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Glosario de la religión romana antigua

El vocabulario de la religión romana antigua era altamente especializado. Su estudio proporciona información importante sobre la religión, las tradiciones y las creencias de los antiguos romanos. Este legado es evidente en la historia cultural europea por su influencia en el vocabulario jurídico y religioso posterior en Europa, en particular en la Iglesia cristiana . [1] Este glosario proporciona explicaciones de conceptos tal como se expresaban en latín relacionados con las prácticas y creencias religiosas , con enlaces a artículos sobre temas importantes como sacerdocios, formas de adivinación y rituales.

Para los teónimos , o los nombres y epítetos de los dioses, véase Lista de deidades romanas . Para los días festivos religiosos públicos, véase Festivales romanos . Para los templos, véase Lista de templos romanos antiguos . Los puntos de referencia individuales de la topografía religiosa en la antigua Roma no están incluidos en esta lista; véase Templo romano .

Glosario

A

abominable

El verbo abominari («evitar un presagio», de ab- , «lejos, fuera», y ominari , «pronunciarse sobre un presagio») era un término de augurio para una acción que rechaza o evita un presagio desfavorable indicado por un signum , «señal». El sustantivo es abominatio , del que deriva la palabra inglesa « abominación ». Al recibir auspicios solicitados formalmente ( auspicia impetrativa ), el observador debía reconocer cualquier señal potencialmente mala que ocurriera dentro del templum que estaba observando, independientemente de la interpretación. [2] Sin embargo, podía realizar ciertas acciones para ignorar la signa , incluyendo evitar verla e interpretarla como favorable. Esta última táctica requería prontitud, ingenio y habilidad basada en la disciplina y el aprendizaje. [3] Por lo tanto, el presagio no tenía validez aparte de la observación del mismo. [4]

Aedes aegypti

El aedes era la morada de un dios. [5] Por lo tanto, era una estructura que albergaba la imagen de la deidad, distinta del templum o distrito sagrado. [6] Aedes es una de varias palabras latinas que pueden traducirse como "santuario" o "templo"; véase también delubrum y fanum . Por ejemplo, el Templo de Vesta , como se lo llama en inglés, era en latín un aedes . [7] Véase también el diminutivo aedicula , un pequeño santuario.

Ruinas del aedes de Vesta

En su obra Sobre la arquitectura , Vitruvio siempre utiliza la palabra templum en el sentido técnico de un espacio definido a través de un augurio , siendo aedes la palabra habitual para el edificio en sí. [8] El diseño del aedes de una deidad , escribe, debe ser apropiado a las características de la deidad. Para una deidad celestial como Júpiter , Coelus , Sol o Luna , el edificio debe estar abierto al cielo; un aedes para un dios que encarna la virtus (valor), como Minerva , Marte o Hércules , debe ser dórico y sin adornos; el orden corintio es adecuado para diosas como Venus , Flora , Proserpina y las Linfas ; y el jónico es un término medio entre los dos para Juno , Diana y el Padre Liber . Así, en teoría, aunque no siempre en la práctica, la estética arquitectónica tenía una dimensión teológica. [9]

La palabra aedilis (edil) , funcionario público , está relacionada por etimología ; entre los deberes de los ediles estaba la supervisión de las obras públicas , incluida la construcción y el mantenimiento de los templos. [10] El templo (aedes) de Flora, por ejemplo, fue construido en 241 a. C. por dos ediles que actuaban según oráculos sibilinos . Los ediles plebeyos tenían su sede en el aedes de Ceres . [11]

mayor

En el uso religioso, ager (territorio, país, tierra, región) era un espacio terrestre definido para fines de augurio en relación con los auspicios . Había cinco tipos de ager : Romanus, Gabinus, peregrinus, hosticus e incertus . El ager Romanus originalmente incluía el espacio urbano fuera del pomerium y el campo circundante. [12] Según Varrón , el ager Gabinus pertenecía a las circunstancias especiales del oppidum de Gabii , que fue el primero en firmar un tratado sagrado (pax) con Roma. [13] El ager peregrinus [14] era otro territorio que había sido sometido a tratado (pacatus) . Ager hosticus significaba territorio extranjero; incertus , "incierto" o "indeterminado", es decir, que no entraba en una de las cuatro categorías definidas. [15] Los poderes y las acciones de los magistrados se basaban en la naturaleza del ager en el que se encontraban y estaban limitados por ella, y ager, en un uso más general, significaba un territorio definido legal o políticamente. El ager Romanus no podía extenderse fuera de Italia (terra Italia) . [16]

Altar (ara) de la España romana

ara

El punto central del sacrificio era el altar ( ara , plural: arae ). La mayoría de los altares de la ciudad de Roma y de la campiña habrían sido estructuras sencillas al aire libre; es posible que estuvieran ubicados dentro de un recinto sagrado ( templum ), pero a menudo sin un aedes que albergara una imagen de culto. [17] Un altar que recibía ofrendas de alimentos también podía llamarse mensa , "mesa". [18]

Quizás el altar romano más conocido es el elaborado Ara Pacis de influencia griega , que ha sido llamado "la obra más representativa del arte augusteo ". [19] Otros altares públicos importantes incluían el Ara Maxima .

árbol felix

Algunos árboles eran felix y otros infelix . Un árbol (arbor) se categorizaba como felix si estaba bajo la protección de los dioses celestiales (di superi) . El adjetivo felix aquí no solo significa literalmente "fructífero" sino más ampliamente "auspicioso". Macrobio [20] enumera arbores felices (plural) como el roble (cuatro especies de él), el abedul, el avellano, el sorbus, la higuera blanca, la pera, la manzana, la uva, el ciruelo, el cornus y el loto. El roble era sagrado para Júpiter , y las vestales usaban ramitas de roble para encender el fuego sagrado en marzo de cada año. También entre los felices estaban el olivo, una ramita del cual se fijaba al sombrero del Flamen Dialis , y el laurel y el álamo, que coronaban a los sacerdotes salios . [21]

Los árboles infelices eran aquellos que estaban bajo la protección de los dioses ctónicos o aquellos dioses que tenían el poder de alejar la desgracia ( avertentium ). Como enumera Tarquitius Priscus en su ostentarium perdido sobre los árboles, [22] estos eran el espino cerval , el cornejo rojo , el helecho , la higuera negra , "aquellos que dan una baya negra y un fruto negro", el acebo , el peral de los bosques , el rusco , el brezo y las zarzas ". [23]

atraer

El verbo attrectare ("tocar, manipular, poner las manos") se refería en el uso religioso especializado a tocar objetos sagrados mientras se realizaban acciones de culto. Attrectare tenía un significado positivo solo en referencia a las acciones de los sacerdotes populi Romani ("sacerdotes del pueblo romano"). Tenía el significado negativo de "contaminar" (= contaminare) cuando se refería a la manipulación de objetos sagrados por parte de personas no autorizadas, ordenadas o ritualmente purificadas. [24]

augur

Un augur (del latín augures ) era un funcionario y sacerdote que solicitaba e interpretaba la voluntad de los dioses con respecto a una acción propuesta. El augur definía ritualmente un templum o espacio sagrado, declaraba el propósito de su consulta, ofrecía sacrificios y observaba las señales que se enviaban a cambio, en particular las acciones y el vuelo de los pájaros. Si el augur recibía señales desfavorables, podía suspender, posponer o cancelar la empresa ( obnuntiatio ). "Tomar los auspicios" era una parte importante de todos los asuntos oficiales importantes, incluidas las inauguraciones, los debates senatoriales, la legislación, las elecciones y la guerra, y se consideraba una antigua prerrogativa de los magistrados reales y patricios . Bajo la República , este derecho se extendió a otros magistrados. Después del 300 a. C., los plebeyos podían convertirse en augures.

auguraculo

La solicitud de auspicios formales requería la delimitación de un espacio ritual ( auguraculum ) desde el cual los augures observaban el templum , incluida la construcción de una tienda o cabaña augural ( tabernaculum ). Había tres lugares de este tipo en Roma: en la ciudadela ( arx ), en el monte Quirinal y en el monte Palatino . Festo dijo que originalmente el auguraculum era de hecho el arx . Estaba orientado hacia el este, situando el norte en el lado izquierdo o afortunado del augur. [25] Un magistrado que servía como comandante militar también tomaba auspicios diarios y, por lo tanto, una parte de la construcción del campamento durante la campaña era la creación de un tabernaculum augurale . Esta tienda augural era el centro de los procedimientos religiosos y legales dentro del campamento. [26]

augurio

Augurium (plural auguria ) es un sustantivo abstracto que pertenece al augur . Parece significar de diversas maneras: la "investidura sagrada" del augur; [27] los actos y acciones rituales de los augures; [28] la ley augural (ius augurale) ; [29] y los signos registrados cuyo significado ya había sido establecido. [30] La palabra tiene su raíz en la raíz IE *aug- , "aumentar", y posiblemente un sustantivo neutro del latín arcaico *augus , que significa "aquello que está lleno de fuerza mística". Como signo que manifiesta la voluntad divina, [31] el augurio para un magistrado era válido por un año; para un sacerdote, por su vida; para un templo, era perpetuo. [32]

La distinción entre augurium y auspicium a menudo no está clara. Auspicia es la observación de aves como signos de la voluntad divina, una práctica que se cree que fue establecida por Rómulo , primer rey de Roma , mientras que la institución del augurio se atribuyó a su sucesor Numa . [33] Para Servio , un augurium es lo mismo que auspicia impetrativa , un conjunto de signos buscados a través de medios rituales prescritos. [34] Algunos eruditos piensan que la auspicia pertenecería más ampliamente a las magistraturas y los patres [35] mientras que el augurium se limitaría al rex sacrorum y los sacerdocios mayores. [36]

Las fuentes antiguas registran tres augurios : el augurium salutis en el que cada año se preguntaba a los dioses si era fas (permisible, correcto) pedir por la seguridad del pueblo romano (5 de agosto); el augurium canarium , un sacrificio de perro (véase también supplicia canum ) para promover la maduración de las cosechas de cereales, celebrado en presencia de los pontífices así como de los augures "cuando las espigas de trigo ya se han formado pero todavía están en las vainas"; [37] y la auguria vernisera mencionada por Festo , que debería haber sido un rito propiciatorio de primavera celebrado en el momento de la cosecha ( auguria messalia ).

Auspexo

El auspex , plural auspicios , es un adivino que lee presagios a partir del vuelo observado de los pájaros ( avi- , de avis , "pájaro", con -spex , "observador", de spicere ). Véase auspicia a continuación y auspice .

auspicio

Los auspicios ( au- = avis , "pájaro"; -spic- , "vigilancia") eran originalmente signos derivados de la observación del vuelo de los pájaros dentro del templum del cielo. Los auspicios los toma un augur . Originalmente eran prerrogativa de los patricios , [38] pero el colegio de augures se abrió a los plebeyos en el año 300 a. C. [39] Solo los magistrados estaban en posesión de los auspicios públicos , con el derecho y el deber de tomar los auspicios pertenecientes al estado romano . [40] Los auspicios favorables marcaban un momento o un lugar como auspiciosos, y eran necesarios para ceremonias o eventos importantes, incluidas elecciones, campañas militares y batallas campales.

Según Festo , había cinco tipos de auspicios a los que los augures prestaban atención: ex caelo , signos celestiales como truenos y relámpagos; ex avibus , signos ofrecidos por pájaros; ex tripudiis , signos producidos por las acciones de ciertos pollos sagrados; ex quadrupedibus , signos del comportamiento de animales de cuatro patas; y ex diris , presagios amenazantes. [41] En el augurio oficial del estado en Roma, solo se empleaban los auspicios ex caelo y ex avibus .

La recepción de los auspicios requería un silencio ritual (silentium) . La vigilancia de los auspicios se denominaba spectio o servare de caelo . La aparición de las señales esperadas daba lugar a la nuntiatio o, si eran desfavorables, a la obnuntiatio . Si se observaban auspicios desfavorables, el observador oficial interrumpía el asunto en cuestión y declaraba alio die ("en otro día"). [42]

La práctica de observar los presagios de las aves era común entre muchos pueblos antiguos anteriores y contemporáneos a Roma, incluidos los griegos, [43] los celtas, [44] y los germanos. [ cita requerida ]

auspicia impetrativa

Auspicia impetrativa eran signos que se solicitaban bajo condiciones rituales altamente reguladas (ver spectio y servare de caelo ) dentro del templum . [45] El tipo de auspicios requeridos para convocar asambleas públicas eran impetrativa , [46] y los magistrados tenían el "derecho y deber" de buscar estos presagios activamente. [47] Estos auspicios solo podían buscarse en un auguraculum , una tienda augural o "tabernáculo" ( tabernaculum ) construida ritualmente . [48] Contraste con auspicia oblativa .

auspicio mayor

El derecho de observar los "auspicios mayores" fue conferido a un magistrado romano que tenía imperium , tal vez por una Lex curiata de imperio , aunque los eruditos no están de acuerdo sobre los puntos más finos de la ley . [49] Un censor tenía auspicia maxima . [50] También se piensa que los flamines maiores se distinguían de los minores por su derecho a tomar la auspicia maiora ; ver Flamen .

auspicia oblativa

Las señales que se producían sin que se las buscara deliberadamente mediante un procedimiento augural formal eran auspicia oblativa . Se consideraba que estas señales no solicitadas eran enviadas por una o más deidades para expresar la aprobación o desaprobación de una determinada tarea. El prodigio ( prodigium ) era una forma de oblativa desfavorable . [51] Compárese con auspicia impetrativa .

auspicio privado

La religión privada y doméstica estaba vinculada a los signos divinos, como lo estaba la religión de Estado. En las familias patricias era costumbre tomar auspicios para cualquier asunto de importancia, como matrimonios, viajes y negocios importantes. [52] La escasa información sobre auspicia privata en los autores antiguos [53] sugiere que la toma de auspicios privados no era diferente en esencia de la de los auspicios públicos: se requería silencio absoluto, [54] y la persona que tomaba los auspicios podía ignorar eventos desfavorables o perturbadores fingiendo no haberlos percibido. [55] En asuntos pertenecientes a la familia o al individuo, tanto los rayos [56] como las exta (entranas) [57] podían dar señales para los privati , ciudadanos privados no autorizados a tomar auspicios oficiales. Entre sus otros deberes, el Pontifex Maximus aconsejaba a los privati , así como a los sacerdotes oficiales, sobre los prodigios y su prevención. [58] En la época de Cicerón, la toma de auspicios privados estaba cayendo en desuso. [59]

averruncare

En el uso pontificio, el verbo averruncare , "evitar", denota una acción ritual destinada a evitar una desgracia anunciada por un presagio. Los malos augurios (portentaque prodigiaque mala) se queman utilizando árboles que están bajo la tutela de dioses del inframundo o "evitadores" (véase arbores infelices más arriba). [60] Varrón dice que el dios que preside la acción de evitar es Averruncus . [61]

B

campana justa

Una " guerra justa " era una guerra considerada justificable por los principios del derecho fecial (ius fetiale) . [62] Debido a que la guerra podía provocar contaminación religiosa, era en sí misma nefas , "incorrecta", y podía provocar la ira de los dioses a menos que fuera iustum , "justa". [63] Los requisitos para una guerra justa eran tanto formales como sustantivos. Como cuestión formal, la guerra tenía que declararse de acuerdo con los procedimientos del ius fetiale . Por motivos sustantivos, una guerra requería una "causa justa", que podía incluir rerum repetitio , represalia contra otro pueblo por saqueo, o una violación o retractación unilateral de un tratado; o necesidad, como en el caso de repeler una invasión. [64] Véase también Jus ad bellum .

do

caerimonía

La palabra inglesa «ceremonia» deriva del latín caerimonia o caeremonia , una palabra de etimología oscura que se encontró por primera vez en la literatura y las inscripciones de la época de Cicerón (mediados del siglo I a. C.), pero que se cree que es de una antigüedad mucho mayor. Su significado varió con el tiempo. Cicerón utilizó caerimonia al menos 40 veces, en tres o cuatro sentidos diferentes: «inviolabilidad» o «santidad», un uso también de Tácito ; «veneración puntillosa», en compañía de cura (cuidado, preocupación); más comúnmente en plural caerimoniae , para significar «prescripciones rituales» o «actos rituales». La forma plural está avalada por los gramáticos romanos.

Hendrik Wagenvoort sostuvo que las caerimoniae eran originalmente las instrucciones rituales secretas establecidas por Numa , que se describen como statae et sollemnes , "establecidas y solemnes". [65] Estas eran interpretadas y supervisadas por el Colegio de Pontífices , flamens , rex sacrorum y las Vestales . Más tarde, caerimoniae podría referirse también a otros rituales, incluidos los cultos extranjeros . [66] Estos ritos prescritos "unen al sujeto interior con el objeto religioso externo", vinculando los reinos humano y divino. El historiador Valerio Máximo deja claro que las caerimoniae requieren que quienes las realicen alcancen un estado mental-espiritual particular ( animus , "intención"), y enfatiza la importancia de las caerimoniae en la dedicatoria y la primera oración de su obra. En la versión de Valerio del asedio galo a Roma , las vestales y los Flamen Quirinalis rescatan los objetos sagrados de Roma ( sacra ) llevándolos a Caere ; Así conservados, los ritos toman su nombre del lugar. [67] Aunque esta etimología establece una conexión narrativa significativa para Valerio, [68] es poco probable que sea correcta en términos de la lingüística científica moderna. A veces se ha propuesto un origen etrusco . Wagenvoort pensó que caerimonia derivaba de caerus , "oscuro" en el sentido de "oculto", por lo que significa "oscuridad, secretos". [69]

En sus Etimologías , Isidoro de Sevilla dice que el equivalente griego es orgia , pero deriva la palabra de carendo , "falta", y dice que algunos piensan que caerimoniae debería usarse para referirse a las observancias judías , específicamente a la ley dietética que requiere abstenerse o "carecer" de ciertos alimentos. [70]

calador

Los calatores eran asistentes que llevaban a cabo los negocios cotidianos en nombre de los sacerdotes superiores del estado, como los flamines maiores . Un calator era un esclavo público . [71] Festo deriva la palabra del verbo griego kalein , "llamar".

Augusto , capite velato

Capite velado

En los rituales públicos tradicionales de la antigua Roma, los oficiantes rezaban, sacrificaban, ofrecían libaciones y practicaban el augurio capite velato , [72] «con la cabeza cubierta» por un pliegue de la toga levantado desde la espalda. Este cubrimiento de la cabeza es una característica distintiva del rito romano en contraste con la práctica etrusca [73] o ritus graecus , «rito griego». [74] En el arte romano, la cabeza cubierta es un símbolo de pietas y del estatus del individuo como pontífice , augur u otro sacerdote. [75]

Se ha argumentado que la expresión romana de piedad capite velato influyó en la prohibición de Pablo de que los hombres cristianos oraran con la cabeza cubierta: "Cualquier hombre que ora o profetiza con la cabeza cubierta, afrenta su cabeza". [76]

Carmen

En latín clásico, carmen suele significar «canción, poema, oda». En el uso mágico-religioso , un carmen (plural carmina ) es un canto, himno , hechizo o encantamiento. En esencia, «una expresión verbal cantada con fines ritualistas», el carmen se caracteriza por su expresión formal, redundancia y ritmo. [77] Se conservan fragmentos de dos himnos sacerdotales arcaicos, el Carmen Arvale de los Hermanos Arvales y el Carmina Saliaria de los Salii . El Carmen Saeculare de Horacio , aunque de técnica conscientemente literaria, también fue un himno, interpretado por un coro en los Juegos Saeculares del 17 a. C. y que expresaba la ideología apolínea de Augusto . [78]

Un carmen malum o maleficum es un hechizo mágico potencialmente dañino. Un fragmento de las Doce Tablas que dice si malum carmen incantassit ("si alguien entona un hechizo maligno") muestra que era una preocupación de larga data de la ley romana suprimir la magia malévola. [79] Un carmen sepulchrale es un hechizo que evoca a los muertos de sus tumbas; un carmen veneficum , un hechizo "venenoso". [80] A través de la práctica mágica, la palabra carmen llega a significar también el objeto en el que se inscribe un hechizo, por lo tanto, un hechizo en el sentido físico. [81]

castos, castitas

Castus es un adjetivo que significa moralmente puro o inocente (casto en español), por lo tanto piadoso o ritualmente puro en un sentido religioso. Castitas es el sustantivo abstracto. Se han propuesto varias etimologías, entre ellas dos raíces IE: * k'(e)stos [82] que significa "el que se ajusta a las prescripciones del rito"; o * kas- , de donde deriva el verbo careo, "yo desprecio, estoy privado de, no tengo nada..." es decir, vitia . [83] En la religión romana, la pureza del ritual y de quienes lo realizan es primordial: aquel que está correctamente purificado y castus en la preparación y el desempeño religioso es probable que agrade a los dioses. El error ritual es un contaminante; vicia el desempeño y corre el riesgo de provocar la ira de los dioses. Castus y castitas son atributos del sacerdos (sacerdote), [84] pero las sustancias y los objetos también pueden ser ritualmente castus . [85]

cinctus gabinus

El cinctus Gabinus ("cincha Gabine") era una forma de llevar la toga que se cree que se originó en la ciudad latina de Gabii . [86] [87] También se afirmó más tarde [¿ por quién? ] que había sido parte de la vestimenta sacerdotal etrusca . [88] La cincha permitía el libre uso de ambos brazos, [89] [90] esencial cuando la toga todavía se usaba durante el combate y más tarde importante en algunos contextos religiosos , particularmente aquellos que involucraban el uso de la toga para cubrir la cabeza ( capite velato ). [91] Las antiguas asociaciones marciales del estilo hicieron que se usara durante las declaraciones de guerra romanas . También lo usaba el sacerdote o funcionario encargado de guiar el arado creando el sulcus primigenius durante los rituales que asistían a la fundación de nuevas colonias . [91] En latín, cinctus Gabinus podría referirse a la cincha en sí o a toda la toga así usada. En contextos religiosos también se decía que dicha toga se usaba ritu Gabino ("en el rito Gabino").

figura de clavum

Clavum figere («clavar, fijar o fijar el clavo») era una expresión que se refería a la fijación o «sellar» el destino. [92] Un clavo era uno de los atributos de la diosa Necessitas [93] y de la diosa etrusca Athrpa (griego Atropos ). Según Livio , cada año en el templo de Nortia , la contraparte etrusca de Fortuna , se clavaba un clavo para marcar el tiempo. En Roma, el magistrado superior [94] en los idus de septiembre clavaba un clavo llamado clavus annalis («clavo del año») [95] en la pared del templo de Júpiter Óptimo Máximo . La ceremonia se celebraba el dies natalis («cumpleaños» o aniversario de la dedicación) del templo, cuando también se celebraba un banquete para Júpiter ( Epulum Jovis ) . La ceremonia de clavar los clavos, sin embargo, tenía lugar en un templo dedicado a Minerva , en el lado derecho del aedes de Júpiter, porque el concepto de "número" fue inventado por Minerva y el ritual era anterior al uso común de letras escritas. [96]

La importancia de este ritual se pierde en la oscuridad, pero en la República temprana se asocia con el nombramiento de un dictador clavi figendi causa , " dictador con el propósito de clavar el clavo", [97] uno de los cuales fue designado para los años 363, 331, 313 y 263 a. C. [98] Livio atribuye esta práctica a la religio , escrúpulo u obligación religiosa. Puede ser que además de un ritual anual, hubiera una "fijación" durante tiempos de peste o discordia civil que servía como piaculum . [99] Livio dice que en 363, una plaga había estado asolando Roma durante dos años. Se recordó que una vez se había roto una plaga cuando un dictador clavó un clavo ritual, y el senado nombró a uno para ese propósito. [100] El ritual de "clavar el clavo" fue uno de los revividos y reformados por Augusto, quien en el año 1 d. C. lo trasladó al nuevo Templo de Marte Ultor . A partir de entonces, un censor fijó el clavo al final de su mandato. [101]

colegio

Un collegium («unido por ley»), en plural collegia , era cualquier asociación con personalidad jurídica . Los colegios sacerdotales supervisaban las tradiciones religiosas y hasta el año 300 a. C. solo los patricios podían ser miembros. Cuando se empezó a admitir a plebeyos , se amplió el tamaño de los colegios. En la República Tardía , tres collegia ejercían mayor autoridad que los demás, y un cuarto adquirió importancia durante el reinado de Augusto . Las cuatro grandes corporaciones religiosas ( quattuor amplissima collegia ) eran:

Augusto era miembro de los cuatro colegios , pero limitaba la membresía de cualquier otro senador a uno solo. [102]

En la sociedad romana, un collegium también podía ser un gremio comercial o una asociación de vecinos; véase Collegium (antigua Roma) .

comicios calata

Los comitia calata (asambleas de calate) eran asambleas sin derecho a voto (comitia) convocadas con fines religiosos. El verbo calare , que originalmente significaba "convocar", era un término técnico de uso pontificio, que se encuentra también en calendae ( calendas ) y calator . Según Aulo Gelio , [103] estos comitia se celebraban en presencia del colegio de pontífices para inaugurar al rex (el rey en el Período Regio o el rex sacrorum en la República ) [104] o a los flamines . El pontifex maximus auspiciaba y presidía; las asambleas presididas por magistrados elegidos anualmente nunca son calata , ni tampoco lo son las reuniones con fines seculares u otras elecciones, incluso si preside un pontífice. [105]

Los comitia calata eran organizados por curiae o centuriae . [106] El pueblo era convocado a los comitia calata para presenciar la lectura de los testamentos, o el juramento por el que se renunciaba a los sacra ( detestatio sacrorum ). [107] No asumían ningún papel activo y solo estaban presentes para observar como testigos. [108]

Mommsen pensó que la abreviatura del calendario QRCF , dada una vez como Q. Rex CF [109] y tomada como Quando Rex Comitiavit Fas , designaba un día en el que era religiosamente permisible para el rex "convocar" un comitium , de ahí el comitia calata . [110]

comentarios augurales

Los Comentarios de los augures eran recopilaciones escritas probablemente de los decreta y responsa del colegio de augures . Sin embargo, algunos estudiosos sostienen que los commentarii no eran precisamente los decreta y responsa . [111] Los comentarios deben distinguirse de los libri reconditi de los augures , textos no destinados a uso público. [112] Los libros son mencionados por Cicerón , [113] Festo , [114] y Servio Danielis . [115] Livio incluye varios ejemplos de los decreta y responsa de los augures en su historia, presumiblemente tomados de los commentarii . [116]

comentarios pontificum

Los Comentarios de los Pontífices contenían un registro de decretos y procedimientos oficiales del Colegio de Pontífices . La literatura sacerdotal fue una de las primeras formas escritas de prosa latina , e incluía listas, actas y crónicas mantenidas por los diversos collegia , [117] así como procedimientos religiosos. [118] A menudo era occultum genre litterarum , [119] una forma arcana de literatura a la que por definición solo los sacerdotes tenían acceso. Los commentarii , sin embargo, pueden haber estado disponibles para consulta pública, al menos por parte de los senadores , [120] porque las decisiones sobre puntos de ley podían citarse como precedente. [121] Jerzy Linderski afirma la naturaleza pública de los commentarii en contraste con los libri reconditi , los libros secretos sacerdotales. [122]

Los commentarii sobreviven sólo a través de citas o referencias en autores antiguos. [123] Estos registros no son fácilmente distinguibles de los libri pontificales ; algunos eruditos sostienen que los términos commentarii y libri para los escritos pontificios son intercambiables. Aquellos que hacen una distinción sostienen que los libri eran el archivo secreto que contenía reglas y preceptos del ius sacrum (ley sagrada), textos de fórmulas habladas e instrucciones sobre cómo realizar actos rituales, mientras que los commentarii eran las responsa (opiniones y argumentos) y decreta (explicaciones vinculantes de la doctrina) que estaban disponibles para consulta. Independientemente de si los términos se pueden usar o no para distinguir dos tipos de material, los documentos sacerdotales se habrían dividido en aquellos reservados para uso interno de los propios sacerdotes y aquellos que servían como obras de referencia sobre asuntos externos al colegio. [124] Colectivamente, estos títulos habrían comprendido todos los asuntos de la ley pontificia, el ritual y el mantenimiento del culto, junto con los formularios de oración [125] y los estatutos del templo. [126] Véanse también libri pontificales y libri augurales .

