and Ginor, Isabella: The Soviet-Israeli War, 1967–1973: The USSR's Military Intervention in the Egyptian-Israeli Conflict
  416. ^ "White House Military Briefing, 22 October" (PDF). Retrieved 28 March 2010.
  417. ^ Boyne, Walter J. (2002). The Yom Kippur War: And the Airlift Strike That Saved Israel. Macmillan. p. Insert 6. ISBN 978-0-312-32042-3. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
  418. ^ "How did the U.S.S. Little Rock and her Crew Participate in the Arab–Israeli Yom Kippur War?". USS Little Rock Association. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
  419. ^ a b c William B Quandt, Peace Process, p. 121.
  420. ^ a b Rabinovich, p. 479.
  421. ^ a b Rabinovich, p. 480.
  422. ^ "Effects-Based Operations: the Yom Kippur War Case Study" (PDF). Retrieved 28 March 2010.
  423. ^ Rabinovich, p. 484.
  424. ^ Rabinovich, p. 485.
  425. ^ a b Shazly (2003), pp. 277–278.
  426. ^ a b c Kuwaraswamy. p. 60. "On the Egyptian front, the Libyan (manned by Egyptians), Algerian and Iraqi squadrons took part in bombing Israeli targets and providing air assistance to ground operations. Additional Arab forces operating on the Egyptian front were a Libyan armored brigade and a Kuwaiti infantry battalion which had been deployed in Egypt before the war, and an Algerian armored brigade which arrived on 17 October. Neither of these units took an active part in the war. After the cease-fire went into effect, a Sudanese infantry brigade also arrived in the front."
  427. ^ Fisher, Marc (28 February 1993). "E. Germany Ran Antisemitic Campaign in West in '60s". The Washington Post.
  428. ^ Bidanda M. Chengappa (2004). Pakistan: Islamisation Army And Foreign Policy. APH Publishing. p. 42. ISBN 978-81-7648-548-7.
  429. ^ Simon Dunstan (2003). The Yom Kippur War 1973 (2): The Sinai. Osprey Publishing. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-84176-221-0. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
  430. ^ P. R. Kumaraswamy (2013). Revisiting the Yom Kippur War. Routledge. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-136-32895-4.
  431. ^ Lindsey Hilsum (2015). Sandstorm. Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-28806-9. [page needed]
  432. ^ a b Asher, Dani (2014). Inside Israel's Northern Command: The Yom Kippur War on the Syrian Border. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. pp. 415–418. ISBN 978-0-8131-6737-4.
  433. ^ List of Arab contributions by country; Kuwait Defense Minister, His Highness Sheikh Saad Al-Salim Al-Sabah visiting Egyptian front in 1972 and issues war operation order 3967 to enact Al-Jahra Force
  434. ^ "Kuwaiti Ministry of Defense". Archived from the original on 24 October 2012.
  435. ^ a b c Rabinovich, p. 464.
  436. ^ Boyne, Walter (2007). The Yom Kippur War. St. Martin's Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-4299-0181-9.
  437. ^ Rabinovich, I. The War for Lebanon, 1970–1985. p. 105. "Lebanon was perceived as Israel's one harmless neighbour, a state that since 1949 had not taken part in the Arab–Israeli wars ..."
  438. ^ Wallach, Jehuda (1983). Carta's Atlas of Israel: The Third Decade 1971–1981 (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Carta. p. 68. ISBN 978-965-220-060-0.
  439. ^ Rabinovich, p. 411
  440. ^ Quandt 2005, pp. 123–124.
  441. ^ Drysdale, A. & Hinnebusch, R.: Syria and the Middle East Peace Process. Council on Foreign Relations Press, New York, 1991.
  442. ^ Tristam, P.: The Egyptian-Israeli Disengagement Treaties of 1974 and 1975 Archived 9 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. About.com, accessed 2012.
  443. ^ Rabinovich, pp. 497–498.
  444. ^ Rabinovich, p. 499.
  445. ^ Rabinovich, p. 501.
  446. ^ a b Rabinovich, p. 502.
  447. ^ Chani Hinker (ed.), Findings of the Agranat Commission, The Jewish Agency for Israel, 30 January, archived from the original on 3 December 2008, retrieved 14 November 2016
  448. ^ Rabinovich, p. 237.
  449. ^ a b c Rabinovich, p. 507.
  450. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 331.
  451. ^ Shazly (2003), p. 334.
  452. ^ Rabinovich, p. 356.
  453. ^ Blum, Howard (2007), The Untold Story of the Yom Kippur War, HarperCollins, p. 298.
  454. ^ a b Schiff, Zeev (1973), October Earthquake, Yom Kippur 1973, University Publishing Projects, pp. 194–195.
  455. ^ a b c d e Macdonald, Scot (2006). Propaganda and Information Warfare in the Twenty-First Century. Routledge. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-135-98351-2.
  456. ^ Anatoly Chernyaev. "Diary of Anatoly Chernyaev, 1973" (PDF). National Security Archive. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 430. p. 69.
  457. ^ Smith, Charles D. (2006), Palestine and the Arab–Israeli Conflict, New York: Bedford, p. 329.
  458. ^ Luttwak; Horowitz (1983). The Israeli Army. Cambridge, MA: Abt Books. ISBN 978-0-89011-585-5.
  459. ^ Rabinovich (2004). The Yom Kippur War. Schocken Books. p. 498.
  460. ^ Kumaraswamy, PR (2000). Revisiting The Yom Kippur War. Psychology Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-7146-5007-4.
  461. ^ Liebman, Charles (July 1993). "The Myth of Defeat: The Memory of the Yom Kippur war in Israeli Society" (PDF). Middle Eastern Studies. 29 (3). London: Frank Cass: 411. doi:10.1080/00263209308700958. ISSN 0026-3206. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2013.
  462. ^ "Milestones: 1969–1976 - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
  463. ^ Simon Dunstan (18 September 2007). The Yom Kippur War: The Arab-Israeli War of 1973. Bloomsbury USA. p. 205. ISBN 978-1-84603-288-2.[permanent dead link]
  464. ^ Loyola, Mario (7 October 2013). "How We Used to Do It – American diplomacy in the Yom Kippur War". National Review. p. 1. Retrieved 2 December 2013.
  465. ^ See[12][13][458][459][460][17][461][462][463][21][22][23][464]
  466. ^ Tolchin, Martin; Tolchin, Susan J. (30 October 2007). A World Ignited: How Apostles of Ethnic, Religious, and Racial Hatred Torch the Globe. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-4617-1165-0. The themes of defeat and victory played important roles in Sadat's famous pursuit of peace with Israel. In Cairo, a bridge and statues are among the symbols that celebrate the "October 6 victory." What was that victory? It turned out to be what the rest of the world called the "Yom Kippur War," the war between Egypt and Israel in 1973. The reason that no one else referred to the war as a "victory" was that most historians regarded it as a stalemate rather than a clear triumph for either side.
  467. ^ Kacowicz, Arie Marcelo (1994). Peaceful Territorial Change. Univ of South Carolina Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-87249-989-8. The Camp David Agreements should be understood against the background of the Yom Kippur War and its political, military, and economic implications. The Israeli military achievements on the battlefield, balanced by the Egyptian psychological victory in political terms, created a complex situation of military stalemate and political ripeness for striking a diplomatic bargain between the parties.
  468. ^ Porter, Bruce D. (25 July 1986). The USSR in Third World Conflicts: Soviet Arms and Diplomacy in Local Wars 1945-1980. Cambridge University Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-521-31064-2. Although Moscow managed against considerable odds to salvage from the Yom Kippur war a military stalemate and a moral victory for the Arabs, it suffered almost total collapse of its influence in Egypt shortly thereafter.
  469. ^ Lansford, Tom (4 November 2011). 9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq: A Chronology and Reference Guide. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-59884-420-7. In 1973, Israel was attacked by a coalition of Arab states in the Yom Kippur War (Ramadan War). The conflict ended in a military stalemate.
  470. ^ Bailey, Clinton (4 March 2019). Jordan's Palestinian Challenge, 1948-1983: A Political History. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-70916-6.
  471. ^ McKernan, Bethan; Heights, Golan (23 August 2024). "'The next days were hell': How the Yom Kippur war realigned the Middle East". The Observer. {{cite news}}: Missing |author2= (help)
  472. ^ "The October Arab-Israeli War of 1973: What happened?". 23 August 2024.
  473. ^ "Summary of "Tactical Stalemates"". 23 August 2024.
  474. ^ Middleton, Drew (23 August 2024). "Who Lost the Yom Kippur War? A Military Inventory of the Middle East". The Atlantic.