Conejera

La coniectura es la interpretación razonada pero especulativa de signos presentados inesperadamente, es decir, de novae res , "información novedosa". Estos "nuevos signos" son presagios o portentos no observados previamente, o no observados bajo el conjunto particular de circunstancias en cuestión. La coniectura es, por lo tanto, el tipo de interpretación utilizada para ostenta y portenta como constituyendo una rama de la "disciplina etrusca"; contrasta observatio tal como se aplica a la interpretación de fulgura (trueno y relámpago) y exta (entrañas). Se consideraba un ars , un "método" o "arte" a diferencia de disciplina , un cuerpo formal de enseñanzas que requería estudio o entrenamiento. [127]

El origen de la palabra latina coniectura sugiere el proceso de hacer conexiones, del verbo conicio , participio coniectum ( con- , "con, junto", e iacio , "arrojar, poner"). Coniectura también era un término retórico aplicado a formas de argumentación, incluidos los casos judiciales. [128] La palabra inglesa "conjecture" deriva de coniectura .

consagración

La consecratio era el acto ritual que daba como resultado la creación de un aedes , un santuario que albergaba una imagen de culto, o un ara , un altar. Jerzy Linderski insiste en que la consecratio debe distinguirse de la inauguratio , es decir, el ritual por el cual los augures establecían un lugar sagrado ( locus ) o templum (recinto sagrado). [129] La consagración era realizada por un pontífice recitando una fórmula de los libri pontificales , los libros pontificios. [130] Un componente de la consagración era la dedicatio , o dedicación, una forma de ius publicum (derecho público) llevada a cabo por un magistrado que representaba la voluntad del pueblo romano . [131] El pontífice era responsable de la consagración propiamente dicha. [132]

culto

Cicerón definió la religio como cultus deorum , "el cultivo de los dioses". [133] El "cultivo" necesario para mantener una deidad específica era el cultus, "culto", de ese dios, y requería "el conocimiento de dar a los dioses lo que les corresponde" (scientia colendorum deorum) . [134] El sustantivo cultus se origina del participio pasado del verbo colo, colere, colui, cultus , "cuidar, cuidar, cultivar", que originalmente significaba "habitar, morar" y, por lo tanto, "cuidar, cultivar la tierra (ager); practicar la agricultura", una actividad fundamental para la identidad romana incluso cuando Roma como centro político se había urbanizado por completo. Cultus se traduce a menudo como " culto ", sin las connotaciones negativas que la palabra puede tener en inglés, o con la palabra anglosajona " worry ", pero implica la necesidad de un mantenimiento activo más allá de la adoración pasiva. Se esperaba que Cultus fuera importante para los dioses como una demostración de respeto, honor y reverencia; Era un aspecto de la naturaleza contractual de la religión romana ( do ut des ). [135] San Agustín se hace eco de la formulación de Cicerón cuando declara que " la religio no es otra cosa que el culto a Dios ". [136]

D

decreto

Los decreta (en plural) eran las explicaciones vinculantes de la doctrina emitidas por los sacerdotes oficiales sobre cuestiones de práctica e interpretación religiosa. Se conservaban en forma escrita y se archivaban. [137] Compárese con responsum .

deslumbramiento

Un delubrum era un santuario. Varrón dice que era un edificio que albergaba la imagen de un deus , "dios", [138] y enfatiza el papel humano en la dedicación de la estatua. [139] Según Varrón, [140] el delubrum era la forma más antigua de un aedes , una estructura que albergaba a un dios. Es un término ambiguo tanto para el edificio como para el área circundante ubi aqua currit ("donde corre el agua"), según la etimología del anticuario Cincius . [141] Festo da la etimología de delubrum como fustem delibratum , "estaca despojada", es decir, un árbol privado de su corteza (liber) por un rayo, ya que tales árboles en tiempos arcaicos eran venerados como dioses. El significado del término se extendió más tarde para denotar el santuario construido para albergar la estaca. [142] Compárese con aedes , fanum y templum .

Isidoro relacionó el delubrum con el verbo diluere , "lavar", describiéndolo como un "santuario-manantial", a veces con una piscina anexa, donde la gente se lavaba antes de entrar, comparable así a una pila bautismal cristiana . [143]

detestación sacra

Cuando una persona pasaba de una gens a otra, por ejemplo por adopción , renunciaba a los deberes religiosos (sacra) que había tenido anteriormente para asumir los de la familia a la que ingresaba. [144] El procedimiento ritual de la detestatio sacrorum se realizaba ante una asamblea de calates. [145]

Dios, muerto, di, dii

Deus , «dios»; dea , «diosa», plural deae ; di o dii , «dioses», plural, o «deidades», de género mixto. El equivalente griego es theos , que los romanos tradujeron como deus . Servio dice [146] que deus o dea es un «término genérico» (generale nomen) para todos los dioses. [147] En su obra perdida Antiquitates rerum divinarum , que se supone que se basaba en la doctrina pontificia, [148] Varrón clasificó a los dii como certi, incerti, praecipui o selecti , es decir, «deidades cuya función podía determinarse», [149] aquellas cuya función era desconocida o indeterminada, dioses principales o seleccionados. [150] Compárese con divus . Para una discusión etimológica, véase Deus y Dyeus . Véase también Lista de deidades romanas .

devoción

La devotio era una forma extrema de votum en la que un general romano juraba sacrificar su propia vida en batalla junto con el enemigo a las deidades ctónicas a cambio de una victoria. La descripción más extensa del ritual la da Livio , en relación con el autosacrificio de Decio Mus . [151] La palabra inglesa "devotion" deriva del latín. Para otro votum que podía hacer un general en el campo de batalla, véase evocatio .

muere imperio

El dies imperii de un emperador romano era la fecha en la que asumía el imperium , es decir, el aniversario de su ascenso al trono. La fecha se celebraba anualmente con renovados juramentos de lealtad y vota pro salute imperatoris , votos y ofrendas por el bienestar ( salus ) del emperador. Las celebraciones se parecían a las del 3 de enero, que habían sustituido a los votos tradicionales hechos por la salus de la república después de la transición al gobierno unipersonal bajo Augusto . El dies imperii era un reconocimiento de que la sucesión durante el Imperio podía tener lugar de forma irregular a través de la muerte o el derrocamiento de un emperador, en contraste con las magistraturas anuales de la República, cuando el año se designaba con los nombres de los cónsules que cumplían su mandato de un año. [152]

El dies Augusti o dies Augustus era, en términos más generales, cualquier aniversario perteneciente a la familia imperial, como cumpleaños o bodas, que aparecía en los calendarios oficiales como parte del culto imperial . [153] También se encuentran referencias a un dies Caesaris , pero no está claro si se diferenciaba del dies Augusti o en qué sentido . [154]

muere lustroso

El dies lustricus ("día de purificación") era un rito que se llevaba a cabo para los recién nacidos el octavo día de vida en el caso de las niñas y el noveno día en el caso de los niños. Se sabe poco del procedimiento ritual, pero el niño debió recibir su nombre ese día; las inscripciones funerarias de los bebés que murieron antes de su dies lustricus no tienen nombre. [155] La persona más joven encontrada conmemorada por su nombre en una lápida romana era un niño varón de nueve días (o 10 días en el conteo romano inclusivo ). [156] Debido a la tasa de mortalidad infantil , quizás tan alta como el 40 por ciento, [157] el recién nacido en sus primeros días de vida era considerado como en una fase liminal , vulnerable a fuerzas malignas (véase Lista de deidades romanas del nacimiento y la infancia ). Socialmente, el niño no existía. [158] El dies lustricus puede haber sido cuando el niño recibía la bulla , el amuleto protector que se dejaba de lado cuando un niño pasaba a la edad adulta . [159]

muere natalis

Página que enumera los natales imperiales por mes del Codex Vaticanus Barberini latinus del siglo XVII , basado en el Calendario de Filócalo (354 d. C.)

Un dies natalis era un cumpleaños ("día de nacimiento"; véase también dies lustricus arriba) o, más generalmente, el aniversario de un evento fundacional. Los romanos celebraban el cumpleaños de un individuo anualmente, en contraste con la práctica griega de marcar la fecha cada mes con una simple libación . El dies natalis romano estaba relacionado con el culto debido al genio . [160] Una figura pública podía programar un evento importante en su cumpleaños: Pompeyo Magno ("Pompeyo el Grande") esperó siete meses después de regresar de sus campañas militares en Oriente antes de escenificar su triunfo , para poder celebrarlo en su cumpleaños. [161] La coincidencia de cumpleaños y aniversarios podía tener un significado positivo o negativo: la noticia de la victoria de Décimo Bruto en Mutina se anunció en Roma en su cumpleaños, mientras que el asesino de César, Casio, sufrió una derrota en Filipos en su cumpleaños y se suicidó. [162] Los cumpleaños eran una de las fechas en las que se conmemoraba a los muertos. [163]

La fecha en que se fundaba un templo, o cuando se rededicaba tras una renovación o reconstrucción importante, también era un dies natalis , y podía considerarse también como el «cumpleaños» de la deidad que albergaba. Por tanto, los pontífices elegían la fecha de dichas ceremonias teniendo en cuenta su posición en el calendario religioso. El «cumpleaños» o fecha de fundación de Roma se celebraba el 21 de abril, día de la Parilia , una fiesta pastoral arcaica. [164] Como parte de una oleada de reformas y restauraciones religiosas en el período del 38 a. C. al 17 d. C., no menos de catorce templos vieron su dies natalis trasladado a otra fecha, a veces con el claro propósito de alinearlos con la nueva teología imperial tras el colapso de la República. [165]

Los cumpleaños de los emperadores se celebraban con ceremonias públicas como un aspecto del culto imperial . El Feriale Duranum , un calendario militar de celebraciones religiosas, presenta un gran número de cumpleaños imperiales. Augusto compartió su cumpleaños (23 de septiembre) con el aniversario del Templo de Apolo en el Campo de Marte , y profundizó en su conexión con Apolo al desarrollar su estatus religioso especial. [162]

La conmemoración de un cumpleaños también se denominaba natalicium, y podía adoptar la forma de un poema. Los primeros poetas cristianos, como Paulino de Nola, adoptaron el poema natalicium para conmemorar a los santos. [166] El día en que morían los mártires cristianos se considera su dies natalis ; véase Calendario de santos .

muere religioso

Según Festo , era incorrecto (nefas) emprender cualquier acción que no fuera la de atender las necesidades básicas en un día que era religiosus en el calendario. En estos días no se debían celebrar matrimonios , asambleas políticas ni batallas. No se debía alistar soldados ni emprender viajes. No se debía iniciar nada nuevo ni realizar actos religiosos ( res divinae ) . Aulo Gelio dijo que los dies religiosi debían distinguirse de los que eran nefasti . [167]

muere vicioso

La frase diem vitiare ("viciar un día") en la práctica augural significaba que las actividades normales de los negocios públicos estaban prohibidas en un día determinado, presumiblemente por obnuntiatio , debido a signos observados que indicaban defecto (morbus ; ver vitium ). [168] A diferencia de un dies religiosus o un dies ater ("día negro", típicamente el aniversario de una calamidad), una fecha particular no se volvía permanentemente vitiosus, con una excepción. Algunos calendarios romanos ( fasti ) producidos bajo Augusto y hasta la época de Claudio [169] marcan el 14 de enero como un dies vitiosus , un día que estaba inherentemente "viciado". El 14 de enero es el único día que se marca anualmente y oficialmente por decreto del senado romano ( senatus consultum ) como vitiosus . Linderski llama a esto "una innovación muy notable". [170] Un calendario, el Fasti Verulani (c. 17-37 d. C.), explica la designación señalando que era el dies natalis de Marco Antonio , que el historiador griego y senador romano Dion Casio dice que había sido declarado ἡμέρα μιαρά (hēmera miara) (= dies vitiosus ) por Augusto. [171] El emperador Claudio, que era nieto de Antonio, rehabilitó el día. [172]

decir

El adjetivo dirus aplicado a un presagio significaba "terrible, terrible". A menudo aparece en plural femenino como sustantivo que significa "malos presagios". Las dirae eran las peores de las cinco clases de signos reconocidos por los augures , y eran un tipo de signo oblativo o no buscado que predecía consecuencias desastrosas. La desafortunada partida de Marco Craso para la invasión de Partia estuvo notablemente acompañada por dirae (véase Ateius Capito ). En la etimología interpretativa de los escritores antiguos, [173] se pensaba que dirae derivaba de dei irae , los rencores o la ira de un dios, es decir, la ira divina . Dirae es un epíteto de las Furias , y también puede significar maldiciones o imprecaciones, [174] particularmente en el contexto de la magia y relacionado con las defixiones ( tablillas de maldición ). [175] Al explicar por qué Claudio se sintió obligado a prohibir la religión de los druidas , Suetonio [176] habla de ella como dirus , aludiendo a la práctica del sacrificio humano . [177]

Disciplina etrusca

Hígado etrusco de Piacenza

El cuerpo colectivo de conocimiento perteneciente a la doctrina, prácticas rituales, leyes y ciencia de la religión y cosmología etruscas se conocía como la disciplina Etrusca . [178] La adivinación era una característica particular de la disciplina . Los textos etruscos sobre la disciplina que eran conocidos por los romanos son de tres tipos: los libri haruspicini (sobre la aruspicina ), los libri fulgurales (el rayo) y los libri rituales (el ritual). [179] Nigidius Figulus , el erudito y pretor republicano tardío del 58 a. C., fue conocido por su experiencia en la disciplina . [180] Las fuentes antiguas existentes sobre la disciplina Etrusca incluyen a Plinio el Viejo , Séneca , Cicerón , Johannes Lydus , Macrobio y Festo .

Divús

El adjetivo divus , diva femenina , se traduce habitualmente como «divino». Como sustantivo , divus se refiere a un mortal «deificado» o divinizado. Tanto deus como divus derivan del indoeuropeo *deywos , del latín antiguo deivos . Servio confirma [181] que deus se utiliza para «deidades perpetuas» (deos perpetuos) , pero divus para personas que se vuelven divinas (divos ex hominibus factos = dioses que una vez fueron hombres) . Si bien esta distinción es útil para considerar los fundamentos teológicos del culto imperial , a veces desaparece en la práctica, particularmente en la poesía latina; Virgilio , por ejemplo, utiliza en su mayoría deus y divus indistintamente. Varrón y Ateius, [182] sin embargo, sostuvieron que las definiciones deberían invertirse. [183]

no lo hagas

La fórmula do ut des ("Te doy para que tú me des") expresa la reciprocidad del intercambio entre el ser humano y la deidad, lo que refleja la importancia de la entrega de regalos como una obligación mutua en la sociedad antigua y la naturaleza contractual de la religión romana. Los regalos ofrecidos por el ser humano toman la forma de sacrificio, con la expectativa de que el dios devolverá algo de valor, lo que provoca gratitud y más sacrificios en un ciclo perpetuo. [184] El principio do ut des es particularmente activo en la magia y el ritual privado. [185] Do ut des también fue un concepto judicial del derecho contractual . [186]

En la teología paulina , el do ut des era visto como una forma reductiva de piedad, meramente una "transacción comercial", en contraste con la gracia unilateral de Dios (χάρις, charis ). [187] Max Weber , en La sociología de la religión , lo vio como "una ética puramente formalista". [188] Sin embargo, en Las formas elementales de la vida religiosa , Émile Durkheim consideró el concepto no como meramente utilitario , sino como una expresión del "mecanismo del sistema sacrificial en sí" como "un intercambio de buenas acciones mutuamente vigorizantes entre la divinidad y sus fieles". [189]

mi

effacio

El verbo effari , participio pasado effatus , significa "crear límites (multas) por medio de fórmulas verbales fijas". [190] Effatio es el sustantivo abstracto . Era una de las tres partes de la ceremonia que inauguraba un templum (espacio sagrado), precedida por la consulta de signos y la liberatio que "liberaba" el espacio de influencias espirituales malignas o competidoras y efectos humanos. [191] De este modo, un site liberatus et effatus era "exorcizado y disponible". [31] El resultado era un locus inauguratus ("sitio inaugurado"), cuya forma más común era el templum . [192] Los límites tenían marcadores permanentes ( cippi o termini ), y cuando estos se dañaban o se quitaban, su effatio tenía que ser renovada. [193]

evocación

Relieve (siglo I d.C.) que representa el Paladio sobre una columna enroscada por una serpiente, a la que la Victoria le ofrece un huevo mientras un guerrero lo atiende en pose de paz.

La "invocación" o "convocación" de una deidad era una evocatio , de evoco, evocare , "convocar". El ritual se llevaba a cabo en un entorno militar, ya sea como amenaza durante un asedio o como resultado de una rendición, y tenía como objetivo desviar el favor de una deidad tutelar de la ciudad enemiga al lado romano, habitualmente con la promesa de un culto mejor dotado o un templo más lujoso. [194] Como táctica de guerra psicológica , la evocatio socavaba la sensación de seguridad del enemigo al amenazar la santidad de las murallas de su ciudad (véase pomerium ) y otras formas de protección divina. En la práctica, la evocatio era una forma de mitigar el saqueo, que de otro modo sería sacrílego, de imágenes religiosas de los santuarios. [195]

Entre los ejemplos registrados de evocaciones se incluyen el traslado de Juno Regina ("Juno la Reina", originalmente etrusco Uni ) desde Veyes en 396 a. C.; [196] el ritual realizado por Escipión Emiliano en 146 a. C. en la derrota de Cartago, en el que participó Tanit ( Juno Caelestis ); [197] y la dedicación de un templo a una deidad sin nombre y de género indeterminado en Isaura Vetus en Asia Menor en 75 a. C. [198] Algunos eruditos creen que Vortumnus (etrusco Voltumna ) fue traído por evocación a Roma en 264 a. C. como resultado de la derrota de los volsinios a manos de Marco Fulvio Flaco . [199] En el mito romano, un concepto similar motiva el traslado del Paladio de Troya a Roma, donde sirvió como uno de los pignora imperii , símbolos sagrados de la soberanía romana. [200] Compárese con invocatio , la "invocación" de una deidad.

Sólo se conocen evocaciones formales durante la República . [201] Otras formas de asimilación religiosa aparecen a partir de la época de Augusto , a menudo en conexión con el establecimiento del culto imperial en las provincias . [202]

Evocatio , " convocatoria ", era también un término del derecho romano sin referencia evidente a su sentido mágico-religioso. [203]

exageración

Un lugar que había sido inaugurado (locus inauguratus) , es decir, marcado mediante un procedimiento augural, no podía cambiar su propósito sin una ceremonia de reversión. [204] Quitar a un dios de las instalaciones requería las invocaciones ceremoniales correctas. [205] Cuando Tarquino reconstruyó el distrito del templo en el Capitolio , varias deidades fueron desalojadas por exauguratio , aunque Terminus y Juventas "se negaron" y fueron incorporados a la nueva estructura. [206] La distinción entre la exauguratio de una deidad y una evocatio puede no estar clara. [207] El procedimiento era en ambos casos poco común, y solo se requería cuando una deidad tenía que ceder el lugar a otra, o cuando el sitio se secularizaba. No se requería cuando un sitio se actualizaba, por ejemplo, si un altar al aire libre debía reemplazarse por un templo para el mismo dios. [208]

El término también podría usarse para destituir a alguien de un oficio sacerdotal (sacerdotium) . [209] Compárese con inauguratio .

eximio

Un adjetivo , "elección, selecto", usado para denotar la alta calidad requerida de las víctimas sacrificiales: "Las víctimas (hostiae) son llamadas 'selectas' (eximiae) porque son seleccionadas (eximantur) del rebaño y designadas para el sacrificio, o porque son elegidas debido a su apariencia elegida (eximia) como ofrendas a entidades divinas ( numinibus ) ". [210] El adjetivo aquí es sinónimo de egregius , "escogido del rebaño (grex, gregis) ". [211] Macrobio dice que es específicamente un término sacerdotal y no un " epíteto poético " (poeticum ἐπίθετον) .

adicional

Los exta eran las entrañas de un animal sacrificado , que comprendían en la enumeración de Cicerón la vesícula biliar ( fel ), el hígado ( iecur ), el corazón ( cor ) y los pulmones ( pulmones ). [212] Los exta se exponían para la litación (aprobación divina) como parte de la liturgia romana, pero se "leían" en el contexto de la disciplina Etrusca . Como producto del sacrificio romano, los exta y la sangre se reservaban para los dioses, mientras que la carne (vísceras) se compartía entre los seres humanos en una comida comunitaria. Los exta de las víctimas bovinas se solían guisar en una olla ( olla o aula ), mientras que los de ovejas o cerdos se asaban en brochetas. Cuando se cocinaba la porción de la deidad, se rociaba con mola salsa (harina salada preparada ritualmente) y vino, y luego se colocaba en el fuego del altar para la ofrenda; el verbo técnico para esta acción era porricere . [213]

F

fanático

Fanaticus significa "perteneciente a un fanum ", un santuario o recinto sagrado. [214] Fanatici aplicado a las personas se refiere a los asistentes del templo o devotos de un culto, generalmente una de las religiones extáticas u orgiásticas como la de Cibeles (en referencia a los Galli ), [215] Bellona-Ma , [216] o quizás Silvano . [217] Las inscripciones indican que una persona que hace una dedicación podría etiquetarse a sí misma como fanaticus , en el sentido neutral de "devoto". [218] Tácito usa fanaticus para describir la tropa de druidas que asistieron a la reina icenia Boudica . [219] La palabra fue utilizada a menudo de manera despectiva por los antiguos romanos al contrastar estos ritos más emotivos con los procedimientos altamente escritos de la religión pública, [220] y más tarde por los primeros cristianos para desaprobar religiones distintas a la propia; De ahí la connotación negativa de "fanático" en inglés.

Festo dice que un árbol alcanzado por un rayo se llama fanaticus , [221] una referencia a la creencia romano-etrusca en el rayo como una forma de señal divina. [222] El obispo galo Cesáreo de Arlés , escribiendo en el siglo V, indica que tales árboles conservaron su santidad incluso hasta su propia época, [223] e instó a los fieles cristianos a quemar los arbores fanatici . Estos árboles estaban ubicados en un fanum y lo marcaban o eran considerados un fanum en sí mismos . Cesáreo no tiene muy claro si los devotos consideraban al árbol en sí como divino o si pensaban que su destrucción mataría el numen que albergaba. De cualquier manera, ni siquiera la escasez de leña los persuadiría a usar la madera sagrada como combustible, un escrúpulo por el que se burlaba de ellos. [224]

fanático

Un fanum es una parcela de tierra consagrada, un santuario, [225] y a partir de él un templo o santuario construido allí. [226] Un fanum puede ser un espacio sagrado tradicional como el bosque ( lucus ) de Diana Nemorensis , o un espacio o estructura sagrada para religiones no romanas, como un Iseum (templo de Isis ) o Mithraeum . Cognados como osco fíísnú , [227] umbro fesnaf-e , [228] y palentino fesn indican que el concepto es compartido por los pueblos itálicos . [229] El griego temenos era el mismo concepto. En el período augusteo , fanum , aedes , templum y delubrum apenas se distinguen en el uso, [230] pero fanum era un término más inclusivo y general. [231]

El fanum , templo romano-celta o templo ambulatorio de la Galia romana , se construía a menudo sobre un lugar religioso originalmente celta , y su planta estaba influenciada por la arquitectura ritual de los santuarios celtas anteriores. El edificio del templo de mampostería del período galo-romano tenía un espacio central ( cella ) y una estructura de galería periférica, ambos cuadrados. [232] Fana romano-celta de este tipo también se encuentran en la Britania romana . [233] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ]

La palabra inglesa "profano" deriva en última instancia del latín pro fano , [234] "delante, es decir, fuera del templo", "delante del santuario", por lo tanto no dentro del terreno sagrado.

hecho deorum

Fata deorum o la forma contraída fata deum son las declaraciones de los dioses; es decir, profecías. [235] Estas se registraban en forma escrita y eran conservadas por los sacerdotes estatales de Roma para su consulta. Las fata son tanto el "destino" tal como lo conocen y determinan los dioses, como la expresión de la voluntad divina en forma de oráculos verbales. [236] Fata deum es un tema de la Eneida , la epopeya nacional de Roma escrita por Virgilio . [237]

Los Libros Sibilinos (Fata Sibyllina o Libri Fatales) , compuestos en hexámetros griegos, son un ejemplo de fata escrita . Estos no eran de origen romano, pero se cree que fueron adquiridos solo en forma parcial por Lucio Tarquinio el Soberbio . Fueron custodiados por el sacerdocio de los decemviri sacris faciundis "diez hombres para llevar a cabo ritos sagrados", más tarde quince en número: quindecimviri sacris faciundis . Nadie leía los libros en su totalidad; solo se consultaban cuando era necesario. Se seleccionaba un pasaje al azar y su relevancia para la situación actual era una cuestión de interpretación experta. [238] Se pensaba que contenían fata rei publicae aeterna , "profecías eternamente válidas para Roma". [239] Continuaron siendo consultados durante todo el período imperial hasta la época de la hegemonía cristiana. Augusto instaló los libros sibilinos en un estuche de almacenamiento dorado especial debajo de la estatua de Apolo en el Templo de Apolo Palatino . [240] El emperador Aureliano reprendió al Senado por sucumbir a la influencia cristiana y no consultar los libros. [241] Juliano consultó los libros sobre su campaña contra Persia, pero se fue antes de recibir la respuesta desfavorable del colegio; Juliano fue asesinado y el Templo de Apolo Palatino quemado. [242]

Rápido

Fas es un concepto central en la religión romana. Aunque en algunos contextos se traduce como "ley divina", [243] fas es más precisamente aquello que es "religiosamente legítimo", [244] o una acción que es lícita a los ojos de los dioses. [245] En la religión pública, fas est se declara antes de anunciar una acción requerida o permitida por la costumbre religiosa romana y por la ley divina. [246] Por lo tanto, fas se distingue de y se vincula con ius (plural iura ), "ley, legalidad, justicia", como lo indica la frase de Virgilio , frecuentemente citada , fas et iura sinunt , " fas e iura lo permiten", que Servio explica como "las leyes divinas y humanas lo permiten, porque fas pertenece a la religión, iura al ser humano". [247]

Los Fasti Antiates Maiores , un calendario prejuliano en un dibujo reconstruido

En los calendarios romanos , los días marcados con F son dies fasti , cuando es fas atender las preocupaciones de la vida cotidiana. [248] En el uso no especializado, fas est puede significar en general "es permisible, es correcto".

La etimología de fas es objeto de debate. Se asocia más comúnmente con el campo semántico del verbo fari , "hablar", [249] un origen que Varrón insiste en afirmar . [250] En otras fuentes, tanto antiguas como modernas, se cree que fas tiene su origen en una raíz indoeuropea que significa "establecer", junto con fanum y feriae . [251] Véase también Fasti y nefas .

rápido

Un registro o plan de eventos oficiales y sancionados religiosamente. Todos los asuntos estatales y sociales deben realizarse en dies fasti , "días permitidos". Los fasti eran los registros de todos los detalles relacionados con estos eventos. La palabra se usaba sola en un sentido general o calificada por un adjetivo para significar un tipo específico de registro. Estrechamente asociadas con los fasti y utilizadas para marcar el tiempo en ellas estaban las divisiones del calendario romano .

Fasti es también el título de un poema de seis libros de Ovidio basado en el calendario religioso romano. Es una fuente importante de la práctica religiosa romana y fue traducido al inglés por J. G. Frazer .

Félix

En su sentido religioso, felix significa «bendito, bajo la protección o favor de los dioses; feliz». Lo que es felix ha alcanzado la pax divom , un estado de armonía o paz con el mundo divino. [252] Tiene sus raíces en el indoeuropeo *dhe(i)l, que significa «feliz, fructífero, productivo, lleno de alimento». Las palabras latinas relacionadas incluyen femina , «mujer» (una persona que proporciona alimento o amamanta); felo , «amamantar»; y filius , «hijo» (una persona amamantada). [253] Véase también Felicitas , tanto una abstracción que expresaba la cualidad de ser felix como una deidad de la religión estatal romana.

feria

Una feria en el calendario romano es un "día libre", es decir, un día en el que no se trabajaba. No se celebraban sesiones judiciales ni se llevaban a cabo negocios públicos. Los empleados tenían derecho a un día libre, e incluso los esclavos no estaban obligados a trabajar. Estos días se codificaron en un sistema de días festivos públicos legales, las feriae publicae , que podían ser

En el rito romano cristiano , una feria es un día de la semana distinto del sábado o el domingo. [254] La costumbre en toda Europa de celebrar mercados el mismo día dio origen a la palabra " feria " (en español Feria , en italiano Fiera , en catalán Fira ).

Festo

En el calendario romano , un dies festus es un día festivo o sagrado, es decir, un día dedicado a una deidad o deidades. En esos días estaba prohibido realizar cualquier actividad profana, especialmente negocios oficiales o públicos. Todos los dies festi eran, por lo tanto, nefasti . Sin embargo, algunos días no eran festi y, sin embargo, podían no ser permitidos como días hábiles ( fasti ) por otras razones. Los días en los que se permitían actividades profanas eran profesti . [255]

fecial

Los fetiales , o sacerdotes feciales.

fin

El finis (límite, frontera, límite), en plural fines , era un concepto esencial en la práctica augural , que se ocupaba de la definición del templum . Establecer fines era una parte importante de los deberes de un magistrado . [256] La mayoría de los estudiosos consideran que el finis se definía físicamente mediante cuerdas, árboles, piedras u otros marcadores, al igual que los límites de los campos y las propiedades en general. Estaba relacionado con el dios Terminus y su culto. [257]

flamenca

Flamen con el sombrero distintivo de su cargo, al que le falta la punta superior (siglo III d.C.)

Los quince flamines formaban parte del Colegio de Pontífices . Cada flamen servía como sumo sacerdote de una de las deidades oficiales de la religión romana y dirigía los rituales relacionados con esa deidad. Los flamines eran considerados los más antiguos entre los sacerdotes , ya que muchos de ellos estaban asignados a deidades que databan de la prehistoria del Lacio y cuyo significado ya se había vuelto oscuro en los tiempos clásicos.

La naturaleza arcaica de los flamens se indica por su presencia entre las tribus latinas . Oficiaban en ceremonias con la cabeza cubierta por un velo y siempre llevaban un filamento , hilo, en contraste con los rituales públicos realizados por el rito griego (ritus graecus) que se establecieron más tarde. Los autores antiguos derivan la palabra flamen de la costumbre de cubrirse la cabeza con el filamento , pero puede ser afín al brahmán védico . El tocado distintivo del flamen era el apex .

Hermanos Arvales

Los "Hermanos del Campo" eran un colegio de sacerdotes cuyas funciones se relacionaban con la agricultura y la ganadería. Eran la sodalitas religiosa más antigua : según la tradición fueron creados por Rómulo , pero probablemente eran anteriores a la fundación de Roma . [ cita requerida ]

GRAMO

Gabino

El adjetivo gabinus describe un elemento de la religión que los romanos atribuían a las prácticas de Gabii , una ciudad del Lacio con estatus municipal a unos 12 kilómetros de Roma. La incorporación de las tradiciones gabinianas indica su estatus especial en virtud del tratado con Roma. Véase cinctus gabinus y ager gabinus . [89]

yo

hostia

Instrumentos rituales

La hostia era la ofrenda, generalmente un animal , en un sacrificio. Ovidio y otros usan la palabra indistintamente con victima , pero algunos autores antiguos intentan distinguir entre las dos. [258] Servio dice [259] que la hostia se sacrifica antes de la batalla, la victima después, lo que concuerda con la etimología de Ovidio al relacionar la "hostia" con los "hostiles" o enemigos ( hostis ), y la "víctima" con el "vencedor". [260]

En otros lugares se dice que la diferencia entre la victima y la hostia es una cuestión de tamaño, siendo la hostia más pequeña ( minor ). [261] Las hostias también se clasificaban por edad: las lactentes eran lo suficientemente jóvenes como para seguir tomando leche, pero habían alcanzado la edad para ser purae ; las bidentes habían alcanzado los dos años de edad [262] o tenían los dos dientes incisivos (bi-) más largos (dentes) que son una indicación de la edad. [263]

Las hostias se podían clasificar de diversas maneras. Una hostia consultatoria era una ofrenda con el fin de consultar a una deidad, es decir, para conocer la voluntad de una deidad; la hostia animalis , para aumentar la fuerza ( mactare ) de la deidad. [264]

La víctima también podía clasificarse por ocasión y momento. La hostia praecidanea era una "ofrenda anticipada" realizada el día anterior a un sacrificio. [265] Era una expiación anticipada "para implorar la indulgencia divina" en caso de que se cometiera un error el día del sacrificio formal. [266] Se ofrecía un cerdo preliminar como praecidanea el día antes de que comenzara la cosecha. [267] La ​​hostia praecidanea se ofrecía a Ceres un día antes de un festival religioso ( sacrum , antes del comienzo de la cosecha) en expiación por negligencias en los deberes de piedad hacia el difunto. [ aclaración necesaria ] La hostia praesentanaea era un cerdo ofrecido a Ceres durante una parte de los ritos funerarios realizados a la vista del difunto, cuya familia era absuelta ritualmente. [268] Una hostia succidanea se ofrecía en cualquier rito después de que el primer sacrificio hubiera fallado debido a una impropiedad ritual ( vitium ). [269] Compárese con piaculum , una ofrenda expiatoria.

Hostia es el origen de la palabra "hostia" para designar el sacramento eucarístico de la Iglesia occidental ; véase Pan sacramental: Iglesia católica . Véase también votum , una dedicación o un voto de ofrenda a una deidad, así como aquello que cumplió el voto.

I

inauguración

Rito realizado por los augures mediante el cual la persona en cuestión recibía la aprobación de los dioses para su nombramiento o su investidura. El augur pedía la aparición de ciertos signos (auspicia impetrativa) mientras permanecía de pie junto al designado en el auguraculum . En el período regio , la inauguratio concernía al rey y a los sacerdotes mayores . [270] Después del establecimiento de la República , el rex sacrorum , [271] los tres flamines maiores , [272] los augures y los pontífices [273] todos debían ser investidos.

El término también puede referirse al establecimiento ritual del templo augural y al trazado de la muralla de una nueva ciudad. [ cita requerida ]

Indigitadamente

Los indigitamenta eran listas de dioses que mantenía el Colegio de Pontífices para asegurar que se invocaran los nombres divinos correctos en las oraciones públicas. A veces no está claro si estos nombres representan entidades menores distintas o epítetos pertenecientes a un aspecto de la esfera de influencia de una deidad mayor, es decir, una indigitación o nombre destinado a "fijar" o focalizar la acción local del dios así invocado. [274] Se supone que Varrón se basó en el conocimiento directo de las listas al escribir sus libros teológicos, como lo evidencian los catálogos de deidades menores de los que se burlaron los Padres de la Iglesia que usaron su obra [275] como referencia. [276] Es probable que otra fuente haya sido la obra inexistente De indigitamentis de Granius Flaccus , contemporáneo de Varrón. [277] No debe confundirse con los di indigetes .

invocación

El dirigirse a una deidad en una oración o hechizo mágico es la invocatio , de invoco, invocare , "invocar" a los dioses o espíritus de los muertos. [278] La eficacia de la invocatio depende del nombre correcto de la deidad, que puede incluir epítetos , frases descriptivas, honoríficos o títulos y nombres arcanos. La lista de nombres ( nomina ) es a menudo extensa, particularmente en hechizos mágicos; muchas oraciones e himnos se componen en gran parte de invocaciones. [279] El nombre se invoca en caso vocativo [280] o acusativo . [281] En el uso especializado perteneciente al procedimiento augural , invocatio es un sinónimo de precatio , pero específicamente dirigido a evitar mala , sucesos malignos. [282] Compárese con evocatio .

El término equivalente en la religión griega antigua es epíclesis . [283] Pausanias distinguió entre las categorías de teónimo propiamente dicho, epíteto poético , la epíclesis del culto local y una epíclesis que podría usarse universalmente entre los griegos. [284] La epíclesis sigue en uso en algunas iglesias cristianas para la invocación del Espíritu Santo durante la oración eucarística .

ius

Ius es la palabra latina que designa la justicia, el derecho, la equidad, la imparcialidad y todo lo que llegó a entenderse como la esfera del derecho . Se define en las palabras iniciales de la Digesta con las palabras de Celso como "el arte de lo que es bueno y justo" y de manera similar por Pablo como "lo que es siempre justo y equitativo". [285] El polímata Varrón y el jurista Gayo [286] consideran esencial la distinción entre ius divino y humano [287] pero el orden divino es la fuente de todas las leyes, ya sean naturales o humanas, por lo que el pontífice es considerado el juez final (iudex) y árbitro. [288] El jurista Ulpiano define la jurisprudencia como "el conocimiento de los asuntos humanos y divinos, de lo que es justo e injusto". [289]

ius divinum

"Ley sagrada" [290] o "ley divina", en particular en lo que se refiere a los derechos de los dioses en relación con su "propiedad", lo que les pertenece por derecho. [291] El reconocimiento del ius divinum era fundamental para mantener las relaciones correctas entre los seres humanos y sus deidades. La preocupación por la ley y el procedimiento legal que era característica de la antigua sociedad romana también era inherente a la religión romana. [292] Véase también pax deorum .

ius pontificum

La ley pontificia que gobernaba la religión romana cubría sacra , ritos; vota , juramentos; feriae , días santos; y sepulchra , tumbas. [293] Cicerón lo describe como absconditum , secreto. [294] Un libro sobre ley pontificia, probablemente el escrito a mediados del siglo II a. C. por Fabio Pictor , fue consultado por Aulo Gelio en el siglo II d. C. como fuente sobre el flamen y flaminica Dialis . [295]

yo

lavado

El baño de la imagen de culto de una deidad, en particular de una diosa, podía prescribirse en un ritual anual. Una lavatio era una parte especial del culto importado de Cibeles , cuya estatua y objetos asociados se llevaban en procesión para bañarse en el río Almo . [296] Ovidio dice que la estatua de Venus Verticordia se bañaba como parte de las Veneralia el primero de abril , pero la ausencia de esta lavatio en cualquier otra fuente puede indicar que, dado que estaba destinada a ser realizada por mujeres, los magistrados no asistían. [297]

lectisternio

El lectisternium era una ceremonia propiciatoria que tomaba la forma de una comida ofrecida a las divinidades, como si estuvieran sentados para el banquete en un diván (lectus) .

Lex

La palabra lex (plural leges ) deriva de la raíz indoeuropea *leg , al igual que los verbos latinos lego, legare, ligo, ligare ("nombrar, legar") y lego, legere ("reunir, elegir, seleccionar, discernir, leer": cf. también el verbo griego legein "recoger, contar, hablar"), y el sustantivo abstracto religio . [298] Las partes en los procedimientos legales y contratos se obligaban a la observancia mediante el ofrecimiento de sacrificios a las deidades testigos. [299]

Even though the word lex underwent the frequent semantic shift in Latin towards the legal area, its original meaning of set, formulaic words was preserved in some instances. Some cult formulae are leges: an augur's request for particular signs that would betoken divine approval in an augural rite (augurium), or in the inauguration of magistrates and some sacerdotes is named legum dictio.[300] The formula quaqua lege volet ("by whatever lex, i.e. wording he wishes") allowed a cult performer discretion in his choice of ritual words.[301] The leges templi regulated cult actions at various temples.[302][303]

In civil law, ritualised sets of words and gestures known as legis actiones were in use as a legal procedure in civil cases; they were regulated by custom and tradition (mos maiorum) and were thought to involve protection of the performers from malign or occult influences.[304]

Libation preceding a sacrifice, depicted on a 3rd-century sarcophagus

libatio

Libation (Latin libatio, Greek spondai) was one of the simplest religious acts, regularly performed in daily life. At home, a Roman who was about to drink wine would pour the first few drops onto the household altar.[305] The drink offering might also be poured on the ground or at a public altar. Milk and honey, water, and oil were also used.[306]

liberatio

The liberatio (from the verb liberare, "to free") was the "liberating" of a place (locus) from "all unwanted or hostile spirits and of all human influences," as part of the ceremony inaugurating the templum (sacred space). It was preceded by the consulting of signs and followed by the effatio, the creation of boundaries (fines).[307] A site liberatus et effatus was "exorcized and available" for its sacred purpose.[45]

libri augurales

The augural books (libri augurales) represented the collective, core knowledge of the augural college. Some scholars[308] consider them distinct from the commentarii augurum (commentaries of the augurs) which recorded the collegial acts of the augurs, including the decreta and responsa.[309] The books were central to the practice of augury. They have not survived, but Cicero, who was an augur himself, offers a summary in De Legibus[310] that represents "precise dispositions based certainly on an official collection edited in a professional fashion."[311]

libri pontificales

The libri pontificales (pontifical books) are core texts in Roman religion, which survive as fragmentary transcripts and commentaries. They may have been partly annalistic, part priestly; different Roman authors refer to them as libri and commentarii (commentaries), described by Livy as incomplete "owing to the long time elapsed and the rare use of writing" and by Quintillian as unintelligibly archaic and obscure. The earliest were credited to Numa, second king of Rome, who was thought to have codified the core texts and principles of Rome's religious and civil law (ius divinum and ius civile).[312] See also commentarii pontificum.

litatio

In animal sacrifice, the litatio followed the opening up of the body cavity for the inspection of the entrails (inspicere exta). Litatio was not a part of divinatory practice as derived from the Etruscans (see extispicy and Liver of Piacenza), but rather a certification according to Roman liturgy of the gods' approval. The point was not that those sacrificing had to make sure that the victim was perfect inside and out; rather, the good internal condition of the animal was evidence of divine acceptance of the offering. The need for the deity to approve and accept (litare) underscores that the reciprocity of sacrifice (do ut des) was not to be taken for granted.[313]

If the organs were diseased or defective, the procedure had to be restarted with a new victim (hostia). In 176 BC[314] the presiding consuls attempted to sacrifice an ox, only to find that its liver had been consumed by a wasting disease. After three more oxen failed to pass the test, the senate's instructions were to keep sacrificing bigger victims until litatio could be obtained.[315]

Lituus (at right) and other priestly implements under the title augur

lituus

The lituus is the distinctively curved staff of an augur, frequently depicted on Roman coins and most often accompanied by a ritual jug or pitcher. The presence of the lituus indicates that either the moneyer or person honored on the obverse was an augur.

lucus

In religious usage, a lucus was a grove or small wooded area considered sacred to a divinity. Entrance might be severely restricted: Paulus[316] explains that a capitalis lucus was protected from human access under penalty of death. Leges sacratae (laws for the violation of which the offender is outlawed)[317] concerning sacred groves have been found on cippi at Spoleto in Umbria and Lucera in Apulia.[318] See also nemus.

ludi

Ludi were games held as part of religious festivals, and some were originally sacral in nature. These included chariot racing and the venatio, or staged animal-human blood sport that may have had a sacrificial element.

Luperci

The "wolf priests", organized into two colleges and later three, who participated in the Lupercalia. The most famous person to serve as a lupercus was Mark Antony.

lustratio

The lustratio is a ritual of purification that was held every five years under the jurisdiction of censors in Rome. Its original meaning was purifying by washing in water (Lat. lustrum from verb luo, "I wash in water"). The time elapsing between two subsequent lustrations being of five years the term lustrum took up the meaning of a period of five year.[319]

M

manubia

Zeus (Etruscan Tinia, Roman Jupiter) holding a three-pronged lightning bolt, between Apollo and Hera/Juno (red-figure calyx-krater from Etruria, 420-400 BC)

Manubia is a technical term of the Etruscan discipline, and refers to the power of a deity to wield lightning, represented in divine icons by a lightning bolt in the hand. It may be either a Latinized word from Etruscan or less likely a formation from manus, "hand," and habere, "to have, hold."[320] It is not apparently related to the more common Latin word manubiae meaning "booty (taken by a general in war)."[321] Seneca uses the term in an extended discussion of lightning.[322] Jupiter, as identified with Etruscan Tinia,[323] held three types of manubiae[324] sent from three different celestial regions.[325] Stefan Weinstock describes these as:

  1. mild, or "perforating" lightning;
  2. harmful or "crushing" lightning, which is sent on the advice of the twelve Di Consentes and occasionally does some good;
  3. destructive or "burning" lightning, which is sent on the advice of the di superiores et involuti (hidden gods of the "higher" sphere) and changes the state of public and private affairs.[326]

Jupiter makes use of the first type of beneficial lightning to persuade or dissuade.[327] Books on how to read lightning were one of the three main forms of Etruscan learning on the subject of divination.[328]

miraculum

One of several words for portent or sign, miraculum is a non-technical term that places emphasis on the observer's response (mirum, "a wonder, marvel").[329] Livy uses the word miraculum, for instance, to describe the sign visited upon Servius Tullius as a child, when divine flames burst forth from his head and the royal household witnessed the event.[330] Compare monstrum, ostentum, portentum, and prodigium.

Miraculum is the origin of the English word "miracle." Christian writers later developed a distinction between miracula, the true forms of which were evidence of divine power in the world, and mere mirabilia, things to be marveled at but not resulting from God's intervention. "Pagan" marvels were relegated to the category of mirabilia and attributed to the work of demons.[331]

Emmer wheat, used for mola salsa

mola salsa

Flour mixed with salt was sprinkled on the forehead and between the horns of sacrificial victims, as well as on the altar and in the sacred fire. This mola salsa ('salted flour') was prepared ritually from toasted wheat or emmer, spelt, or barley by the Vestals, who thus contributed to every official sacrifice in Rome.[332] Servius uses the words pius and castus to describe the product.[333] The mola was so fundamental to sacrifice that "to put on the mola" (Latin immolare) came to mean "to sacrifice." Its use was one of the numerous religious traditions ascribed to Numa, the Sabine second king of Rome.[334]

monstrum

A monstrum is a sign or portent that disrupts the natural order as evidence of divine displeasure.[335] The word monstrum is usually assumed to derive, as Cicero says, from the verb monstro, "show" (compare English "demonstrate"), but according to Varro it comes from moneo, "warn."[336] Because a sign must be startling or deviant to have an impact, monstrum came to mean "unnatural event"[337] or "a malfunctioning of nature."[338] Suetonius said that "a monstrum is contrary to nature (or exceeds the nature) we are familiar with, like a snake with feet or a bird with four wings."[339] The Greek equivalent was teras.[340] The English word "monster" derived from the negative sense of the word. Compare miraculum, ostentum, portentum, and prodigium.