  475. ^ See[466][467][468][469][470][471][472][473][474]
  476. ^ "Sinai Interim Agreement: 1975". www.mfa.gov.il. Archived from the original on 12 June 2004. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
  477. ^ Shipler, David K.; Times, Special To the New York (26 April 1982). "ISRAELI COMPLETES PULLOUT, LEAVING SINAI TO EGYPT". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
  478. ^ George Friedman (23 August 2010). "Israeli–Palestinian Peace Talks, Again". stratfor. Archived from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
  479. ^ Karsh, p. 86.
  480. ^ Doyle, Joseph S. (February 2019). "The Yom Kippur War and the Shaping of the United States Air Force" (PDF). Air University Press, Curtis E. LeMay Center for Doctrine Development and Education. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
  481. ^ a b c d e f g Bronfeld, Saul (2007). "Fighting Outnumbered: The Impact of the Yom Kippur War on the U.S. Army". The Journal of Military History. 71 (2): 465–498. doi:10.1353/jmh.2007.0096. ISSN 1543-7795. S2CID 159609515. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
  482. ^ a b Romjue, John L. (1984). "From Active Defense to AirLand Battle: The Development of Army Doctrine 1973–1982". Fort Monroe, VA: United States Army Training and Doctrine Command. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
  483. ^ Rabinovich, 497.
  484. ^ Gal, Reuven (1986). A Portrait of the Israeli Soldier. New York: Greenwood Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-313-24315-8.
  485. ^ John Pimlott, Michael Orr, The Middle East Conflicts: From 1945 to the Present, London: Orbis Publishing (1983), p. 99.
  486. ^ O'Ballance, p. 129
  487. ^ Babas, Latifa. "6th of October 1973: When Morocco Participated in the Yom Kippur War". Yabiladi. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
  488. ^ "Middle East: Sandstorm at Kilometer 101". Time. 3 December 1973. Archived from the original on 31 October 2007. Retrieved 21 May 2010.
  489. ^ Military Lessons of the Yom Kippur War: Historical Perspectives, Martin van Creveld, p. 47 Archived 13 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  490. ^ Insight Team of the London Sunday Times, pp. 279, 429.
  491. ^ Insight Team of the London Sunday Times, pp. 429, 449.
  492. ^ "On Arab Treatment of Israeli Prisoners". The New York Times. 23 June 1984. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
  493. ^ Official Gazette of Syria (11 July 1974).
  494. ^ Schiff, p. 90.
  495. ^ "Treatment of Israeli POW's in Syria and Their Status Under the Geneva Conventions: Hearing, Ninety-third Congress, Second Session. 26 February 1974". 1974.
  496. ^ "War and Lack of Inner Peace" Archived 23 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Michael S. Arnold, The Jerusalem Post, 17 September 1999.
  497. ^ "Statement in the Knesset on the treatment of Israeli prisoners of war in Syria by Defence Minister Peres and Knesset Resolution – 12 June 1974". Mfa.gov.il. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
  498. ^ Insight Team of the London Sunday Times, p. 429.
  499. ^ Insight Team of the London Sunday Times, pp. 449–450.
  500. ^ Sarna, Igal (2000), The Man Who Fell into a Puddle: Israeli Lives, Vintage Books/Random House, pp. 144–148.
  501. ^ a b Sarna, p. 148.
  502. ^ Yemini, Galya (2 April 2008). "Noam Lanir plans to float Empire Online at $1b value". Haaretz. Israel. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
  503. ^ a b "Israeli veterans offer accounts of Egyptian atrocities in '73 war". Houston Chronicle. 26 August 1995. Archived from the original on 9 July 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  504. ^ a b "Israeli documentary: Egyptians killed Israeli POWs in 1973 war". Ynetnews. 19 March 2007.
  505. ^ "Pow Expose". IsraCast. 9 March 2007. Archived from the original on 24 June 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  506. ^ "At Least 86 Israeli POWs Were Killed in 1973 War, New Documents Reveal". Haaretz. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
  507. ^ Author: Розин Александр. Title: Советский флот в войнах и конфликтах "холодной войны". Это – персональная страница Александра Розина >> Война «Судного дня» 1973 г. Противостояние флотов СССР и США на море. >> Chapter 9: Корабли эскадры конвоируют транспорты.

Bibliography

  • "Intro" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2007.
  • "Part I" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2011.
  • "Part II" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2011.
  • "Part III" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2011.
  • "Part IV" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2011.
  • "Part V" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2011.
  • "Part VI" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2011.
  • "Part VII" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2011.
  • "Notes" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 28 May 2015.

External links