In one of the most famous uses of the word in Latin literature, the Augustan poet Horace calls Cleopatra a fatale monstrum, something deadly and outside normal human bounds.[341] Cicero calls Catiline monstrum atque prodigium[342] and uses the phrase several times to insult various objects of his attacks as depraved and beyond the human pale. For Seneca, the monstrum is, like tragedy, "a visual and horrific revelation of the truth."[343]

mundus

Literally "the world", also a pit supposedly dug and sealed by Romulus as part of Rome's foundation rites. Its interpretation is problematic; it was normally sealed, and was ritually opened only on three occasions during the year. Still, in the most ancient Fasti, these days were marked C(omitiales)[344] (days when the Comitia met) suggesting the idea that the whole ritual was a later Greek import.[345] However Cato and Varro as quoted by Macrobius considered them religiosi.[346] When opened, the pit served as a cache for offerings to underworld deities, particularly Ceres, goddess of the fruitful earth. It offered a portal between the upper and lower worlds; its shape was said to be an inversion of the dome of the upper heavens.[347]

N

nefandum

An adjective derived from nefas (following). The gerund of verb fari, to speak, is commonly used to form derivate or inflected forms of fas. See Vergil's fandi as genitive of fas. This use has been invoked to support the derivation of fas from IE root *bha, Latin fari.

nefas

Any thing or action contrary to divine law and will is nefas (in archaic legalese, ne (not) ... fas).[348] Nefas forbids a thing as religiously and morally offensive, or indicates a failure to fulfill a religious duty.[349] It might be nuanced as "a religious duty not to", as in Festus' statement that "a man condemned by the people for a heinous action is sacer" — that is, given over to the gods for judgment and disposal — "it is not a religious duty to execute him, but whoever kills him will not be prosecuted".[350]

Livy records that the patricians opposed legislation that would allow a plebeian to hold the office of consul on the grounds that it was nefas: a plebeian, they claimed, would lack the arcane knowledge of religious matters that by tradition was a patrician prerogative. The plebeian tribune Gaius Canuleius, whose lex it was, retorted that it was arcane because the patricians kept it secret.[351]

nefastus

Usually found with dies (singular or plural), as dies nefasti, days on which official transactions were forbidden on religious grounds. See also nefas, fasti and fas.

nemus

Nemus, plural nemora, was one of four Latin words that meant "forest, woodland, woods." Lucus is more strictly a sacred grove,[352] as defined by Servius as "a large number of trees with a religious significance",[353] and distinguished from the silva, a natural forest; saltus, territory that is wilderness; and a nemus, an arboretum that is not consecrated (but compare Celtic nemeton).[354] In Latin poetry, a nemus is often a place conducive to poetic inspiration, and particularly in the Augustan period takes on a sacral aura.[355]

Named nemora include:

nuntiatio

The chief responsibility of an augur was to observe signs (observatio) and to report the results (nuntiatio).[358] The announcement was made before an assembly. A passage in Cicero states that the augur was entitled to report on the signs observed before or during an assembly and that the magistrates had the right to watch for signs (spectio) as well as make the announcement (nuntiatio) prior to the conducting of public business, but the exact significance of Cicero's distinction is a matter of scholarly debate.[359]

O

obnuntiatio

Obnuntiatio was a declaration of unfavourable signs by an augur in order to suspend, cancel or postpone a proposed course of public action. The procedure could be carried out only by an official who had the right to observe omens (spectio).[360]

The only source for the term is Cicero, himself an augur, who refers to it in several speeches as a religious bulwark against popularist politicians and tribunes. The Lex Aelia Fufia (ca. 150 BC) may have extended the right of obnuntiatio beyond the augural college to all magistrates. Legislation by Clodius as tribune of the plebs in 58 BC was aimed at ending the practice,[361] or at least curtailing its potential for abuse; obnuntiatio had been exploited the previous year as an obstructionist tactic by Julius Caesar's consular colleague Bibulus. That the Clodian law had not deprived all augurs or magistrates of the privilege is indicated by Mark Antony's use of obnuntatio in early 44 BC to halt the consular election.[362]

observatio

Observatio was the interpretation of signs according to the tradition of the "Etruscan discipline", or as preserved in books such as the libri augurales. A haruspex interpreted fulgura (thunder and lightning) and exta (entrails) by observatio. The word has three closely related meanings in augury: the observing of signs by an augur or other diviner; the process of observing, recording, and establishing the meaning of signs over time; and the codified body of knowledge accumulated by systematic observation, that is, "unbending rules" regarded as objective, or external to an individual's observation on a given occasion. Impetrative signs, or those sought by standard augural procedure, were interpreted according to observatio; the observer had little or no latitude in how they might be interpreted. Observatio might also be applicable to many oblative or unexpected signs. Observatio was considered a kind of scientia, or "scientific" knowledge, in contrast to coniectura, a more speculative "art" or "method" (ars) as required by novel signs.[363]

omen

An omen, plural omina, was a sign intimating the future, considered less important to the community than a prodigium but of great importance to the person who heard or saw it.[364] Omens could be good or bad. Unlike prodigia, bad omens were never expiated by public rites but could be reinterpreted, redirected or otherwise averted (see abominari).

ostentarium

One form of arcane literature was the ostentarium, a written collection describing and interpreting signs (ostenta).[365] Tarquitius Priscus wrote an Ostentarium arborarium, a book on signs pertaining to trees, and an Ostentarium Tuscum, presumably translations of Etruscan works.[366] Pliny cites his contemporary Umbricius Melior for an ostentarium aviarium, concerning birds.[367] They were consulted until late antiquity; in the 4th century, for instance, the haruspices consulted the books of Tarquitius before the battle that proved fatal to the emperor Julian — according to Ammianus Marcellinus, because he failed to heed them.[368] Fragments of ostentaria survive as quotations in other literary works.[369]

ostentum

According to Varro, an ostentum is a sign so called because it shows (ostendit) something to a person.[370] Suetonius specified that "an ostentum shows itself to us without possessing a solid body and affects both our eyes and ears, like darkness or a light at night."[339] In his classic work on Roman divination, Auguste Bouché-Leclercq thus tried to distinguish theoretical usage of ostenta and portenta as applying to inanimate objects, monstra to biological signs, and prodigia for human acts or movements, but in non-technical writing the words tend to be used more loosely as synonyms.[371]

The theory of ostenta, portenta and monstra constituted one of the three branches of interpretation within the disciplina Etrusca, the other two being the more specific fulgura (thunder and lightning) and exta (entrails). Ostenta and portenta are not the signs that augurs are trained to solicit and interpret, but rather "new signs", the meaning of which had to be figured out through ratio (the application of analytical principles) and coniectura (more speculative reasoning, in contrast to augural observatio).[372]

ordo sacerdotum

A religious hierarchy implied by the seating arrangements of priests (sacerdotes) at sacrificial banquets. As "the most powerful", the rex sacrorum was positioned next to the gods, followed by the Flamen Dialis, then the Flamen Martialis, then the Flamen Quirinalis and lastly, the Pontifex Maximus.[373] The ordo sacerdotum observed and preserved ritual distinctions between divine and human power. In the human world, the Pontifex Maximus was the most influential and powerful of all sacerdotes.

P

paludatus

Mars wearing the paludamentum

Paludatus (masculine singular, plural paludati) is an adjective meaning "wearing the paludamentum,"[374] the distinctive attire of the Roman military commander. Varro[375] and Festus say that any military ornament could be called a paludamentum, but other sources indicate that the cloak was primarily meant. According to Festus, paludati in the augural books meant "armed and adorned" (armati, ornati).[376] As the commander crossed from the sacred boundary of Rome (pomerium), he was paludatus, adorned with the attire he would wear to lead a battle and for official business.[377] This adornment was thus part of the commander's ritual investiture with imperium.[378] It followed upon the sacrifices and vows the commander offered up on the Capitol, and was concomitant with his possession of the auspices for war.[379]

Festus notes elsewhere that the "Salian virgins", whose relation to the Salian priests is unclear, performed their rituals paludatae,[380] dressed in military garb.[381]

pax deorum

Pax, though usually translated into English as "peace," was a compact, bargain, or agreement.[382] In religious usage, the harmony or accord between the divine and human was the pax deorum or pax divom ("the peace of the gods" or "divine peace").[383] Pax deorum was only given in return for correct religious practice. Religious error (vitium) and impiety led to divine disharmony and ira deorum (the anger of the gods).

piaculum

A piaculum is an expiatory sacrifice, or the victim used in the sacrifice; also, an act requiring expiation.[384]

Because Roman religion was contractual (do ut des), a piaculum might be offered as a sort of advance payment; the Arval Brethren, for instance, offered a piaculum before entering their sacred grove with an iron implement, which was forbidden, as well as after.[385] The pig was a common victim for a piaculum.[386] The Augustan historian Livy says P. Decius Mus is "like" a piaculum when he makes his vow to sacrifice himself in battle (see devotio).[387]

pietas

Pietas, from which English "piety" derives, was the devotion that bound a person to the gods, to the Roman state, and to his family. It was the outstanding quality of the Roman hero Aeneas, to whom the epithet pius is applied regularly throughout the Aeneid.

pius

In Latin and other Italic languages,[388] pius seems to have meant "that which is in accord with divine law." Later it was used to designate actions respectful of divine law and even people who acted with respect towards gods and godly rules. The pius person "strictly conforms his life to the ius divinum."[389] "Dutiful" is often a better translation of the adjective than the English derivative "pious."[390] Pius is a regular epithet of the Roman founding hero Aeneas in Vergil's Aeneid, along with pater, "father."[391] See also pietas, the related abstract noun.

pollucere

A verb of unknown etymology meaning "to consecrate."[392]

pontifex

The pontifex was a priest of the highest-ranking college. The chief among the pontifices was the Pontifex Maximus. The word has been considered as related to pons, bridge, either because of the religious meaning of the pons Sublicius and its ritual use[393] (which has a parallel in Thebae and in its gephiarioi) or in the original IE meaning of way.[394] Pontifex in this case would be the "opener of the way" corresponding to the Vedic adharvayu, the only active and moving sacerdos in the sacrificial group who takes his title from the figurative designation of liturgy as a way.

Another hypothesis[395] considers the word as a loan from the Sabine language, in which it would mean a member of a college of five people, from Osco-Umbrian ponte, five. This explanation takes into account that the college was established by Sabine king Numa Pompilius and the institution is Italic: the expressions pontis and pomperias found in the Iguvine Tablets may denote a group or division of five or by five. The pontifex would thus be a member of a sacrificial college known as pomperia (Latin quinio).[396]

Attendant at a sacrifice with ax

popa

The popa was one of the lesser-rank officiants at a sacrifice. In depictions of sacrificial processions, he carries a mallet or axe with which to strike the animal victim. Literary sources in late antiquity say that the popa was a public slave.[397] See also victimarius.

porricere

The verb porricere had the specialized religious meaning "to offer as a sacrifice," especially to offer the sacrificial entrails (exta) to the gods.[398] Both exta porricere and exta dare referred to the process by which the entrails were cooked, cut into pieces, and burnt on the altar. The Arval Brethren used the term exta reddere, "to return the entrails," that is, to render unto the deity what has already been given as due.[315]

portentum

A portentum is a kind of sign interpreted by a haruspex, not an augur, and by means of coniectura rather than observatio. Portentum is a close but not always exact synonym of ostentum, prodigium, and monstrum.[399] Cicero uses portentum frequently in his treatise De divinatione, where it seems to be a generic word for prodigies.[400] The word could also refer in non-technical usage to an unnatural occurrence without specific religious significance; for instance, Pliny calls an Egyptian with a pair of non-functional eyes on the back of his head a portentum.[401] Varro derives portentum from the verb portendere because it portends something that is going to happen.[402]

In the schema of A. Bouché-Leclercq, portenta and ostenta are the two types of signs that appear in inanimate nature, as distinguished from the monstrum (a biological singularity), prodigia (the unique acts or movements of living beings), and a miraculum, a non-technical term that emphasizes the viewer's reaction.[403] The sense of portentum has also been distinguished from that of ostentum by relative duration of time, with the ostentum of briefer manifestation.[404]

Although the English word "portent" derives from portentum and may be used to translate it, other Latin terms such as ostentum and prodigium will also be found translated as "portent".[405] Portentum offers an example of an ancient Roman religious term modified for Christian usage; in the Christian theology of miracles, a portentum occurring by the will of the Christian God could not be regarded as contrary to nature (contra naturam), thus Augustine specified that if such a sign appeared to be unnatural, it was only because it was contrary to nature as known (nota) by human beings.[406]

precatio

The precatio was the formal addressing of the deity or deities in a ritual. The word is related by etymology to prex, "prayer" (plural preces), and usually translated as if synonymous. Pliny says that the slaughter of a sacrificial victim is ineffectual without precatio, the recitation of the prayer formula.[407] Priestly texts that were collections of prayers were sometimes called precationes.[408]

Two late examples of the precatio are the Precatio Terrae Matris ("The Prayer of Mother Earth") and the Precatio omnium herbarum ("Prayer of All the Herbs"), which are charms or carmina written metrically,[409] the latter attached to the medical writings attributed to Antonius Musa.[410] Dirae precationes were "dire" prayers, that is, imprecations or curses.[411]

In augural procedure, precatio is not a prayer proper, but a form of invocation (invocatio) recited at the beginning of a ceremony or after accepting an oblative sign. The precatio maxima was recited for the augurium salutis, the ritual conducted by the augurs to obtain divine permission to pray for Rome's security (salus).[412]

In legal and rhetorical usage, precatio was a plea or request.[413]

prex

Prex, "prayer", usually appears in the plural, preces. Within the tripartite structure that was often characteristic of formal ancient prayer, preces would be the final expression of what is sought from the deity, following the invocation and a narrative middle.[414] A legitimate request is an example of bonae preces, "good prayer."[415] Tacitae preces are silent or sotto voce prayers as might be used in private ritual or magic; preces with a negative intent are described with adjectives such as Thyesteae ("Thyestean"), funestae ("deadly"), infelices (aimed at causing unhappiness), nefariae,[416] or dirae.[417]

In general usage, preces could refer to any request or entreaty. The verbal form is precor, precari, "pray, entreat." The Umbrian cognate is persklu, "supplication." The meaning may be "I try and obtain by uttering appropriate words what is my right to obtain." It is used often in association with quaeso in expressions such as te precor quaesoque, "I pray and beseech you", or prece quaesit, "he seeks by means of prayer."[418] In Roman law of the Imperial era, preces referred to a petition addressed to the emperor by a private person.[419]

prodigium

Prodigia (plural) were unnatural deviations from the predictable order of the cosmos. A prodigium signaled divine displeasure at a religious offense and must be expiated to avert more destructive expressions of divine wrath. Compare ostentum and portentum, signs denoting an extraordinary inanimate phenomenon, and monstrum and miraculum, an unnatural feature in humans.

Prodigies were a type of auspicia oblativa; that is, they were "thrust upon" observers, not deliberately sought.[420] Suspected prodigies were reported as a civic duty. A system of official referrals filtered out those that seemed patently insignificant or false before the rest were reported to the senate, who held further inquiry; this procedure was the procuratio prodigiorum. Prodigies confirmed as genuine were referred to the pontiffs and augurs for ritual expiation.[421] For particularly serious or difficult cases, the decemviri sacris faciundis could seek guidance and suggestions from the Sibylline Books.[422]

The number of confirmed prodigies rose in troubled times. In 207 BC, during one of the worst crises of the Punic Wars, the senate dealt with an unprecedented number, the expiation of which would have involved "at least twenty days" of dedicated rites.[423] Major prodigies that year included the spontaneous combustion of weapons, the apparent shrinking of the sun's disc, two moons in a daylit sky, a cosmic battle between sun and moon, a rain of red-hot stones, a bloody sweat on statues, and blood in fountains and on ears of corn. These were expiated by the sacrifice of "greater victims". The minor prodigies were less warlike but equally unnatural; sheep became goats; a hen become a cock, and vice versa. The minor prodigies were duly expiated with "lesser victims". The discovery of a hermaphroditic four-year-old child was expiated by drowning[424] and a holy procession of 27 virgins to the temple of Juno Regina, singing a hymn to avert disaster; a lightning strike during the hymn rehearsals required further expiation.[425] Religious restitution was proved only by Rome's victory.[426]

The expiatory burial of living human victims in the Forum Boarium followed Rome's defeat at Cannae in the same wars. In Livy's account, Rome's victory follows its discharge of religious duties to the gods.[427] Livy remarked the scarcity of prodigies in his own day as a loss of communication between gods and men. In the later Republic and thereafter, the reporting of public prodigies was increasingly displaced by a "new interest in signs and omens associated with the charismatic individual."[428]

profanum

Profanum (literally, 'in front of the shrine'), therefore not within a sacred precinct; not belonging to the gods but to humankind.

propitius

An adjective of augural terminology meaning favourable. From pro-, "before", and petere, "seek" but originally "fly". It indicates a pattern in the flight of praepetes aves, birds that make the auspices favorable by flying before the person who is taking them or by pointing in the direction of that which is wished for. A synonym is secundus, "favorable" or "following".[429]

pulvinar

The pulvinar (plural pulvinaria) was a special couch used for displaying images of the gods, that they might receive offerings at ceremonies such as the lectisternium or supplicatio.[430] In the famous lectisternium of 217 BC, on orders of the Sibylline books, six pulvinaria were arranged, each for a divine male-female pair.[431] By extension, pulvinar can also mean the shrine or platform housing several of these couches and their images. At the Circus Maximus, the couches and images of the gods were placed on an elevated pulvinar to "watch" the games.

Q

R

regina sacrorum

The regina sacrorum is the wife of the rex sacrorum, who served as a high priestess with her own specific religious duties.

religio

The word religio originally meant an obligation to the gods, something expected by them from human beings or a matter of particular care or concern as related to the gods.[432] In this sense, religio might be translated better as "religious scruple" than with the English word "religion".[433] One definition of religio offered by Cicero is cultus deorum, "the proper performance of rites in veneration of the gods."[434]

Religio among the Romans was not based on "faith", but on knowledge, including and especially correct practice.[435] Religio (plural religiones) was the pious practice of Rome's traditional cults, and was a cornerstone of the mos maiorum,[436] the traditional social norms that regulated public, private, and military life. To the Romans, their success was self-evidently due to their practice of proper, respectful religio, which gave the gods what was owed them and which was rewarded with social harmony, peace and prosperity.

Dedication from Roman Britain announcing that a local official has restored a locus religiosus[437]

Religious law maintained the proprieties of divine honours, sacrifice and ritual. Impure sacrifice and incorrect ritual were vitia (faults, hence "vice," the English derivative); excessive devotion, fearful grovelling to deities, and the improper use or seeking of divine knowledge were superstitio; neglecting the religiones owed to the traditional gods was atheism, a charge leveled during the Empire at Jews,[438] Christians, and Epicureans.[439] Any of these moral deviations could cause divine anger (ira deorum) and therefore harm the State.[440] See Religion in ancient Rome.

religiosus

Religiosus was something pertaining to the gods or marked out by them as theirs, as distinct from sacer, which was something or someone given to them by humans. Hence, a graveyard was not primarily defined as sacer but a locus religiosus, because those who lay within its boundaries were considered belonging to the di Manes.[441] Places struck by lightning were taboo[442] because they had been marked as religiosus by Jupiter himself.[443] See also sacer and sanctus.

res divinae

Res divinae were "divine affairs," that is, the matters that pertained to the gods and the sphere of the divine in contrast to res humanae, "human affairs."[444] Rem divinam facere, "to do a divine thing," simply meant to do something that pertained to the divine sphere, such as perform a ceremony or rite. The equivalent Etruscan term is ais(u)na.[445]

The distinction between human and divine res was explored in the multivolume Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum, one of the chief works of Varro (1st century BC). It survives only in fragments but was a major source of traditional Roman theology for the Church Fathers. Varro devoted 25 books of the Antiquitates to res humanae and 16 to res divinae. His proportional emphasis is deliberate, as he treats cult and ritual as human constructs.[446] Varro divides res divinae into three kinds:

The schema is Stoic in origin, though Varro has adapted it for his own purposes.[447]

Res divinae is an example of ancient Roman religious terminology that was appropriated for Christian usage; for St. Augustine, res divina is a "divine reality" as represented by a sacrum signum ("sacred sign") such as a sacrament.[448]

responsum

Responsa (plural) were the "responses," that is, the opinions and arguments, of the official priests on questions of religious practice and interpretation. These were preserved in written form and archived.[137] Compare decretum.

rex sacrorum

The rex sacrorum was a senatorial priesthood[449] reserved for patricians. Although in the historical era the Pontifex Maximus was the head of Roman state religion, Festus says[450] that in the ranking of priests, the rex sacrorum was of highest prestige, followed by the flamines maiores.[451]

ritus

Although ritus is the origin of the English word "rite" via ecclesiastical Latin, in classical usage ritus meant the traditional and correct manner (of performance), that is, "way, custom". Festus defines it as a specific form of mos: "Ritus is the proven way (mos) in the performance of sacrifices." The adverb rite means "in good form, correctly."[452] This original meaning of ritus may be compared to the concept of ṛtá ("visible order", in contrast to dhāman, dhārman) in Vedic religion, a conceptual pairing analogous to Latin fas and ius.[453]

For Latin words meaning "ritual" or "rite", see sacra, caerimoniae, and religiones.[454]

ritus graecus

A small number of Roman religious practices and cult innovations were carried out according to "Greek rite" (ritus graecus), which the Romans characterized as Greek in origin or manner. A priest who conducted ritu graeco wore a Greek-style fringed tunic, with his head bare (capite aperto) or laurel-wreathed. By contrast, in most rites of Roman public religion, an officiant wore the distinctively Roman toga, specially folded to cover his head (see capite velato). Otherwise, "Greek rite" seems to have been a somewhat indefinite category, used for prayers uttered in Greek, and Greek methods of sacrifice within otherwise conventionally Roman cult.

Roman writers record elements of ritus graecus in the cult to Hercules at Rome's Ara Maxima, which according to tradition was established by the Greek king Evander even before the city of Rome was founded at the site. It thus represented one of the most ancient Roman cults. "Greek" elements were also found in the Saturnalia held in honor of the Golden Age deity Saturn, and in certain ceremonies of the Ludi saeculares. A Greek rite to Ceres (ritus graecus cereris) was imported from Magna Graecia and added to her existing Aventine cult in accordance with the Sibylline books, ancient oracles written in Greek. Official rites to Apollo are perhaps "the best illustration of the Graecus ritus in Rome."

The Romans regarded ritus graecus as part of their own mos maiorum (ancestral tradition), and not as novus aut externus ritus, novel or foreign rite. The thorough integration and reception of rite labeled "Greek" attests to the complex, multi-ethnic origins of Rome's people and religious life.[455]

S

sacellum

Sacellum, a diminutive from sacer ("belonging to a god"),[456] is a shrine. Varro and Verrius Flaccus give explanations that seem contradictory, the former defining a sacellum in its entirety as equivalent to a cella,[457] which is specifically an enclosed space, and the latter insisting that a sacellum had no roof.[458] "The sacellum," notes Jörg Rüpke, "was both less complex and less elaborately defined than a temple proper."[459] Each curia had its own sacellum.[460]

sacer

Sacer describes a thing or person given to the gods, thus "sacred" to them. Human beings had no legal or moral claims on anything sacer. Sacer could be highly nuanced; Varro associates it with "perfection".[461] Through association with ritual purity, sacer could also mean "sacred, untouchable, inviolable".

Anything not sacer was profanum: literally, "in front of (or outside) the shrine", therefore not belonging to it or the gods. A thing or person could be made sacer (consecrated), or could revert from sacer to profanum (deconsecrated), only through lawful rites (resecratio) performed by a pontiff on behalf of the state.[462] Part of the ver sacrum sacrificial vow of 217 BC stipulated that animals dedicated as sacer would revert to the condition of profanum if they died through natural cause or were stolen before the due sacrificial date. Similar conditions attached to sacrifices in archaic Rome.[463] A thing already owned by the gods or actively marked out by them as divine property was distinguished as religiosus, and hence could not be given to them or made sacer.[464][465]

Persons judged sacer under Roman law were placed beyond further civil judgment, sentence and protection; their lives, families and properties were forfeit to the gods. A person could be declared sacer who harmed a plebeian tribune, failed to bear legal witness,[466] failed to meet his obligations to clients, or illicitly moved the boundary markers of fields.[467] It was not a religious duty (fas) to execute a homo sacer, but he could be killed with impunity.[468][469]

Dies sacri ("sacred days") were nefasti, meaning that the ordinary human affairs permitted on dies profani (or fasti) were forbidden.

Sacer was a fundamental principle in Roman and Italic religions. In Oscan, related forms are sakoro, "sacred," and sakrim, "sacrificial victim". Oscan sakaraklum is cognate with Latin sacellum, a small shrine, as Oscan sakarater is with Latin sacratur, consecrare, "consecrated". The sacerdos is "one who performs a sacred action" or "renders a thing sacred", that is, a priest.[470]

Marcus Aurelius capite velato carries out a sacrifice. By his left side is a flamen wearing an apex. The victima is the bull, who will be struck by the popa to the right. The music of the aulos was to drive off inauspicious noise. The setting is the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter.

sacerdos

A sacerdos (plural sacerdotes, a word of either masculine or feminine gender) was any priest or priestess, from *sakro-dho-ts, "the one who does the sacred act."[471] There was no priestly caste in ancient Rome, and in some sense every citizen was a priest in that he presided over the domestic cult of his household. Senators, magistrates, and the decurions of towns performed ritual acts, though they were not sacerdotes per se.[472] The sacerdos was one who held the title usually in relation to a specific deity or temple.[473] See also collegium and flamen.

sacra

Sacra (neuter plural of sacer) are the traditional cult practices of classical Roman religion, either publica or privata, both of which were overseen by the College of Pontiffs.

The sacra publica were those performed on behalf of the whole Roman people or its major subdivisions, the tribes and curiae. They included the sacra pro populo, "rites on behalf of the Roman people," i.e., all the feriae publicae of the Roman calendar year and the other feasts that were regarded of public interest, including those pertaining to the hills of Rome,[474] to the pagi and curiae, and to the sacella, "shrines".[475] The establishment of the sacra publica is ascribed to king Numa Pompilius, but many are thought to be of earlier origin, even predating the founding of Rome. Thus Numa may be seen as carrying out a reform and a reorganisation of the sacra in accord with his own views and his education.[476] Sacra publica were performed at the expense of the state, according to the dispositions left by Numa, and were attended by all the senators and magistrates.[477]

Sacra privata were particular to a gens, to a family, or to an individual, and were carried out at the expense of those concerned. Individuals had sacra on dates peculiar to them, such as birthdays, the dies lustricus, and at other times of their life such as funerals and expiations, for instance of fulgurations.[478] Families had their own sacra in the home or at the tombs of their ancestors, such as those pertaining to the Lares, Manes and Penates of the family, and the Parentalia. These were regarded as necessary and imperishable, and the desire to perpetuate the family's sacra was among the reasons for adoption in adulthood.[479] In some cases, the state assumed the expenses even of sacra privata, if they were regarded as important to the maintenance of the Roman religious system as a whole; see sacra gentilicia following.

sacra gentilicia

Sacra gentilicia were the private rites (see sacra above) that were particular to a gens ("clan"). These rites are related to a belief in the shared ancestry of the members of a gens, since the Romans placed a high value on both family identity and commemorating the dead.[480] During the Gallic siege of Rome, a member of the gens Fabia risked his life to carry out the sacra of his clan on the Quirinal Hill; the Gauls were so impressed by his courageous piety that they allowed him to pass through their lines.[481] The Fabian sacra were performed in Gabine dress by a member of the gens who was possibly named a flamen.[482] There were sacra of Minerva in the care of the Nautii, and rites of Apollo that the Iulii oversaw.[483] The Claudii had recourse to a distinctive "propudial pig" sacrifice (propudialis porcus, "pig of shame") by way of expiation when they neglected any of their religious obligations.[484]

Roman practices of adoption, including so-called "testamentary adoption" when an adult heir was declared in a will, were aimed at perpetuating the sacra gentilicia as well as preserving the family name and property.[485] A person adopted into another family usually renounced the sacra of his birth (see detestatio sacrorum) in order to devote himself to those of his new family.[486]

Sacra gentilicia sometimes acquired public importance, and if the gens were in danger of dying out, the state might take over their maintenance. One of the myths attached to Hercules' time in Italy explained why his cult at the Ara Maxima was in the care of the patrician gens Potitia and the gens Pinaria; the diminution of these families by 312 BC caused the sacra to be transferred to the keeping of public slaves and supported with public funding.[487]

sacra municipalia

The sacra of an Italian town or community (municipium) might be perpetuated under the supervision of the Roman pontiffs when the locality was brought under Roman rule. Festus defined municipalia sacra as "those owned originally, before the granting of Roman citizenship; the pontiffs desired that the people continue to observe them and to practice them in the way (mos) they had been accustomed to from ancient times."[488] These sacra were regarded as preserving the core religious identity of a particular people.[489]

sacramentum

Sacramentum is an oath or vow that rendered the swearer sacer, "given to the gods," in the negative sense if he violated it.[490] Sacramentum also referred to a thing that was pledged as a sacred bond, and consequently forfeit if the oath were violated.[491] Both instances imply an underlying sacratio, act of consecration.

In Roman law, a thing given as a pledge or bond was a sacramentum. The sacramentum legis actio was a sum of money deposited in a legal procedure[492] to affirm that both parties to the litigation were acting in good faith.[493] If correct law and procedures had been followed, it could be assumed that the outcome was iustum, right or valid. The losing side had thus in effect committed perjury, and forfeited his sacramentum as a form of piaculum; the winner got his deposit back. The forfeited sacramentum was normally allotted by the state to the funding of sacra publica.[494]

The sacramentum militare (also as militum or militiae) was the oath taken by soldiers in pledging their loyalty to the consul or emperor. The sacramentum that renders the soldier sacer helps explain why he was subjected to harsher penalties, such as execution and corporal punishment, that were considered inappropriate for civilian citizens, at least under the Republic.[495] In effect, he had put his life on deposit, a condition also of the fearsome sacramentum sworn by gladiators.[496] In the later empire, the oath of loyalty created conflict for Christians serving in the military, and produced a number of soldier-martyrs.[497] Sacramentum is the origin of the English word "sacrament", a transition in meaning pointed to by Apuleius's use of the word to refer to religious initiation.[498]

The sacramentum as pertaining to both the military and the law indicates the religious basis for these institutions. The term differs from iusiurandum, which is more common in legal application, as for instance swearing an oath in court. A sacramentum establishes a direct relation between the person swearing (or the thing pledged in the swearing of the oath) and the gods; the iusiurandum is an oath of good faith within the human community that is in accordance with ius as witnessed by the gods.[499]

sacrarium

A sacrarium was a place where sacred objects (sacra) were stored or deposited for safekeeping.[500] The word can overlap in meaning with sacellum, a small enclosed shrine; the sacella of the Argei are also called sacraria.[501] In Greek writers, the word is ἱεροφυλάκιον hierophylakion (hiero-, "sacred" and phylakion, something that safeguards).[502] See sacellum for a list of sacraria.

The sacrarium of a private home lent itself to Christian transformation, as a 4th-century poem by Ausonius demonstrates;[503] in contemporary Christian usage, the sacrarium is a "special sink used for the reverent disposal of sacred substances" (see piscina).[504]

sacrificium

An event or thing dedicated to the gods for their disposal. The offer of sacrifice is fundamental to religio. See also Sacer and Religion in ancient Rome: Sacrifice.

sacrosanctus

The Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 BC introduced the adjective sacrosanctus to define the inviolability of the power (potestas) of the tribunes of the plebs and of other magistrates sanctioned by law (Livy 3.55.1). The sacrality of the tribune's function had been established in earlier times through a religio and a sacramentum (Livy 2.33.1; 3.19.10), but it obliged only the contracting parties. To make it an obligation for everyone required a sanctio that was not only civil but religious: the trespasser was to be declared sacer, and his family and property sold, according to the Greek historian Dionysius (6.89.3). Sacer thus defined the religious compact, and sanctus the law. According to other passages in Livy, the law was not approved of by some jurists of the time, who maintained that only those who infringed the commonly recognised divine laws could fall into the category of those to be declared sacri. Elsewhere Livy states (Livy 4.3.6, 44.5; 20.20.11) that only the potestas and not the person of the tribune was sacrosancta. The critics of the law objected, "These people postulate they themselves should be sacrosancti, they who do not hold even gods for sacred and saint?"[505]

H. Fugier gives the meaning of sacrosanctus as guaranteed by an oath, but M. Morani interprets the first part of the compound as a consequence of the second: sanxit tribunum sacrum, the tribune is sanctioned by the law as sacer. This kind of word composition based on an etymological figure has parallels in other IE languages in archaic constructions.

Salii

The Salii were the "leaping priests" of Mars.

sancio

A verb meaning to ratify a compact and put it under the protection of a sanctio, a sanction or penalty. The formation and original meaning of the verb are debated. Some scholars think it is derived from the IE stem *sak (the same as sacer) through the insertion of a nasal n[506] infix and the suffix -yo. Thence sancio would mean to render something sacer, i.e. belonging to the gods in the sense of having their guarantee and protection.[507] Others think it is a derivation from the theonym Sancus, the god of the ratification of foedera (treaties) and the protection of good faith, from the root sancu- plus suffix -io.[508] In that case, the verb would mean an act that reflects or conforms to the function of this god, i.e. the ratifying and guaranteeing of compacts.

sanctus

Sanctus, an adjective formed on the past participle of the verb sancio, describes that which has been "established as inviolable" or "sacred", most times in a sense different from that of sacer and religiosus. Its original meaning would be "that which is protected by a sanction" (sanctio). The concept is connected to the name of the Umbrian or Sabine founder-deity Sancus, in Umbrian Sancius, whose most noted function was the ratifying and protecting of treaties (foedera).[509]

The Roman jurist Ulpian distinguishes sanctus as "neither sacred (sacer) nor profane (profanum) ... nor [is it] religiosus."[510] Gaius writes that a building dedicated to a god is sacrum, but a town's wall and gate are res sanctae because they belong "in some way" to divine law, while a graveyard is religiosus because it is relinquished to the di Manes. Some scholars think that sanctus was originally a concept related to space as concerning inaugurated places, because they enjoyed the armed protection (sanctio) of the gods.[511][512]

Various deities, objects, places and people – especially senators and magistrates – can be sanctus. Claudia Quinta is described as a sanctissima femina (most virtuous woman) and Cato the Younger as a sanctus civis (a morally upright citizen).[513][514] See also sanctuary.

Later the epithet sanctus is given to many gods including Apollo Pythius by Naevius, Venus and Tiberinus by Ennius and Livy. Ennius renders the Homeric dia theaoon as sancta dearum. In the early Imperial era, Ovid describes Terminus, the god who sanctifies land boundaries, as sanctus[515] and equates sancta with augusta (august).[516] The use of sanctus as an epithet of the river Tiber and of the boundary god Terminus retains the original and ancient sense of delineating space: borders are sancti by definition, and rivers often mark borders.

Sanctus as applied to people over time came to share some of the sense of Latin castus (morally pure or guiltless) and pius (pious), with none of the ambiguity attached to sacer and religiosus.

In ecclesiastical Latin, sanctus is the word for saint, but even in the Christian era it continues to appear in epitaphs for people who had not converted to Christianity.[517]

servare de caelo

Literally, "to watch (for something) from the sky"; that is, to observe the templum of the sky for signs that might be interpreted as auspices. Bad omens resulted in a report of obnuntiatio.[518]

signum

A signum is a "sign, token or indication".[519] In religious use, signum provides a collective term for events or things (including signs and symbols) that designate divine identity, activity or communication, including prodigia, auspicia, omina, portenta and ostenta.

silentium

Silence was generally required in the performance of every religious ritual.[520] The ritual injunction favete linguis, "be favourable with your tongues," meant "keep silent." In particular, silence assured the ritual correctness and the absence of vitia, "faults," in the taking of the auspices.[521] It was also required in the nomination (dictio) of the dictator.[522]

sinister

In ancient times, augurs (augures ex caelo) faced south, so the happy orient, where the sun rose, lay at their left. Consequently, the word sinister (Latin for left) meant well-fated. When, under Greek influence, it became customary for augurs to face north, sinister came to indicate the ill-fated west, where light turned into darkness. It is this latter and later meaning that is attached to the English word sinister.

sodalitas

A sodalitas was a form of voluntary association or society. Its meaning is not necessarily distinct from collegium in ancient sources, and is found also in sodalicium, "fraternity."[523] The sodalis is a member of a sodalitas, which describes the relationship among sodales rather than an institution. Examples of priestly sodalitates are the Luperci, fetiales, Arval brothers and Titii; these are also called collegia, but that they were a kind of confraternity is suggested by the distinctive convivial song associated with some.[524] An association of sodales might also form a burial society, or make religious dedications as a group; inscriptions record donations made by women for the benefit of sodales.[525] Roman Pythagoreans such as Nigidius Figulus formed sodalicia,[526] with which Ammianus Marcellinus compared the fellowship (sodalicia consortia) of the druids in Gallo-Roman culture.[527] When the cult of Cybele was imported to Rome, the eunuchism of her priests the galli discouraged Roman men from forming an official priesthood; instead, they joined sodalitates to hold banquets and other forms of traditional Roman cultus in her honor.[528]

The sodalitates are thought to originate as aristocratic brotherhoods with cultic duties, and their existence is attested as early as the late 6th or early 5th century BC. The Twelve Tables regulated their potential influence by forbidding them to come in conflict with public law (ius publicum).[529] During the 60s BC, certain forms of associations were disbanded by law as politically disruptive, and in Ciceronian usage sodalitates may refer either to these subversive organizations or in a religious context to the priestly fraternities.[530] See also Sodales Augustales. For the Catholic concept, see sodality.

spectio

Spectio ("watching, sighting, observation") was the seeking of omens through observing the sky, the flight of birds, or the feeding of birds. Originally only patrician magistrates and augurs were entitled to practice spectio, which carried with it the power to regulate assemblies and other aspects of public life, depending on whether the omens were good or bad.[531] See also obnuntiatio.

sponsio

Duenos inscription

Sponsio is a formal, religiously guaranteed obligation. It can mean both betrothal as pledged by a woman's family, and a magistrate's solemn promise in international treaties on behalf of the Roman people.[532]

The Latin word derives from a Proto-Indo-European root meaning a libation of wine offered to the gods, as does the Greek verb spendoo and the noun spondai, spondas, and Hittite spant-.[533] In Greek it also acquired the meaning "compact, convention, treaty" (compare Latin foedus), as these were sanctioned with a libation to the gods on an altar. In Latin, sponsio becomes a legal contract between two parties, or sometimes a foedus between two nations.

In legal Latin the sponsio implied the existence of a person who acted as a sponsor, a guarantor for the obligation undertaken by somebody else. The verb is spondeo, sponsus. Related words are sponsalia, the ceremony of betrothal; sponsa, fiancée; and sponsus, both the second-declension noun meaning a husband-to-be and the fourth declension abstract meaning suretyship.[534] The ceremonial character of sponsio suggests[535] that Latin archaic forms of marriage were, like the confarreatio of Roman patricians, religiously sanctioned. Dumézil proposed that the oldest extant Latin document, the Duenos inscription, could be interpreted in light of sponsio.[536]

superstitio

Superstitio was excessive devotion and enthusiasm in religious observance, in the sense of "doing or believing more than was necessary",[537] or "irregular" religious practice that conflicted with Roman custom. "Religiosity" in its pejorative sense may be a better translation than "superstition", the English word derived from the Latin.[538] Cicero defined superstitio as the "empty fear of the gods" (timor inanis deorum) in contrast to the properly pious cultivation of the gods that constituted lawful religio,[539] a view that Seneca expressed as "religio honours the gods, superstitio wrongs them."[540] Seneca wrote an entire treatise on superstitio, known to St. Augustine but no longer extant.[541] Lucretius's famous condemnation of what is often translated as "Superstition" in his Epicurean didactic epic De rerum natura is actually directed at Religio.[542]

Before the Christian era, superstitio was seen as a vice of individuals. Practices characterized as "magic" could be a form of superstitio as an excessive and dangerous quest for personal knowledge.[543] By the early 2nd century AD, religions of other peoples that were perceived as resistant to religious assimilation began to be labeled by some Latin authors as superstitio, including druidism, Judaism, and Christianity.[544] Under Christian hegemony, religio and superstitio were redefined as a dichotomy between Christianity, viewed as true religio, and the superstitiones or false religions of those who declined to convert.[545]

supplicatio

Supplicationes are days of public prayer when the men, women, and children of Rome traveled in procession to religious sites around the city praying for divine aid in times of crisis. A suplicatio can also be a thanksgiving after the receipt of aid.[546] Supplications might also be ordered in response to prodigies; again, the population as a whole wore wreaths, carried laurel twigs, and attended sacrifices at temple precincts throughout the city.[547]

T

tabernaculum

See auguraculum. The origin of the English word "tabernacle."

templum

A templum was the sacred space defined by an augur for ritual purposes, most importantly the taking of the auspices, a place "cut off" as sacred: compare Greek temenos, from temnein to cut.[548] It could be created as temporary or permanent, depending on the lawful purpose of the inauguration. Auspices and senate meetings were unlawful unless held in a templum; if the senate house (Curia) was unavailable, an augur could apply the appropriate religious formulae to provide a lawful alternative.[549]

To create a templum, the augur aligned his zone of observation (auguraculum, a square, portable surround) with the cardinal points of heaven and earth. The altar and entrance were sited on the east-west axis: the sacrificer faced east. The precinct was thus "defined and freed" (effatum et liberatum).[550] In most cases, signs to the augur's left (north) showed divine approval and signs to his right (south), disapproval.[551] Temple buildings of stone followed this ground-plan and were sacred in perpetuity.[552]

Rome itself was a kind of templum, with the pomerium as sacred boundary and the arx (citadel), and Quirinal and Palatine hills as reference points whenever a specially dedicated templum was created within. Augurs had authority to establish multiple templa beyond the pomerium, using the same augural principles.

V

verba certa

Verba certa (also found nearly as often with the word order certa verba) are the "exact words" of a legal or religious formula, that is, the words as "set once and for ever, immutable and unchangeable." Compare certae precationes, fixed prayers of invocation, and verba concepta, which in both Roman civil law and augural law described a verbal formula that could be "conceived" flexibly to suit the circumstances.[553] With their emphasis on exact adherence, the archaic verba certa[554] are a magico-religious form of prayer.[555] In a ritual context, prayer (prex) was not a form of personal spontaneous expression, but a demonstration that the speaker knew the correct thing to say. Words were regarded as having power; in order to be efficacious, the formula had to be recited accurately, in full, and with the correct pronunciation. To reduce the risk of error (vitium), the magistrate or priest who spoke was prompted from the text by an assistant.[556]

verba concepta

In both religious and legal usage, verba concepta ("preconceived words") were verbal formulas that could be adapted for particular circumstances. Compare verba certa, "fixed words." Collections of verba concepta would have been part of the augural archives. Varro preserves an example, albeit textually vexed, of a formula for founding a templum.[557]

In the legal sense, concepta verba (the phrase is found with either word order) were the statements crafted by a presiding praetor for the particulars of a case.[558] Earlier in the Roman legal system, the plaintiff had to state his claim within a narrowly defined set of fixed phrases (certa verba); in the Mid Republic, more flexible formulas allowed a more accurate description of the particulars of the issue under consideration. But the practice may have originated as a kind of "dodge," since a praetor was liable to religious penalties if he used certa verba for legal actions on days marked nefastus on the calendar.[559]

St. Augustine removed the phrase verba concepta from its religious and legal context to describe the cognitive process of memory: "When a true narrative of the past is related, the memory produces not the actual events which have passed away but words conceived (verba concepta) from images of them, which they fixed in the mind like imprints as they passed through the senses."[560] Augustine's conceptualizing of memory as verbal has been used to elucidate the Western tradition of poetry and its shared origins with sacred song and magical incantation (see also carmen), and is less a departure from Roman usage than a recognition of the original relation between formula and memory in a pre-literate world.[561] Some scholars see the tradition of stylized, formulaic language as the verbal tradition from which Latin literature develops, with concepta verba appearing in poems such as Carmen 34 of Catullus.[562]

ver sacrum

The "sacred spring" was a ritual migration.

victima

Victimae for a suovetaurilia led to the altar by victimarii

The victima was the animal offering in a sacrifice, or very rarely a human. The victim was subject to an examination (probatio victimae) by a lower-rank priest (pontifex minor) to determine whether it met the criteria for a particular offering.[563] With some exceptions, male deities received castrated animals. Goddesses were usually offered female victims, though from around the 160s AD the goddess Cybele was given a bull, along with its blood and testicles, in the Taurobolium. Color was also a criterion: white for the upper deities, dark for chthonic, red for Vulcan and at the Robigalia. A sacred fiction of sacrifice was that the victim had to consent, usually by a nod of the head perhaps induced by the victimarius holding the halter. Fear, panic, and agitation in the animal were bad omens.[564][565]

The word victima is used interchangeably with hostia by Ovid and others, but some ancient authors attempt to distinguish between the two.[566] Servius says[567] that the hostia is sacrificed before battle, the victima afterward, which accords with Ovid's etymology of "victim" as that which has been killed by the right hand of the "victor" (with hostia related to hostis, "enemy").[568]

The difference between the victima and hostia is elsewhere said to be a matter of size, with the victima larger (maior).[261] See also piaculum and votum.

victimarius

The victimarius was an attendant or assistant at a sacrifice who handled the animal.[569] Using a rope, he led the pig, sheep, or bovine that was to serve as the victim to the altar. In depictions of sacrifice, a victimarius called the popa carries a mallet or axe with which to strike the victima. Multiple victimarii are sometimes in attendance; one may hold down the victim's head while the other lands the blow.[570] The victimarius severed the animal's carotid with a ritual knife (culter), and according to depictions was offered a hand towel afterwards by another attendant. He is sometimes shown dressed in an apron (limus). Inscriptions show that most victimarii were freedmen, but literary sources in late antiquity say that the popa was a public slave.[571]

vitium

A mistake made while performing a ritual, or a disruption of augural procedure, including disregarding the auspices, was a vitium ("defect, imperfection, impediment"). Vitia, plural, could taint the outcome of elections, the validity of laws, and the conducting of military operations. The augurs issued an opinion on a given vitium, but these were not necessarily binding. In 215 BC the newly elected plebeian consul M. Claudius Marcellus resigned when the augurs and the senate decided that a thunderclap expressed divine disapproval of his election.[572] The original meaning of the semantic root in vitium may have been "hindrance", related to the verb vito, vitare, "to go out of the way"; the adjective form vitiosus can mean "hindering", that is, "vitiating, faulty."[573]

vitulari

A verb meaning chanting or reciting a formula with a joyful intonation and rhythm.[574] The related noun Vitulatio was an annual thanksgiving offering carried out by the pontiffs on 8 July, the day after the Nonae Caprotinae. These were commemorations of Roman victory in the wake of the Gallic invasion. Macrobius says vitulari is the equivalent of Greek paianizein (παιανίζειν), "to sing a paean", a song expressing triumph or thanksgiving.[575]

votum

In a religious context, votum, plural vota, is a vow or promise made to a deity. The word comes from the past participle of voveo, vovere; as the result of the verbal action "vow, promise", it may refer also to the fulfillment of this vow, that is, the thing promised. The votum is thus an aspect of the contractual nature of Roman religion, a bargaining expressed by do ut des, "I give that you might give."[576]

See also

References

  1. ^ Robert Schilling, "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1982, from the French edition of 1981), p. 110 online.
  2. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1982), p. 2266, note 472.
  3. ^ J. Bayet Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine Paris, 1969, p. 55.
  4. ^ Synonyms for abominari include improbare, execrari, and refutare, with instances noted by Cicero, De divinatione 1.46; Livy, 1.7, 5.55, 9.14, and 29.29; and Servius, note to Aeneid 5.530; Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité (Jérôme Millon, 2003 reprint, originally published 1893), pp. 136–137.
  5. ^ Robert Schilling, "Roman Gods", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 72.
  6. ^ John W. Stamper, The Architecture of Roman Temples: The Republic to the Middle Empire (Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 10.
  7. ^ Mary Beard, Simon Price, John North, Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998. p. 22.
  8. ^ Morris H. Morgan, Notes on Vitruvius Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 17 (1903, pp. 12–14).
  9. ^ Vitruvius, De architectura 1.2.5; John E. Stambaugh, "The Functions of Roman Temples," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.1 (1978), p. 561.
  10. ^ Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999, reprinted 2002), pp. 129–130; Karl Loewenstein, The Governance of Rome (Martinus Nijhoff, 1973), p. 62.
  11. ^ Lawrence Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), pp. 80–81 on Ceres, p. 151 on Flora; see also Barbette Stanley Spaeth, The Roman Goddess Ceres (University of Texas Press, 1996), p. 86ff.
  12. ^ J. Linderski Augural law in ANRW pp.[citation needed]
  13. ^ Varro, De lingua latina 5.33. See also Roger D. Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult (Chicago 2006), pp. 236-238. The treaty was preserved in the temple of Semo Sancus.
  14. ^ For usage of the term peregrinus, compare also the status of a person who was peregrinus.
  15. ^ Varro, De lingua latina 5.33.
  16. ^ Livy 27.5.15 and 29.5; P. Catalano, Aspetti spaziali del sistema giuridico-religioso romano, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.1 (1978), pp. 529 ff.
  17. ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 83.
  18. ^ Ulrike Egelhaaf-Gaiser, "Roman Cult Sites: A Pragmatic Approach," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 206.
  19. ^ Karl Galinsky, Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction (Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 141.
  20. ^ Macrobius III 20, 2, quoting Veranius in his lost work De verbis pontificalibus.
  21. ^ Macrobius III 12
  22. ^ Quoted by Macrobius, Saturnalia 3.20.
  23. ^ These are the modern English identifications of Robert A. Kaster in his translation of the Saturnalia for the Loeb Classical Library; in Latin, alternum sanguinem filicem, ficum atram, quaeque bacam nigram nigrosque fructus ferunt, itemque acrifolium, pirum silvaticum, pruscum rubum sentesque. On the textual issues raised by the passage, see Kaster, Studies on the Text of Macrobius' Saturnalia (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 48.
  24. ^ Vergil Aeneid II 717-720; Macrobius III 1, 1; E. Paratore Virgilio, Eneide I, Milano, 1978, p. 360 and n. 52; Livy V 22, 5; R. G. Austin P. Vergili Maronis Aeneidos liber secundus Oxford 1964, p. 264
  25. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 209.
  26. ^ John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), pp. 113–114; Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2164–2288, especially p. 2174 on the military auguraculum.
  27. ^ Robert Schilling, Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 95.
  28. ^ In the view of Wissowa, as cited by Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2150.
  29. ^ Linderski, "The Augural Law," pp. 2241 et passim.
  30. ^ Linderski, "The Augural Law," p. 2237.
  31. ^ a b Schilling, "Augurs and Augury," Roman and European Mythologies, p. 115.
  32. ^ Veit Rosenberger, "Republican nobiles: Controlling the res publica," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 299.
  33. ^ Schilling, p. 115.
  34. ^ Linderski, "The Augural Law," p. 2196, especially note 177, citing Servius, note to Aeneid 3.89.
  35. ^ See Livy, Book VI 41, for the words of Appius Claudius Crassus on why election to the consulate should be restricted to patricians on these grounds.
  36. ^ Linderski, "The Augural Law," pp. 2294–2295; U. Coli, Regnum Rome 1959.
  37. ^ Pliny, Natural History 18.14.
  38. ^ Liv. VI 41; X 81; IV 6
  39. ^ With the passing of the Lex Ogulnia. The first plebeian consul was elected in 367 BC in consequence of the leges Liciniae Sextiae.
  40. ^ L. Schmitz, entry on "Augur," in A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (London 1875).
  41. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The libri reconditi", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), pp. 226–227; Robert Schilling, "Augurs and Augury", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 116.
  42. ^ Schmitz, "Augur."
  43. ^ A companion to Greek religion. Daniel Ogden. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. 2007. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-4051-8216-4. OCLC 173354759.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  44. ^ According to the Augustan historian Pompeius Trogus, who was himself a Celt of the Vocontii civitas, the Celts had acquired expertise in the practice of augury beyond other peoples (nam augurandi studio Galli praeter ceteros callent, as epitomized by Justin 42.4[usurped]). Discussion of Celtic augury by J.A. MacCulloch, The Religion of the Ancient Celts (Edinburgh, 1911), p. 247.
  45. ^ a b Robert Schilling, "Augurs and Augury", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 116.
  46. ^ W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p. 127.
  47. ^ Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999, reprinted 2002), p. 103 online.
  48. ^ John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), pp. 113–114.
  49. ^ H.S. Versnel, Triumphus: An Inquiry into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph (Brill, 1970), p. 324 online et passim.
  50. ^ T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 19 online.
  51. ^ Veit Rosenberger, "Republican nobiles: Controlling the res publica", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 293.
  52. ^ Cicero, De divinatione I 28.
  53. ^ Cicero, de Divinatione I 28; Cato the Elder, as quoted by Festus p. 342 L 2nd.
  54. ^ Festus sv. Silentio surgere, p. 438 L 2nd.
  55. ^ G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris 1974 part IV chapt. 4; It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 526
  56. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History 2, 13; Plautus, Curculio 438-484.
  57. ^ Festus, sv. regalia exta p. 382 L 2nd (p. 367 in the 1997 Teubner edition).
  58. ^ Livy I 20, 7.
  59. ^ Elizabeth Rawson, "Religion and Politics in the Late Second Century B.C. at Rome," Phoenix 28.2 (1974), p. 196, citing De divinatione 1.28.
  60. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia III 20 3, citing Tarquitius Priscus: "It is necessary to order evil portents and prodigies to be burnt by means of trees which are in the tutelage of infernal or averting gods," with an enumeration of such trees (Arbores quae inferum deorum avertentiumque in tutela sunt ... quibus portenta prodigiaque mala comburi iubere oportet).
  61. ^ Varro, De Lingua Latina VII 102: "Ab avertendo averruncare, ut deus qui in eis rebus praeest Averruncus."
  62. ^ Livy 1.32; 31.8.3; 36.3.9
  63. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London 1925), pp. 33ff.; M. Kaser, Das altroemische Ius (Goettingen 1949), pp. 22ff; P. Catalano, Linee del sistema sovrannazionale romano (Torino 1965), pp. 14ff.; W. V. Harris, War and imperialism in Republican Rome, 327-70 B.C. (Oxford 1979), pp. 161 ff.
  64. ^ Livy 9.1.10; Cicero, Divinatio in Caecilium 63; De provinciis consularibus 4; Ad Atticum VII 14, 3; IX 19, 1; Pro rege Deiotauro 13; De officiis I 36; Philippicae XI 37; XIII 35; De re publica II 31; III 35; Isidore of Seville, Origines XVIII 1, 2; Modestinus, Libro I regolarum = Digesta I 3, 40; E. Badian, Roman Imperialism in the Late Republic (Ithaca 1968, 2nd ed.), p.11.
  65. ^ Valerius Maximus 1.1.1.
  66. ^ Hendrik Wagenvort, "Caerimonia", in Studies in Roman Literature, Culture and Religion (Brill, 1956), pp. 84–101.
  67. ^ Hans-Friedrich Mueller, Roman Religion in Valerius Maximus (Routledge, 2002), pp. 64–65 online.
  68. ^ See Davide Del Bello, Forgotten Paths: Etymology and the Allegorical Mindset (Catholic University of America Press, 2007), pp. 34–46, on etymology as a form of interpretation or construction of meaning among Roman authors.
  69. ^ Wagenvoort, "Caerimonia", p. 100 online.
  70. ^ Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 6.19.36 online.
  71. ^ Festus, p. 354 L2 = p. 58 M; Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 227 online.
  72. ^ Robert E.A. Palmer, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464, or the Hazards of Interpretation", in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 83.
  73. ^ Capite aperto, "bareheaded"; Martin Söderlind, Late Etruscan Votive Heads from Tessennano («L'Erma» di Bretschneider, 2002), p. 370 online.
  74. ^ Robert Schilling, "Roman Sacrifice", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 78.
  75. ^ Classical Sculpture: Catalogue of the Cypriot, Greek, and Roman Stone Sculpture in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2006), p. 169.
  76. ^ 1 Corinthians 11:4; see Neil Elliott, Liberating Paul: The Justice of God and the Politics of the Apostle (Fortress Press, 1994, 2006), p. 210 online; Bruce W. Winter, After Paul Left Corinth: The Influence of Secular Ethics and Social Change (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2001), pp. 121–123 online, citing as the standard source D.W.J. Gill, "The Importance of Roman Portraiture for Head-Coverings in 1 Corinthians 11:2–16", Tyndale Bulletin 41 (1990) 245–260; Elaine Fantham, "Covering the Head at Rome" Ritual and Gender," in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 159, citing Richard Oster, "When Men Wore Veils to Worship: The Historical Context of 1 Corinthians 11:4." New Testament Studies 34 (1988): 481-505. The passage has been explained with reference to Jewish and other practices as well.
  77. ^ Frances Hickson Hahn, "Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 236, citing also Michael C.J. Putnam, Horace's Carmen Saeculare (London, 2001), p. 133.
  78. ^ Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide (Harvard University Press, 2004), p. 367.
  79. ^ J.B. Rives, "Magic in the XII Tables Revisited," Classical Quarterly 52:1 (2002) 288–289.
  80. ^ Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi, p. 510.
  81. ^ Bernadotte Filotas, Pagan Survivals, Superstitions and Popular Cultures in Early Medieval Pastoral Literature (Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2005), p. 256.
  82. ^ Compare Sanskrit s'ista.
  83. ^ M. Morani"Lat. 'sacer'..." Aevum LV 1981 p. 38. Another etymology connects it to Vedic s'asti, 'he gives the instruction', and to Avestic saas-tu, 'that he educate': in G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris, 1974, Remarques preliminaires IX
  84. ^ Vergil, Aeneid, 6.661: "Sacerdotes casti dum vita manebat", in H. Fugier, Recherches... cit. p.18 ff.
  85. ^ See, for instance, mola salsa.
  86. ^ Andrew C. Johnston and Marcello Mogetta, "Debating Early Republican Urbanism in Latium Vetus: The Town Planning of Gabii, between Archaeology and History," Journal of Roman Studies 110 (2020), p. 103 et passim.
  87. ^ John Scheid, "Graeco Ritu: A Typically Roman Way of Honoring the Gods," Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 97 (1995), p. 19.
  88. ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 7.612; Larissa Bonfante, "Ritual Dress," p. 185, and Fay Glinister, "Veiled and Unveiled: Uncovering Roman Influence in Hellenistic Italy," p. 197, both in Votives, Places, and Rituals in Etruscan Religion: Studies in Honor of Jean MacIntosh Turfa (Brill, 2009).
  89. ^ a b H.H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC (Routledge, 1935, 2013), p. 409.
  90. ^ John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), p. 80.
  91. ^ a b Cato, in Servius, commentary on Vergil's Aeneid, Book 5, §755.
  92. ^ Cicero, In Verrem 5.21.53.
  93. ^ Horace, Carmen 1.35, 17, 18; 3.24, 6, 6.
  94. ^ Praetor maximus, the chief magistrate with imperium; T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 21.
  95. ^ Festus, 49 in the edition of Wallace Lindsay, says that "the year-nail was so called because it was fixed into the walls of the sacred aedes every year, so that the number of years could be reckoned by means of them". [1]
  96. ^ Livy, 7.3; Brennan, Praetorship, p. 21.
  97. ^ Livy, 7.3.
  98. ^ The Fasti Capitolini record dictatores clavi figendi causa for 363, 331, and 263.
  99. ^ H.S. Versnel, Triumphus: An Inquiry into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph (Brill, 1970), pp. 271–272.
  100. ^ Brennan, Praetorship, p. 21.
  101. ^ Cassius Dio 55.10.4, as cited by Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), p. 108; Brennan, Praetorship, p. 21.
  102. ^ David S. Potter, "Roman Religion: Ideas and Action", in Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire (University of Michigan, 1999), pp. 139–140.
  103. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae XV 27, 1-3, citing Laelius Felix in reference to M. Antistius Labeo.
  104. ^ George Willis Botsford, The Roman Assemblies from Their Origin to the End of the Republic (Macmillan, 1909), pp. 155–165.
  105. ^ Botsford, Roman Assemblies, p. 153.
  106. ^ Botsford, Roman Assemblies, p. 154.
  107. ^ Botsford, Roman Assemblies, pp. 104, 154.
  108. ^ George Mousourakis, The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law (Ashgate, 2003), p. 105.
  109. ^ In the Fasti Viae Lanza.
  110. ^ As summarized by Jörg Rüpke, The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History, and the Fasti (Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), pp. 26–27.
  111. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2245, note 387.
  112. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The libri reconditi", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), pp. 228–229.
  113. ^ Cicero de Div. II 42
  114. ^ Festus, book 17, p. 819.
  115. ^ Serv. Dan. Aen. I 398
  116. ^ Livy, IV 31, 4; VIII 15, 6; XXIII 31, 13; XLI 18, 8.
  117. ^ Moses Hadas, A History of Latin Literature (Columbia University Press, 1952), p. 15 online.
  118. ^ C.O. Brink, Horace on Poetry. Epistles Book II: The Letters to Augustus and Florus (Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 64 online.
  119. ^ Cicero, De domo sua 136.
  120. ^ Wilfried Stroh, "De domo sua: Legal Problem and Structure", in Cicero the Advocate (Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 341.
  121. ^ W.S. Teuffel, History of Roman Literature, translated by George C.W. Warr (London, 1900), vol. 1, p. 104 online.
  122. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The libri reconditi", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985) 207–234, especially p. 216.
  123. ^ For example, Pliny, Natural History 18.14, in reference to the augurium canarium, a dog sacrifice. Other references include Cicero, Brutus 55 and De domo sua 186; Livy 4.3 and 6.1; Quintilian 8.2.12, as cited by Teuffel.
  124. ^ Linderski, "The libri reconditi", pp. 218–219.
  125. ^ Brink, Horace on Poetry, p. 64.
  126. ^ Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philosophical Society, 1991 reprint), p. 399 online.
  127. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), 2231–2233, 2238.
  128. ^ Greek stochasmos (στοχασμός); Tobias Reinhardt, "Rhetoric in the Fourth Academy", Classical Quarterly 50 (2000), p. 534. The Greek equivalent of conicere is symballein, from which English "symbol" derives; François Guillaumont, "Divination et prévision rationelle dans la correspondance de Cicéron," in Epistulae Antiquae: Actes du Ier Colloque "Le genre épistolaire antique et ses prolongements (Université François-Rabelais, Tours, 18-19 septembre 1998) (Peeters, 2002).
  129. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2249 online.
  130. ^ Cicero, De domo sua 139; F. Sini, Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica (Sassari, 1983), p.152
  131. ^ Cicero. De domo sua 136.
  132. ^ J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung III (Leipzig, 1885), pp. 269 ff.; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer, p.385.
  133. ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 2.8 and 1.117.
  134. ^ Clifford Ando, The Matter of the Gods (University of California Press, 2009), p. 6.
  135. ^ Ando, The Matter of the Gods, pp. 5–7; Valerie M. Warrior, Roman Religion (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 6; James B. Rives, Religion in the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 2007), pp. 13, 23.
  136. ^ Augustine, De Civitate Dei 10.1; Ando, The Matter of the Gods, p. 6.
  137. ^ a b Jerzy Linderski, "The libri reconditi" Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), pp. 218–219.
  138. ^ Sabine MacCormack, The Shadows of Poetry: Vergil in the Mind of Augustine (University of California Press, 1998), p. 75.
  139. ^ Clifford Ando, The Matter of the Gods: Religion and the Roman Empire (University of California Press, 2008), p. 110.
  140. ^ apud Nonius p. 792 L.
  141. ^ As recorded by Servius, ad Aen. II 225.
  142. ^ Festus De verborum significatu s.v. delubrum p. 64 L; G. Colonna "Sacred Architecture and the Religion of the Etruscans" in N. T. De Grummond The Religion of the Etruscans 2006 p. 165 n. 59.
  143. ^ Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 15.4.9; Stephen A. Barney, The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 310 online.
  144. ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 2.156; Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2000), p. 44.
  145. ^ George Willis Botsford, The Roman Assemblies from Their Origin to the End of the Republic (Macmillan, 1909), pp. 161–162.
  146. ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 12.139.
  147. ^ David Wardle, "Deus or Divus: The Genesis of Roman Terminology for Deified Emperors and a Philosopher's Contribution", in Philosophy and Power in the Graeco-Roman World: Essays in Honour of Miriam Griffin (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 182.
  148. ^ Servius Aen. II 141: "pontifices dicunt singulis actibus proprios deos praeesse, hos Varro certos deos appellat", the pontiffs say that every single action is presided upon by its own deity, these Varro calls certain gods"; A. von Domaszewski, "Dii certi und incerti" in Abhandlungen fuer roemische Religion 1909 pp. 154-170.
  149. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion in Republican Rome: Rationalization and Ritual Change (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), p. 183.
  150. ^ As preserved by Augustine, De Civitate Dei VI 3.
  151. ^ Livy 8.9; for a brief introduction and English translation of the passage, see Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 157 online.
  152. ^ Carlos F. Noreña, Imperial Ideals in the Roman West: Representation, Circulation, Power (Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 142.
  153. ^ C.E.V. Nixon, In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini (University of California Press, 1994), pp. 179–185; Albino Garzetti, From Tiberius To The Antonines (Methuen, 1974), originally published 1960 in Italian), p. 618. Paganism and Christianity, 100-425 C.E.: A Sourcebook edited by Ramsay MacMullen and Eugene N. Lane (Augsburg Fortress, 1992), p. 154; Roger S. Bagnall and Raffaella Cribiore, Women's Letters from Ancient Egypt 300 BC–AD 800 (University of Michigan Press, 2006), pp. 346–347.
  154. ^ Nixon, In Praise of Later Roman Emperors, p. 182.
  155. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.16.36; William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), pp. 28, 42.
  156. ^ Vernaclus was buried by his father, Lucius Cassius Tacitus, in Colonia Ubii. Maureen Carroll, Spirits of the Dead: Roman Funerary Commemoration in Western Europe (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 172.
  157. ^ M. Golden, "Did the Ancients Care When Their Children Died?" Greece & Rome 35 (1988) 152–163.
  158. ^ Christian Laes, Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within (Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 66.
  159. ^ Jens-Uwe Krause, "Children in the Roman Family and Beyond," in The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 627.
  160. ^ Denis Feeney, Caesar's Calendar: Ancient Time and the Beginnings of History, University of California Press (2008) p. 148.
  161. ^ Feeney, Caesar's Calendar, pp. 148–149.
  162. ^ a b Feeney, Caesar's Calendar, p. 149.
  163. ^ Regina Gee, "From Corpse to Ancestor: The Role of Tombside Dining in the Transformation of the Body in Ancient Rome," in The Materiality of Death: Bodies, Burials, Beliefs, Bar International Series 1768 (Oxford, 2008), p. 64.
  164. ^ Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005, 2006), p. 131.
  165. ^ Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), p. 47.
  166. ^ Patricia Cox Miller, "'The Little Blue Flower Is Red': Relics and the Poeticizing of the Body," Journal of Early Christian Studies 8.2 (2000), p. 228.
  167. ^ H.H. Scullard, Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic (Cornell University Press, 1981), p. 45.
  168. ^ Cicero, Ad Atticum 4.9.1; Festus 268 in the edition of Lindsay; Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2187–2188.
  169. ^ Jörg Rüpke, The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History, and the Fasti, translated by David M.B. Richardson (Blackwell, 2011, originally published 1995 in German), pp. 151–152. The Fasti Maffeiani (= Degrassi, Inscriptiones Italiae 13.2.72) reads Dies vitios[us] ex s[enatus] c[onsulto], as noted by Rüpke, Kalender und Öffentlichkeit: Die Geschichte der Repräsentation und religiösen Qualifikation von Zeit in Rom (De Gruyter, 1995), p. 436, note 36. The designation is also found in the Fasti Praenestini.
  170. ^ Linderski, "The Augural Law," p. 2188.
  171. ^ Cassius Dio 51.19.3; Linderski, "The Augural Law," pp. 2187–2188.
  172. ^ Suetonius, Divus Claudius 11.3, with commentary by Donna W. Hurley, Suetonius: Divus Claudius (Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 106.
  173. ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 4.453; Festus 69 (edition of Lindsay).
  174. ^ David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 178, 182; Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2203.
  175. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 59; Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), passim.
  176. ^ The phrase is Druidarum religionem ... dirae immanitatis ("the malevolent inhumanity of the religion of the druids"), where immanitas seems to be the opposite of humanitas as also evidenced among the Celts: Suetonius, Claudius 25, in the same passage containing one of the earliest mentions of Christianity as a threat.
  177. ^ P.A. Brunt, Roman Imperial Themes (Oxford University Press, 1990, 2001), p. 485 online.
  178. ^ The phrase is used for instance by Servius, note to Aeneid 4.166.
  179. ^ Massimo Pallottino, "The Doctrine and Sacred Books of the Disciplina Etrusca", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), pp. 43–44.
  180. ^ Elizabeth Rawson, "Caesar, Etruria, and the Disciplina Etrusca", Journal of Roman Studies 68 (1978), p. 138.
  181. ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 5.45, also 12.139.
  182. ^ Servius is unclear as to whether Lucius Ateius Praetextatus or Gaius Ateius Capito is meant.
  183. ^ David Wardle, "Deus or Divus: The Genesis of Roman Terminology for Deified Emperors and a Philosopher's Contribution", in Philosophy and Power in the Graeco-Roman World (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 181–183.
  184. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 149 online.
  185. ^ Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006), p. 479 online.
  186. ^ Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 1953, 2002), p. 414.
  187. ^ James R. Harrison, Paul's Language of Grace in Its Graeco-Roman Context (C.B. Mohr, 2003), p. 284. See Charites for the ancient Greek goddesses known as the Graces.
  188. ^ Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion (Beacon Press, 1963, 1991, originally published in German 1922), p. 82 online.
  189. ^ Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (Oxford University Press, 2001 translation), p. 257 online.
  190. ^ Festus 146 (edition of Lindsay).
  191. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2156–2157.
  192. ^ Daniel J. Gargola, Lands, Laws and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremony in the Regulation of Public Lands (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 27.
  193. ^ Linderski, "Augural Law," p. 2274.
  194. ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 41.
  195. ^ Nicholas Purcell, "On the Sacking of Corinth and Carthage", in Ethics and Rhetoric: Classical Essays for Donald Russell on His Seventy (Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 140–142.
  196. ^ Beard et al., Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook, pp. 41–42, with the passage from Livy, 5.21.1–7; Robert Turcan, The Cults of the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 1996, 2001, originally published in French 1992), p. 12; Robert Schilling, "Juno", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p 131.
  197. ^ Daniel J. Gargola, Lands, Laws, and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremonies in the Regulation of Public Lands in Republican Rome (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 30. Elizabeth Rawson expresses doubts as to whether the evocatio of 146 BC occurred as such; see "Scipio, Laelius, Furius and the Ancestral Religion", Journal of Roman Studies 63 (1973) 161–174.
  198. ^ Evidenced by an inscription dedicated by an imperator Gaius Servilius, probably at the vowed temple; Beard et al., Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook, p. 248.
  199. ^ As implied but not explicitly stated by Propertius, Elegy 4.2; Daniel P. Harmon, "Religion in the Latin Elegists", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.3 (1986), pp. 1960–1961.
  200. ^ Eric Orlin, Foreign Cults in Rome: Creating a Roman Empire (Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 37–38.
  201. ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 254.
  202. ^ Arnaldo Momigliano, On Pagans, Jews, and Christians (Wesleyan University Press, 1987), p. 178; Greg Woolf, Becoming Roman: The Origins of Provincial Civilization in Gaul (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 214.
  203. ^ George Mousourakis, The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law (Ashgate, 2003), p. 339 online.
  204. ^ Daniel J. Gargola, Lands, Laws, and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremony in the Regulation of Public Lands (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 27; Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2273.
  205. ^ Clifford Ando, The Matter of the Gods: Religion and the Roman Empire (University of California Press, 2008), p. 184, citing Servius, note to Aeneid 2.351: "Pontifical law advises that unless Roman deities are called by their proper names, they cannot be exaugurated" (et iure pontificum cautum est, ne suis nominibus dii Romani appellarentur, ne exaugurari possint).
  206. ^ Livy 5.54.7; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.69.5; J. Rufus Fears, "The Cult of Virtues and Roman Imperial Ideology," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.17.2 (1981), p. 848.
  207. ^ Clifford Ando, "Exporting Roman Religion," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 442.
  208. ^ Fay Glinister, "Sacred Rubbish," in Religion in Archaic and Republican Rome and Italy: Evidence and Experience (Edinburgh University Press, 2000), p. 66.
  209. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Fasti sacerdotum: A Prosopography of Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Religious Officials in the City of Rome, 300 BC to AD 499 (Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 530, 753.
  210. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia III 5, 6, quoting a passage from Veranius, De pontificalibus quaestionibus: eximias dictas hostias quae ad sacrificium destinatae eximantur e grege, vel quod eximia specie quasi offerendae numinibus eligantur.
  211. ^ F. SiniSua cuique civitati religio Torino 2001 p. 197
  212. ^ Cicero, De divinatione 2.12.29. According to Pliny (Natural History 11.186), before 274 BC the heart was not included among the exta.
  213. ^ Robert Schilling, "The Roman Religion", in Historia Religionum: Religions of the Past (Brill, 1969), vol. 1, pp. 471–472, and "Roman Sacrifice," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 79; John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003, originally published in French 1998), p. 84.
  214. ^ Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), p. 511.
  215. ^ Juvenal, Satire 2.110–114; Livy 37.9 and 38.18; Richard M. Crill, "Roman Paganism under the Antonines and Severans," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.2 (1976), p. 31.
  216. ^ Juvenal, Satire 4.123; Stephen L. Dyson, Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), pp. 228, 328; John E. Stambaugh, "The Functions of Roman Temples," ANRW II.16.2 (1976), p. 593; Robert Turcan, The Cults of the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 1992, 2001 printing), p. 41.
  217. ^ Anonymous author of the Historia Augusta, Tacitus 17.1: Fanaticus quidam in Templo Silvani tensis membris exclamavit, as cited by Peter F. Dorcey, The Cult of Silvanus: A Study in Roman Folk Religion (Brill, 1992), p. 90, with some due skepticism toward the source.
  218. ^ CIL VI.490, 2232, and 2234, as cited by Stambaugh, "The Function of Roman Temples," p. 593, note 275.
  219. ^ Fanaticum agmen, Tacitus, Annales 14.30.
  220. ^ See for instance Cicero, De domo sua 105, De divinatione 2.118; and Horace's comparison of supposedly inspired poetic frenzy to the fanaticus error of religious mania (Ars Poetica 454); C.O. Brink, Horace on Poetry: Epistles Book II, The Letters to Augustus and Florus (Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 357; Marten Stol, Epilepsy in Babylonia (Brill, 1993), p. 121 online.
  221. ^ Fanatica dicitur arbor fulmine icta, apud Paulus, p. 92M.
  222. ^ Festus s.v. delubrum p. 64 M; G. Colonna "Sacred Architecture and the Religion of the Etruscans" in N. Thomas De Grummond The Religion of the Etruscans 2006 p. 165 n. 59
  223. ^ S. 53.1, CCSL 103:233–234, as cited by Bernadotte Filotas, Pagan Survivals, Superstitions and Popular Cultures in Early Medieval Pastoral Literature (Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2005), p. 68.
  224. ^ "What a thing is that, that when those trees to which people make vows fall, no one carries wood from them home to use on the hearth! Behold the wretchedness and stupidity of mankind: they show honour to a dead tree and despite the commands of the living God; they do not dare to put the branches of a tree into the fire and by an act of sacrilege throw themselves headlong into hell": Caesarius of Arles, S. 54.5, CCSL 103:239, as quoted and discussed by Filotas, Pagan Survivals, p. 146.
  225. ^ As for instance in Livy 10.37.15, where he says that the temple of Jupiter Stator, established by the wartime votum of the consul and general M. Atilius Regulus in the 290s BC, had already been vowed by Romulus, but had remained only a fanum, a site (locus) delineated by means of verbalized ritual (effatus) for a templum.
  226. ^ Roger D. Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult (University of Illinois Press, 2006), p. 150 online.
  227. ^ Fíísnú is the nominative form.
  228. ^ The form fesnaf-e is an accusative plural with an enclitic postposition.
  229. ^ Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space, p. 150.
  230. ^ S.P. Oakley, A Commentary on Livy, Books 6–10 (Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 378; Michel P.J. van den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto (Brill, 1999), p. 164.
  231. ^ Lawrence Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p. 2.
  232. ^ Patrice Méniel, "Fanum and sanctuary," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), pp. 229, 733–734 online.
  233. ^ See Romano-Celtic Temple Bourton Grounds in Great-Britain Archived 2013-02-16 at the Wayback Machine and Romano-British Temples Archived 2012-09-07 at the Wayback Machine
  234. ^ T.F. Hoad, English Etymology, Oxford University Press 1993. p. 372a.
  235. ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 2.54; Nicholas Horsfall, Virgil, Aeneid 2: A Commentary (Brill, 2008), p. 91.
  236. ^ Horsfall, Virgil, Aeneid 2, p. 91.
  237. ^ Elisabeth Henry, The Vigour of Prophecy: A Study of Virgil's Aeneid (Southern Illinois University Press, 1989) passim.
  238. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "Founding the City," in Ten Years of the Agnes Kirsopp Lake Michels Lectures at Bryn Mawr College (Bryn Mawr Commentaries, 2006), p. 93.
  239. ^ R.L. Rike, Apex Omnium: Religion in the Res Gestae of Ammianus (University of California Press, 1987), p. 123.
  240. ^ Cynthia White, "The Vision of Augustus," Classica et Mediaevalia 55 (2004), p. 276.
  241. ^ Rike, Apex Omnium, pp. 122–123.
  242. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 23.1.7, as cited by Rike, Apex Omnium, p. 122, note 57; Sarolta A. Takács, Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons: Women in Roman Religion (University of Texas Press, 2008), p. 68.
  243. ^ See Mary Beard et al., Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 370 online, in a Christianized context with reference to Constantine I's AD 314 address of the Donatist dispute.
  244. ^ Robert Schilling, "Roman Festivals," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 92. So too R. Orestano, "Dal ius al fas," Bullettino dell'Istituto di diritto romano 46 (1939), p. 244 ff., and I fatti di normazione nell 'esperienza romana arcaica (Turin 1967), p.106 ff.; A. Guarino, L'ordinamento giuridico romano (Naples 1980), p. 93; J. Paoli, Le monde juridique du paganisme romain p. 5; P. Catalano, Contributi allo studio del diritto augurale (Turin 1960), pp. 23 ff., 326 n. 10; C. Gioffredi, Diritto e processo nelle antiche forme giuridiche romane (Rome 1955), p. 25; B. Albanese, Premesse allo studio del diritto privat romano (Palermo 1978), p.127.
  245. ^ Valerie M. Warrior, Roman Religion, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p.160 [2]
  246. ^ Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), p.113 online.
  247. ^ Vergil, Georgics 1.269, with Servius's note: "divina humanaque iura permittunt: nam ad religionem fas, ad hominem iura pertinunt". See also Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome: Religion in Everyday Life from Archaic to Imperial Times (Routledge, 2000), p.5 online. and discussion of the relationship between fas and ius from multiple scholarly perspectives by Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2203–04 online.
  248. ^ Schilling, Roman and European Mythologies, p. 92.
  249. ^ The Oxford Latin Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982, 1985 reprinting), entry on fas p. 676, considers the etymology dubious but leans toward for, fari. The Indo-Europeanist Emile Benveniste derives fas, as a form of divine speech, from the IE root *bhā (as cited by Schilling, Roman and European Mythologies, p. 93, note 4).
  250. ^ Varro, De Lingua Latina, 6.29, because on dies fasti the courts are in session and political speech may be practiced freely. Ovid pursues the connection between the dies fasti and permissible speech (fas est) in his calendrical poem the Fasti; see discussion by Carole E. Newlands, Playing with Time: Ovid and the Fasti (Cornell Studies in Classical Philology, 1995), p. 175 online.
  251. ^ Dumézil holds that fas derives from the IE root *dhē (as noted by Schilling, Roman and European Mythologies, p. 93, note 4). One ancient tradition associated the etymology of fas with that of Themis as the "establisher". See Paulus, epitome of Festus, p. 505 (edition of Lindsay); Ausonius, Technopaegnion 8, and de diis 1. For the scholarship, see U. Coli, "Regnum" in Studia et documenta historiae et iuris 17 1951; C. Ferrini "Fas" in Nuovo Digesto Italiano p. 918; C. Gioffredi, Diritto e processo nelle antiche forme giuridiche romane (Roma 1955) p. 25 n.1; H. Fugier, Recherches sur l' expression du sacre' dans la langue latine (Paris 1963), pp. 142 ff.; G. Dumezil, La religion romaine archaique (Paris 1974), p. 144.
  252. ^ H. Fugier Recherches sur l'expression du sacre' dans la langue latine Paris, 1963
  253. ^ W. W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language New York 1963 sv felicity, feminine
  254. ^ "Catholic Encyclopedia: Feria". Newadvent.org. 1909-09-01. Retrieved 2022-08-27.
  255. ^ G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris 1974 part IV chapt. 2; Camillus: a study of Indo-European religion as Roman history (University of California Press, 1980), p. 214 online, citing Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.16.2.
  256. ^ Livy I.18.9; Varro, De lingua latina V.143, VI.153, VII.8-9; Aulus Gellius XIII.14.1 (on the pomerium); Festus p. 488 L, tesca.
  257. ^ Joseph Rykwert, The Idea of a Town: The Anthropology of Urban Form in Rome, Italy and the Ancient World (MIT Press, 1988, originally published 1976), pp. 106–107, 126–127; Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer (Munich 1912) 2nd pp. 136 ff.; G. Dumezil, La religion romaine archaique (Paris 1974) 2nd, pp. 210 ff.; Varro, De lingua latina V.21; Isidore, Origines XV.14.3; Paulus, Fest. epit. p. 505 L; Ovid, Fasti II 639 ff.
  258. ^ Discussion and citation of ancient sources by Steven J. Green, Ovid, Fasti 1: A Commentary (Brill, 2004), pp. 159–160 online.
  259. ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 1.334.
  260. ^ Hostibus a domitis hostia nomen habet ("the hostia gets its name from the 'hostiles' that have been defeated"), Ovid, Fasti 1.336; victima quae dextra cecidit victrice vocatur ("the victim which is killed by the victor's right hand is named [from that act]"), 1.335.
  261. ^ a b Char. 403.38.
  262. ^ Macrobius Sat. VI 9, 5-7; Varro Ling. Lat. V
  263. ^ Macrobius Sat. VI 9, 7; Festus s.v. bidentes p.33 M
  264. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia III 5, 1 ff.
  265. ^ Nathan Rosenstein, Imperatores Victi: Military Defeat and Aristocratic Competition in the Middle and Late Republic (University of California Press, 1990), p. 64.
  266. ^ Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2001; originally published in French 1998), p. 9.
  267. ^ Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome, p. 39.
  268. ^ Veranius, Iur. 7: praesentanaea porca dicitur ... quae familiae purgandae causa Cereris immolatur, quod pars quaedam eius sacrificii fit in conspectu mortui eius, cuius funus instituitur.
  269. ^ Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae IV 6, 3-10 for hostia succidanea and praecidanea; also Festus p. 250 L. s. v. praecidanea hostia; Festus p. 298 L. s.v. praesentanea hostia. Gellius's passage implies a conceptual connexion between the hostia praecidanea and the feriae succidaneae, though this is not explicated. Scholarly interpretations thus differ on what the feriae praecidaneae were: cf. A. Bouché-Leclercq Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines III Paris 1898 s. v Inauguratio p. 440 and n. 1; G. Wissowa Religion und Kultus der Römer München 1912 p.438 f.; L. Schmitz in W. Smith A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities London 1875 s. v. feriae; P. Catalano Contributi allo studio del diritto augurale Torino 1960 p. 352.
  270. ^ Cicero, De legibus ii 8,20; Dionysius Halicarnassus II 22,3.
  271. ^ Livy XXVII 36, 5; XL 42, 8-10; Aulus Gellius XV 17, 1
  272. ^ Gaius I 130; III 114; Livy XXVII 8,4; XLI 28, 7; XXXVII 47, 8; XXIX 38, 6;XLV 15,19; Macrobius II 13, 11;
  273. ^ Cicero, Brutus 1; Livy XXVII 36, 5; XXX 26, 10; Dionysius Halicarnassus II 73, 3.
  274. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1908), p. 89.
  275. ^ In particular, Book 14 of the non-extant Antiquitates rerum divinarum; see Lipka, Roman Gods, pp. 69–70.
  276. ^ W.R. Johnson, "The Return of Tutunus", Arethusa (1992) 173–179; Fowler, Religious Experience, p. 163. Wissowa, however, asserted that Varro's lists were not indigitamenta, but di certi, gods whose function could still be identified with certainty; Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (unknown ed.), vol. 13, p. 218. See also Kurt Latte, Roemische Religionsgeschichte (Munich, 1960), pp. 44-45.
  277. ^ Lactantius, Div. inst. 1.6.7; Censorinus 3.2; Arnaldo Momigliano, "The Theological Efforts of the Roman Upper Classes in the First Century B.C.", Classical Philology 79 (1984), p. 210.
  278. ^ Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), p. 513.
  279. ^ Matthias Klinghardt, "Prayer Formularies for Public Recitation: Their Use and Function in Ancient Religion", Numen 46 (1999), pp. 44–45; Frances Hickson Hahn, "Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 240; Nicole Belayche, "Religious Actors in Daily Life: Practices and Shared Beliefs", in A Companion to Roman Religion, p. 279.
  280. ^ The vocative is the grammatical case used only for "calling" or invoking, that is, hailing or addressing someone paratactically.
  281. ^ Gábor Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus: Cosmology, Theology and Interpretation (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 137.
  282. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2253
  283. ^ Luck, Arcana Mundi, pp. 497, 498.
  284. ^ Pausanias gave specific examples in regard to Poseidon (7.21.7); Claude Calame, "The Homeric Hymns as Poetic Offerings: Musical and Ritual Relationships with the Gods," in The Homeric Hymns: Interpretive Essays (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 338.
  285. ^ A. Berger Encyclopedical Dictionary of Roman Law Philadelphia 1968 sv. ius
  286. ^ Inst. 2, 2 ap. Dig. 1, 8, 1: Summa itaque rerum divisio in duos articulos diducitur: nam aliae sunt divini iuris, aliae humani, 'thus the highest division of things is reduced into two articles:some belong to divine right, some to human right'.
  287. ^ F.Sini Bellum nefandum Sassari 1991 p. 110
  288. ^ In Festus: ...iudex atque arbiter habetur rerum divinarum humanarumque: 'he is considered to be the judge and arbiter of things divine and human'... his authority stems from his regal (originally king Numa's) investiture. F. Sini Bellum nefandum Sassari 1991 p. 108 ff. R. Orestano Dal ius al fas p.201.
  289. ^ Ulpian Libr. I regularum ap. Digesta 1, 1, 10, 2: Iuris prudentia est divinarum atque humanrum rerum notitia, iusti atque iniusti scientia
  290. ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 105.
  291. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 130, citing Gaius, Institutes 2.1–9.
  292. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 122ff.
  293. ^ A. J. B. Sirks, "Sacra, Succession and the lex Voconia," Latomus 53:2 (1994), p. 273,
  294. ^ Jerzy Linderski, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), p. 214, citing De domo sua 138.
  295. ^ The book was less likely by the more famous historian Fabius Pictor (3rd century BC) who wrote in Greek; Meghan J. DiLuzio, A Place at the Altar: Priestess in Republica Rome (Princeton University Press, 2016), p. 33.
  296. ^ Kirk Summers, "Lucretius' Roman Cybele," in Cybele, Attis and Related Cults: Essays in Memory of M.J. Vermaseren (1996), pp. 342–345.
  297. ^ Elaine Fantham, Ovid: Fasti Book IV. (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 117.
  298. ^ W.W. Skeat, Etymological dictionary of the English Language entries on legal, legion, diligent, negligent, religion.
  299. ^ For example in Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 1.24.7, Jupiter is called on to hear the oath.
  300. ^ Serv. in Aen. III, 89: legum here is understood as the uttering of a set of fixed, binding conditions.
  301. ^ M. Morani "Lat. 'sacer'..." Aevum LV 1981 p. 38 n.22
  302. ^ For example, those dated to 58 BC, relating to the temple of Jupiter Liber at Furfo: CIL IX 3513
  303. ^ G. Dumezil la religion romaine archaic Paris, 1974.
  304. ^ P. Noailles RH 19/20 (1940/41) 1, 27 ff; A. Magdelain De la royauté et du droit des Romaines (Rome, 1995) chap. II, III
  305. ^ Paul Veyne, The Roman Empire (Harvard University Press, 1987), p. 213.
  306. ^ H.S. Versnel, Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual (Brill, 1993, 1994), pp. 62–63.
  307. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2156–2157, 2248.
  308. ^ F. Sini Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica Sassari, 1983; S. Tondo Leges regiae e paricidas Firenze, 1973; E. Peruzzi Origini di Roma II
  309. ^ Francesco Sini, Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica. I. Libri e documenti Sassari, 1983, IV, 10, p. 175 ff.
  310. ^ Cicero, De Legibus ("On Laws"), 2, 21.
  311. ^ M. Van Den Bruwaene, "Precison sur la loi religieuse du de leg. II, 19-22 de Ciceron" in Helikon 1 (1961) p.89.
  312. ^ F. Sini Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica I. Libri e commentari Sassari 1983 p. 22; S. Tondo Leges regiae e paricidas Firenze, 1973, p.20-21; R. Besnier "Le archives privees publiques et religieuses a' Rome au temps des rois" in Studi Albertario II Milano 1953 pp.1 ff.; L. Bickel "Lehrbuch der Geschichte der roemischen Literatur" p. 303; G. J. Szemler The priests of the Roman Republic Bruxelles 1972.
  313. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), pp. 149–150.
  314. ^ Livy 41.14–15.
  315. ^ a b Robert Schilling, "Roman Sacrifice," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 79 online.
  316. ^ Paulus Festi epitome p. 57 L s.v. capitalis lucus
  317. ^ Berger, Adolf (1953). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law. Transactions of The American Philosophical Society. Vol. 43. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society. p. 546. ISBN 1584771429.
  318. ^ CIL I 2nd 366; XI 4766; CIL I2 401, IX 782; R. Del Ponte, "Santità delle mura e sanzione divina" in Diritto e Storia 3 2004.
  319. ^ W.W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language New York 1973 s.v. lustration
  320. ^ Stefan Weinstock, "Libri fulgurales," Papers of the British School at Rome 19 (1951), p. 125.
  321. ^ Weinstock, p. 125.
  322. ^ Seneca, Naturales Questiones 2.41.1.
  323. ^ Massimo Pallottino, "The Doctrine and Sacred Books of the Disciplina Etrusca," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 44.
  324. ^ According to Seneca, NQ 2.41.1. See also Festus p. 219M = 114 edition of Lindsay; entry on peremptalia fulgura, p. 236 in the 1997 Teubner edition; Pliny, Natural History 2.138; and Servius, note to Aeneid 1.42, as cited and discussed by Weinstock, p. 125ff. Noted also by Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité (Jérôme Millon, 2003 reprint, originally published 1883), p. 845, note 54.
  325. ^ Pallottino, "Doctrine and Sacred Books," p. 44.
  326. ^ Weinstock, p. 127. See also The Religion of the Etruscans, pp. 40–41, where an identification of the dii involuti with the Favores Opertaneii ("Secret Gods of Favor") referred to by Martianus Capella is proposed.
  327. ^ Georges Dumézil, La religion romaine archaïque (Paris 1974), pp. 630 and 633 (note 3), drawing on Seneca, NQ 2.41.1–2 and 39.
  328. ^ Pallottino, "Doctrine and Sacred Books", pp. 43–44.
  329. ^ Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité: Divination hellénique et divination italique (Jérôme Millon, 2003 reprint), p. 873; T.P. Wiseman, "History, Poetry, and Annales", in Clio and the Poets: Augustan Poetry and the Traditions of Ancient Historiography (Brill, 2002), p. 359 "awe and amazement are the result, not the cause, of the miraculum.
  330. ^ Livy 1.39.
  331. ^ George Williamson, "Mucianus and a Touch of the Miraculous: Pilgrimage and Tourism in Roman Asia Minor", in Seeing the Gods: Pilgrimage in Graeco-Roman and Early Christian Antiquity (Oxford University Press, 2005, 2007), p. 245 online.
  332. ^ Ariadne Staples, From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion (Routledge, 1998), pp. 154–155.
  333. ^ Servius, note to Eclogue 8.82:
  334. ^ Fernando Navarro Antolín, Lygdamus. Corpus Tibullianum III.1–6: Lygdami Elegiarum Liber (Brill, 1996), pp. 272–272 online.
  335. ^ David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 102.
  336. ^ Varro as recorded by Servius, note to Aeneid 3.336, cited by Wardle, Cicero on Divination, p. 330 online.
  337. ^ Philip R. Hardie, Virgil: Aeneid, Book IX (Cambridge University Press, 1994, reprinted 2000), p. 97.
  338. ^ Mary Beagon, "Beyond Comparison: M. Sergius, Fortunae victor", in Philosophy and Power in the Graeco-Roman World: Essays in Honour of Miriam Griffin (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 127.
  339. ^ a b As cited by Wardle, Cicero on Divination, p. 330.
  340. ^ Beagon, "Beyond Comparison", in Philosophy and Power, p. 127.
  341. ^ Michèle Lowrie, Horace's Narrative Odes (Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 151–154.
  342. ^ Cicero, In Catilinam 2.1.
  343. ^ Gregory A. Staley, Seneca and the Idea of Tragedy (Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 80, 96, 109, 113 et passim.
  344. ^ L. Banti; G. Dumézil La religion romaine archaïque Paris 1974, It. tr. p. 482-3.
  345. ^ M. Humm, "Le mundus et le Comitium : représentations symboliques de l'espace de la cité," Histoire urbaine, 2, 10, 2004. French language, full preview.
  346. ^ Dies religiosi were marked by the gods as inauspicious, so in theory, no official work should have been done, but it was not a legally binding religious the rule. G. Dumézil above.
  347. ^ Festus p. 261 L2, citing Cato's commentaries on civil law. An inscription at Capua names a sacerdos Cerialis mundalis (CIL X 3926). For the connection between deities of agriculture and the underworld, see W. Warde Fowler, "Mundus Patet" in Journal of Roman Studies, 2, (1912), pp. 25–33
  348. ^ A. Guarino L'ordinamento giuridico romano Napoli, 1980, p. 93.
  349. ^ Olga Tellegen-Couperus, A Short History of Roman Law, Routledge, 1993. ISBN 978-0-415-07250-2 pp17-18.
  350. ^ Festus p. 424 L: At homo sacer is est, quem populus iudicavit ob maleficium; neque fas est eum immolari, sed qui occidit, parricidi non damnatur.
  351. ^ Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 4.3.9.
  352. ^ Paul Roche, Lucan: De Bello Civili, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 296.
  353. ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 1.310, arborum multitudo cum religione.
  354. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007), p. 275, noting that he finds Servius's distinction "artificial."
  355. ^ Fernando Navarro Antolin, Lygdamus: Corpus Tibullianum III.1–6, Lygdami Elegiarum Liber (Brill, 1996), p. 127–128.
  356. ^ Martial, 4.64.17, as cited by Robert Schilling, "Anna Perenna," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 112.
  357. ^ Stephen L. Dyson, Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), p. 147.
  358. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2159–2160, 2168, et passim.
  359. '^ S.W. Rasmussen, Public Portents in Republican Rome online.
  360. ^ W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (University of North Carolina Press, 1999) p. 127.
  361. ^ Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp 109-10.
  362. ^ J.P.V.D. Balsdon, "Roman History, 58–56 B.C.: Three Ciceronian Problems", Journal of Roman Studies 47 (1957) 16–16.
  363. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2232–2234, 2237–2241.
  364. ^ The etymology is debated. The older Latin form is osmen", which may have meant "an utterance"; see W. W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language sv omen New York 1963. It has also been connected to an ancient Hittite exclamation ha ("it's true"); see R. Bloch Les prodiges dans l'antiquite' - Rome Paris 1968; It. tr. Rome 1978 p. 74, and E. Benveniste "Hittite et Indo-Europeen. Etudes comparatives" in Bibl. arch. et hist. de l'Institut francais a, Arch. de Stambul V, 1962, p.10.
  365. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The libri reconditi", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), p. 231–232.
  366. ^ Both are mentioned by Macrobius, Saturnalia 3.20.3 and 3.7.2; Nancy Thomson de Grummond, "Introduction: The History of the Study of Etruscan Religion", in The Religion of the Etruscans (University of Texas Press, 2006), p. 2.
  367. ^ Pliny, Natural History 10.6–42.
  368. ^ Ex Tarquitianis libris in titulo "de rebus divinis": Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 27.
  369. ^ Robert Schilling, "The Disciplina Etrusca", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 44.
  370. ^ Varro quoted by Servius, note to Aeneid 3.336, as cited by David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 330 online.
  371. ^ Wardle, Cicero on Divination, p. 330; Auguste Bouché-Leclerq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité (Jérôme Millon, 2003, originally published 1882), pp. 873–874 online.
  372. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2150 and 2230–2232; see Cicero, De Divinatione, 1.72 and 2.49.
  373. ^ Festus rationalises the order: the rex is "the most powerful" of priests, the Flamen Dialis is "sacerdos of the entire universe", the Flamen Martialis represents Mars as the parent of Rome's founder Romulus, and the Flamen Quirinalis represents the Roman principle of shared sovereignty. The Pontifex Maximus "is considered the judge and arbiter of things both divine and human": Festus, p. 198-200 L
  374. ^ H.S. Versnel, Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual (Brill, 1993, 1994), p. 158, especially note 104.
  375. ^ De lingua latina 7.37.
  376. ^ Festus, p. 291 L, citing Veranius (1826 edition of Dacier, p. 1084 online); R. Del Ponte, "Documenti sacerdotali in Veranio e Granio Flacco," Diritto e Storia 4 (2005).[3]
  377. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "Q. Scipio Imperator," in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 168; Jonathan Edmondson and Alison Keith, Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 12.
  378. ^ Fred K. Drogula, "Imperium, potestas and the pomerium in the Roman Republic," Historia 56.4 (2007), pp. 436–437.
  379. ^ Christoph F. Konrad, "Vellere signa," in Augusto augurio: rerum humanarum et divinarum commentationes in honorem Jerzy Linderski (Franz Steiner, 2004), p. 181; see Cicero, Second Verrine 5.34; Livy 21.63.9 and 41.39.11.
  380. ^ Festus 439L, as cited by Versnel, Inconsistencies, p. 158 online.
  381. ^ Thomas N. Habinek, The World of Roman Song: From Ritualized Speech to Social Order (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), p. 256.
  382. ^ The noun derives from the past participle of pacisci to agree, to come to an agreement, allied to pactus, past participle of verb pangere to fasten or tie. Compare Sanskrit pac to bind, and Greek peegnumi, I fasten: W. W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language s.v. peace, pact
  383. ^ As in Plautus, Mercator 678; Lucretius, De rerum natura V, 1227; Livy III 5, 14.
  384. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 81 online.
  385. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 191.
  386. ^ Robert E.A. Palmer, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464 L, or the Hazards of Interpretation", in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 99, note 129 online; Roger D. Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult (University of Illinois Press, 2006), p. 122 online.
  387. ^ Livy 8.9.1–11.
  388. ^ Volscian, pihom estu; Umbrian, pihaz (a past participle equivalent to Latin piatum); and Oscan, pehed; from the Proto-Indo-European root *q(u)ei-. Compare Sanskrit cayati. See M. Morani "Latino sacer..." in Aevum LV 1981 pp. 30-46. Pius may derive from Umbrian and thus appear with a p instead of a q; some Indo-European languages resolved the original velar k(h) into the voiceless labial p, as did Greek and Celtic. Umbrian is one of such languages although it preserved the velar before a u. In Proto-Italic it has given ii with a long first i as in pii-: cfr. G. L. Bakkum The Latin Dialect of the Ager Faliscus: 150 Years of Scholarship p. 57 n. 34 quoting Meiser 1986 pp.37-38.
  389. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 462.
  390. ^ Gerard Mussies, "Cascelia's Prayer," in La Soteriologia dei culti orientali nell' impero romano (Brill, 1982), p. 160.
  391. ^ Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Horace and Vergil," in Studies in Roman Literature, Culture and Religion (Brill, 1956), pp. 82–83.
  392. ^ M. Morani "Latino Sacer..." In Aevum 1981 LV.
  393. ^ Varro Lingua Latina V 15, 83; G. Bonfante "Tracce di terminologia palafitticola nel vocabolario latino?" Atti dell' Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere e Arti 97 (1937: 53-70)
  394. ^ K. Latte Römische Religionsgeschichte, Munich 1960 p. 400-1; H. Fugier Recherches sur l'expression du sacré dans la langue latine Paris 1963 pp.161-172.
  395. ^ First proposed by F. Ribezzo in "Pontifices 'quinionalis sacrificii effectores', Rivista indo-greco-italica di Filologia-Lingua-Antichità 15 1931 p. 56.
  396. ^ For a review of the proposed hypotheses cfr. J. P. Hallet "Over Troubled Waters: The Meaning of the Title Pontifex" in Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 101 1970 p. 219 ff.
  397. ^ Marietta Horster, "Living on Religion: Professionals and Personnel", in A Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 332–334.
  398. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia III 2, 3- 4: R. Del Ponte, "Documenti sacerdotali in Veranio e Granio Flacco" in Diritto estoria, 4, 2005.
  399. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2232, 2247.
  400. ^ Claude Moussy, "Signa et portenta", in Donum grammaticum: Studies in Latin and Celtic Linguistics in Honour of Hannah Rosén (Peeters, 2002), p. 269 online.
  401. ^ Pliny, Natural History 11.272, Latin text at LacusCurtius; Mary Beagon, Roman Nature: The Thought of Pliny the Elder (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 146.
  402. ^ Varro's passage is preserved by Servius, note to Aeneid 3.336, as cited by David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 330 online.
  403. ^ Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité: Divination hellénique et divination italique (Jérôme Millon, 2003 reprint), pp. 873–874.
  404. ^ Blandine Cuny-Le Callet, Rome et ses monstres: Naissance d'un concept philosophique et rhétorique (Jérôme Millon, 2005), p. 48, with reference to Fronto.
  405. ^ For instance, Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), pp. 43 and 98. Despite its title, S.W. Rasmussen's Public Portents in Republican Rome (L'Erma, Bretschneider, 2003) does not distinguish among prodigium, omen, portentum and ostentum (p. 15, note 9).
  406. ^ Augustine, De civitate Dei 21.8: Portentum ergo fit non contra naturam, sed contra quam est nota natura ("therefore a portent does not occur contrary to nature, but contrary to what is known of nature"). See Michael W. Herren and Shirley Ann Brown, Christ in Celtic Christianity (Boydell Press, 2002), p. 163.
  407. ^ Pliny, Natural History 28.11, as cited by Matthias Klinghardt, "Prayer Formularies for Public Recitation: Their Use and Function in Ancient Religion", Numen 46 (1999), p. 15.
  408. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2246.
  409. ^ A.A. Barb, "Animula Vagula Blandula ... Notes on Jingles, Nursery-Rhymes and Charms with an Excursus on Noththe's Sisters", Folklore 61 (1950), p. 23; Maarten J. Vermaseren and Carel C. van Essen, The Excavations in the Mithraeum of the Church of Santa Prisca on the Aventine (Brill, 1965), pp. 188–191.
  410. ^ W.S. Teuffel, History of Roman Literature (London, 1900, translation of the 5th German edition), vol. 1, p. 547.
  411. ^ Pliny, Natural History 28.19, as cited by Nicole Belayche, "Religious Actors in Daily Life", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 287.
  412. ^ Linderski, "The Augural Law", pp. 2252–2256.
  413. ^ Steven M. Cerutti, Cicero's Accretive Style: Rhetorical Strategies in the Exordia of the Judicial Speeches (University Press of America, 1996), passim; Jill Harries, Law and Empire in Late Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 36.
  414. ^ Fritz Graf, "Prayer in Magic and Religious Ritual", in Magika Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and Religion (Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 189.
  415. ^ Robert Schilling, "Roman Sacrifice", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 77.
  416. ^ Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006), p. 515.
  417. ^ Dirae is used by Tacitus (Annales 14.30) to describe the preces uttered by the druids against the Romans at Anglesey.
  418. ^ As in Lucretius, De rerum natura 5.1229. According to Emile Benveniste (Le vocabulaire, p. 404) quaeso would mean "I use the appropriate means to obtain"; in the interpretation of Morani,[citation needed] quaeso means "I wish to obtain, try and obtain", while precor designates the utterance of the adequate words to achieve one's aim.
  419. ^ Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philosophical Society, 1991 reprint), p. 648; Detlef Liebs, "Roman Law", in The Cambridge Ancient History. Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425-600 (Cambridge University Press, 2000), vol. 15, p. 243.
  420. ^ Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999, reprinted 2002), p. 103 online.
  421. ^ Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), 60.
  422. ^ R. Bloch ibidem p. 96
  423. ^ Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 297.
  424. ^ Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 295 - 8: the task fell to the haruspex, who set the child to drown in the sea. The survival of such a child for four years after birth would have been regarded as extreme dereliction of religious duty.
  425. ^ Livy, 27.37.5–15; the hymn was composed by the poet Livius Andronicus. Cited by Halm, in Rüpke (ed) 244. For remainder, see Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 297.
  426. ^ See Livy, 22.1 ff.
  427. ^ For Livy's use of prodigies and portents as markers of Roman impiety and military failure, see Feeney, in Rüpke (ed), 138 - 9. For prodigies in the context of political decision-making, see Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 295 - 8. See also R. Bloch Les prodiges dans l'antiquite'-Les prodiges a Rome It. transl. 1981, chap. 1, 2
  428. ^ Dennis Feeney, in Jörg Rüpke, (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. p.140.
  429. ^ Festus s. v. praepetes aves p. 286 L "aves quae se ante auspicantem ferunt" "who go before the a.", 224 L "quia secundum auspicium faciant praetervolantes...aut ea quae praepetamus indicent..." "since they make the auspice favourable by flying nearby...or point to what we wish for...". W. W. Skeat An Etymological Dictionary of the English language s. v. propitious New York 1963 (reprint).
  430. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), pp. 265–266; Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, p. 40.
  431. ^ Charlotte Long, The Twelve Gods of Greece and Rome (Brill, 1987), pp. 235–236.
  432. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2180, and in the same volume, G.J. Szemler, "Priesthoods and Priestly Careers in Ancient Rome," p. 2322.
  433. ^ Clifford Ando, The Matter of the Gods: Religion and the Roman Empire (University of California Press, 2008), p. 126.
  434. ^ Cicero, De natura deorum 2.8.
  435. ^ Ando, The Matter of the Gods, p. 13.
  436. ^ Nicole Belayche, in Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, p. 279: "Care for the gods, the very meaning of religio, had [therefore] to go through life, and one might thus understand why Cicero wrote that religion was "necessary". Religious behavior – pietas in Latin, eusebeia in Greek – belonged to action and not to contemplation. Consequently religious acts took place wherever the faithful were: in houses, boroughs, associations, cities, military camps, cemeteries, in the country, on boats."
  437. ^ CIL VII.45 = ILS 4920.
  438. ^ Jack N. Lightstone, "Roman Diaspora Judaism," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), pp. 360, 368.
  439. ^ Adelaide D. Simpson, "Epicureans, Christians, Atheists in the Second Century," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 72 (1941) 372–381.
  440. ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 217.
  441. ^ F. De Visscher "Locus religiosus" Atti del Congresso internazionale di Diritto Romano, 3, 1951
  442. ^ Warde Fowler considers a possible origin for sacer in taboos applied to holy or accursed things or places, without direct reference to deities and their property. W. Warde Fowler "The Original Meaning of the Word Sacer" Journal of Roman Studies, I, 1911, p.57-63
  443. ^ Varro. LL V, 150. See also Festus, 253 L: "A place was once considered to become religiosus which looked to have been dedicated to himself by a god": "locus statim fieri putabatur religiosus, quod eum deus dicasse videbatur".
  444. ^ Cicero, De natura deorum 2.3.82 and 2.28.72; Ittai Gradel, Emperor Worship and Roman Religion (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 4-6.
  445. ^ Massimo Pallottino, "Sacrificial Cults and Rites in Pre-Roman Italy," in Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p.33.
  446. ^ Clifford Ando, "Religion and ius publicum," in Religion and Law in Classical and Christian Rome (Franz Steiner, 2006), pp. 140–142.
  447. ^ Gian Biagio Conte, Latin Literature: A History (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994, originally published 1987 in Italian), p. 213.
  448. ^ Herbert Vorgrimler, Sacramental Theology (Patmos, 1987, 1992), p. 45.
  449. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 223 online.
  450. ^ Festus on the ordo sacerdotum, 198 in the edition of Lindsay.
  451. ^ Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005), p. 136 online.
  452. ^ Festus, entry on ritus, p. 364 (edition of Lindsay): ritus est est mos comprobatus in administrandis sacrificis. See also the entry on ritus from Paulus, Festi Epitome, p. 337 (Lindsay), where he defines ritus as mos or consuetudo, "customary use", adding that rite autem significat bene ac recte. See also Varro De Lingua Latina II 88; Cicero De Legibus II 20 and 21.
  453. ^ G. Dumézil ARR It. tr. Milan 1977 p. 127 citing A. Bergaigne La religion védique III 1883 p. 220.
  454. ^ Jean-Louis Durand, John Scheid Rites et religion. Remarques sur certains préjugés des historiens de la religions des Grecs et des Romains" in Archives de sciences sociales des religions 85 1994 pp. 23-43 part. pp. 24-25.
  455. ^ John Scheid, "Graeco Ritu: A Typically Roman Way of Honoring the Gods", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 97, Greece in Rome: Influence, Integration, 1995, pp. 15–31.
  456. ^ Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 7.12.5, discounting the etymology proffered by Gaius Trebatius in his lost work On Religions (as sacer and cella).
  457. ^ Varro, Res Divinae frg. 62 in the edition of Cardauns.
  458. ^ Verrius Flaccus as cited by Festus, p. 422.15–17 L.
  459. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), pp. 183–185.
  460. ^ Dionysius Halicarnassus II 64, 3.
  461. ^ Varro, De res rustica, 2.1., describes porci sacres (pigs considered sacer and thus reserved for sacrifice) as necessarily "pure" (or perfect); "porci puri ad sacrificium".
  462. ^ M. Morani "Lat. sacer...cit. p. 41. See also Festus. p. 414 L2 & p.253 L: Gallus Aelius ait sacrum esse quodcumque modo atque instituto civitatis consecratum est, sive aedis sive ara sive signum, locum sive pecunia, sive aliud quod dis dedicatum atque consecratum sit; quod autem privati suae religionis causa aliquid earum rerum deo dedicent, id pontifices Romanos non existimare sacrum: "Gallus Aelius says that sacer is anything made sacred (consecratum) in any way or by any institution of the community, be it a building or an altar or a sign, a place or money, or anything that else can be dedicated to the gods; the Roman pontiffs do not consider sacer any things dedicated to a god in private religious cult."
  463. ^ ...si id moritur...profanum esto "if the animal dies...it shall be profane": Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 22.10. For the archaic variant, see G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris, 1974, Considerations preliminaires
  464. ^ F. De Visscher "Locus religiosus" Atti del Congresoo internazionale di Diritto Romano, 3, 1951
  465. ^ Warde Fowler considers a possible origin for sacer in the taboos applied to things or places holy or accursed without direct reference to deities and their property. W. Warde Fowler "The Original Meaning of the Word Sacer" Journal of Roman Studies, I, 1911, p.57-63
  466. ^ As in Horace, Sermones II 3, 181,
  467. ^ As in Servius, Aeneid VI, 609: Dionysius of Halicarnassus, II 10, 3; Festus 505 L.
  468. ^ Festus, p422 L: "homo sacer is est quem populus iudicavit ob maleficium; neque fas est eum imolari, sed qui occidit, parricidii non damnatur". For further discussion on the homo sacer in relation to the plebeian tribunes, see Ogilvie, R M, A Commentary on Livy 1-5, Oxford, 1965.
  469. ^ H. Bennet Sacer esto.. thinks that the person declared sacred was originally sacrificed to the gods. This hypothesis seems to be supported by Plut. Rom. 22, 3 and Macr. Sat.III, 7, 5, who compare the homo sacer to the victim in a sacrifice. The prerogative of declaring somebody sacer supposedly belonged to the king during the regal era; during the Republic, this right passed to the pontiff and courts.
  470. ^ G. Devoto Origini Indoeuropee (Firenze, 1962), p. 468
  471. ^ John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), p. 129.
  472. ^ Scheid, Introduction to Roman Religion, pp. 129–130.
  473. ^ Lesley E. Lundeen, "In Search of the Etruscan Priestess: A Re-Examination of the hatrencu," in Religion in Republican Italy (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 46; Celia E. Schultz, Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic (University of North Carolina Press, 2006), pp. 70–71.
  474. ^ Varro. De Lingua Latina VI 24; Festus sv Septimontium p. 348, 340, 341L; Plut. Quest. Rom. 69
  475. ^ Festus sv Publica sacra; Dionys. Hal. II 21, 23; Appian. Hist. Rom. VIII 138; de Bello Civ. II 106; Plut. Quaest. Rom. 89; Christopher John Smith, The Roman Clan: The gens from Ancient Ideology to Modern Anthropology (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 44.
  476. ^ Plutarch Numa 14, 6-7 gives a list of Numa's ritual prescriptions: obligation of sacrificing an uneven number of victims to the heavenly gods and an even one to the inferi (cf. Serv. Ecl. 5, 66; Serv. Dan. Ecl. 8, 75; Macrobius I 13,5); the prohibition to make libations to the gods with wine; of sacrificing without flour; the obligation to pray and worship divinities while making a turn on oneselves (Livy V 21,16; Suetonius Vit. 2); the composition of the indigitamenta (Arnobius Adversus nationes II 73, 17-18).
  477. ^ Livy I, 20; Dion. Hal. II
  478. ^ Macrobius I 12. Macrobius mentions in former times the inadvertent nomination of Salus, Semonia, Seia, Segetia, Tutilina required the observance of a dies feriatus of the person involved.
  479. ^ Cic. de Leg. II 1, 9-21; Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome, p. 44.
  480. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 86.
  481. ^ Livy 5.46.2–3; Clifford Ando, The Matter of the Gods: Religion and the Roman Empire (University of California Press, 2009), pp. 142–143; Emmanuele Curti, "From Concordia to the Quirinal: Notes on Religion and Politics in Mid-Republican/Hellenistic Rome," in Religion in Archaic and Republican Rome and Italy: Evidence and Experience (Routledge, 2000), p. 85; Robert E.A. Palmer, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464, or the Hazards of Interpretation", in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996),
  482. ^ Liv. V 46; XXII 18; Dionys. Hal. Ant. Rom. IX 19; Cic. Har. Resp. XV 32; Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome, p. 43ff.; Smith, The Roman Clan, p. 46.
  483. ^ Mommsen thought, perhaps wrongly, that the Julian sacra for Apollo was in fact a sacrum publicum entrusted to a particular gens. Mommsen Staatsrecht III 19; G. Dumézil La religion romaine archaique It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 475
  484. ^ Festus, p. 274 (edition of Lindsay); Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2001; originally published in French 1998), p. 44; Smith, The Roman Clan, p. 45.
  485. ^ Legal questions might arise about the extent to which the inheritance of property was or ought to be attached to the sacra; Andrew R. Dyck, A Commentary on Cicero, De Legibus (University of Michigan Press, 2004), pp. 381–382, note on an issue raised at De legibus 2.48a.
  486. ^ Cicero, De legibus 2.1.9-21; Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome, p. 44.
  487. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 26.
  488. ^ Festus 146 in the edition of Lindsay.
  489. ^ Olivier de Cazanove, "Pre-Roman Italy, Before and Under the Romans," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 55.
  490. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Domi Militiae: Die religiöse Konstruktion des Krieges in Rom (Franz Steiner, 1990), pp. 76–80.
  491. ^ D. Briquel "Sur les aspects militaires du dieu ombrien Fisus Sancius" in Revue de l' histoire des religions[full citation needed] i p. 150-151; J. A. C. Thomas A Textbook of Roman law Amsterdam 1976 p. 74 and 105.
  492. ^ Varro De Lingua latina V 180; Festus s.v. sacramentum p. 466 L; 511 L; Paulus Festi Epitome p.467 L.
  493. ^ George Mousourakis, A Legal History of Rome (Routledge, 2007), p. 33.
  494. ^ Mousourakis, A Legal History of Rome, pp. 33, 206.
  495. ^ See further discussion at fustuarium
  496. ^ Gladiators swore to commit their bodies to the possibility of being "burned, bound, beaten, and slain by the sword"; Petronius, Satyricon 117; Seneca, Epistulae 71.32.
  497. ^ Carlin A. Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 14–16, 35 (note 88), 42, 45–47.
  498. ^ Apuleius, Metamorphoses 11.15.5; Robert Schilling, "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion," in Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981)
  499. ^ Arnaldo Momigliano, Quinto contributo alla storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico (Storia e letteratura, 1975), vol. 2, pp. 975–977; Luca Grillo, The Art of Caesar's Bellum Civile: Literature, Ideology, and Community (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 60.
  500. ^ Ulpian, Digest I.8.9.2: sacrarium est locus in quo sacra reponuntur.
  501. ^ Ittai Gradel, Emperor Worship and Roman Religion (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 10.
  502. ^ Robert E. A. Palmer, The Archaic Community of the Romans, p. 171, note 1.
  503. ^ R.P.H. Green, "The Christianity of Ausonius," Studia Patristica: Papers Presented at the Eleventh International Conference on Patristic Studies Held in Oxford 1991 (Peeters, 1993), vol. 28, pp. 39 and 46; Kim Bowes, "'Christianization' and the Rural Home," Journal of Early Christian Studies 15.2 (2007), pp. 143–144, 162.
  504. ^ Built of Living Stones: Art, Architecture, and Worship: Guidelines (United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, 2005), p. 73. See also Wolfred Nelson Cote, The Archaeology of Baptism (Lond, 1876), p. 138.
  505. ^ M. Morani, Latino sacer... Aevum LV 1981 p. 40, citing Livy 3.19.10.
  506. ^ Compare Lithuanian iung-iu from IE stem *yug.
  507. ^ H. Fugier, Recherches sur l'expression du sacre' dans la langue latine Paris 1963; E. Benveniste Le vocubulaire des institutions indoeuropeenees Paris 1939, p. 427 ff.
  508. ^ As inquio>incio: P.Krestchmer in Glotta 1919, X, p. 155
  509. ^ H. Fugier, Recherches, pp. 125 ff; E. Benveniste, Le vocabulaire, pp. 427 ff.; K. Latte Roemische Religionsgeshichte Muenchen 1960 p.127 ff.; D. Briquel "Sur les aspects militaires du dieu Ombrien Fisius Sancius" Paris 1978
  510. ^ Ulpian Digest 1.8.9: dicimus sancta, quae neque sacra neque profana sunt.
  511. ^ G. DumezilLa religion Romaine archaique It. transl. Milano 1977 p. 127; F. Sini "Sanctitas: cose, uomini, dei" in Sanctitas. Persone e cose da Roma a Costantinopoli a Mosca Roma 2001; Cic. de Nat. Deor. III 94; Festus sv tesca p. 488L
  512. ^ Gaius, following Aelius Gallus: inter sacrum autem et sanctum et religiosum differentias bellissime refert [Gallus]: sacrum aedificium, consecrato deo; sanctum murum, qui sit circa oppidum. See also Marcian, Digest 1.8.8: "sanctum" est quod ab iniuria hominum defensum atque munitum est ("it is sanctum that which is defended and protected from the attack of men").
  513. ^ Huguette Fugier, Recherches sur l'expression du sacré dans la langue latine, Archives de sciences sociales des religions, 1964, Volume 17, Issue 17, p.180 [4]
  514. ^ Servius glosses Amsancti valles (Aeneid 7.565) as loci amsancti, id est omni parte sancti ("amsancti valleys: amsancti places, that is, sanctus here in the sense of secluded, protected by a fence, on every side"). The Oxford Latin Dictionary, however, identifies Ampsanctus in this instance and in Cicero, De divinatione 1.79 as a proper noun referring to a valley and lake in Samnium regarded as an entrance to the Underworld because of its mephitic air.
  515. ^ Ovid, Fasti 2.658.
  516. ^ Ovid Fasti 1.608-9.
  517. ^ Nancy Edwards, "Celtic Saints and Early Medieval Archaeology", in Local Saints and Local Churches in the Early Medieval West (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 229 online.
  518. ^ Robert A. Castus, CIcero: Speech on Behalf of Publius Sestius (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 416; Susanne William Rasmussen, Public Portents in Republican Rome (Rome, 2003), p. 163 online.
  519. ^ C.T. Lewis & C. Short, A Latin Dictionary, Oxford. Clarendon Press, 1879. Online at [5]
  520. ^ Pliny Naturalis Historia XXVIII 11; Seneca De Vita Beata XXVI 7; Cicero De Divinatione I 102; Servius Danielis In Aeneidem V 71.
  521. ^ Cicero De Divinatione II 71 and 72; Festus v. Silentio surgere p. 474 L; v. Sinistrum; Livy VII 6, 3-4; T. I. VI a 5-7.
  522. ^ Livy VIII 23, 15; IX 38, 14; IV 57, 5.
  523. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 206.
  524. ^ Thomas N. Habinek, The World of Roman Song: From Ritualized Speech to Social Order pp. 36–37.
  525. ^ For instance, a woman and her associates (socii) donated a lot with a "clubhouse" (schola) and colonnade to Silvanus and his sodalicium, who were to use it for sacrifice, banquets, and dinners; Robert E.A. Palmer, "Silvanus, Sylvester, and the Chair of St. Peter", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 122 (1978), pp. 237, 243.
  526. ^ Attilio Mastrocinque, "Creating One's Own Religion: Intellectual Choices", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 382.
  527. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, 15.9.8; Georges Dottin, Manuel pour servir à l'étude de l'Antiquité Celtique (Paris, 1906), pp. 279–289: the sodalicia consortia of the druids "ne signifie pas autre chose qu'associations corporatives, collèges, plus ou moins analogues aux collèges sacerdotaux des Romains" (sodalicia consortia can "mean nothing other than corporate associations, colleges, more or less analogous to the priestly colleges of the Romans").
  528. ^ Eric Orlin, "Urban Religion in the Middle and Late Republic", in A Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 63–64; John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", p. 268.
  529. ^ Gaius, Digest xlvii.22.4 = Twelve Tables viii.27; A. Drummond, "Rome in the Fifth Century", Cambridge Ancient History: The Rise of Rome to 220 B.C. (Cambridge University Press, 1989, 2002 reprint), vol. 7, part 2, p. 158 online.
  530. ^ J.-M. David, S. Demougin, E. Deniaux, D. Ferey, J.-M. Flambard, C. Nicolet, "Le Commentariolum petitionis de Quintus Cicéron", Aufstieg under Niedergang der römischen Welt I (1973) pp. 252, 276–277.
  531. ^ W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune (University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p.127.
  532. ^ W. H. Buckler The origin and history of contract in Roman law 1895 pp. 13-15
  533. ^ The Hittite is also written as sipant or ispant-.
  534. ^ Servius, note to Aeneid X 79
  535. ^ In conjunction with archaeological evidence from Lavinium.
  536. ^ G. Dumezil "La deuxieme ligne de l'inscription de Duenos" in Latomus 102 1969 pp. 244-255; Idees romaines Paris 1969 pp. 12 ff.
  537. ^ Jörg Rüpke, "Roman Religion — Religions of Rome," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 5.
  538. ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, pp. 215–217.
  539. ^ Maijastina Kahlos, Debate and Dialogue: Christian and Pagan Cultures c. 360-430 (Ashgate, 2007), p. 95.
  540. ^ Seneca, De clementia 2.5.1; Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 216.
  541. ^ Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 216.
  542. ^ Yasmin Haskell, "Religion and Enlightenment in the Neo-Latin Reception of Lucretius," in The Cambridge Companion to Lucretius (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 198 online.
  543. ^ Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, pp. 217–219.
  544. ^ Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 221.
  545. ^ Lactantius, Divine Institutes 4.28.11; Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 216.
  546. ^ Frances Hickson Hahn, "Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns," pp. 238, 247, and John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors," p. 270, both in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007).
  547. ^ Veit Rosenberger, in "Religious Actors in Daily Life: Practices and Related Beliefs," in A Companion to Roman Religion, p. 296.
  548. ^ W. W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language New York 1963 sv temple
  549. ^ Mary Beard, Simon Price, John North, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, p. 23.
  550. ^ Beard et al., "Religions of Rome," vol. 1, p. 23.
  551. ^ Servius Ad Aeneid 4.200; Festus. s.v. calls the auguraculum minora templa.
  552. ^ G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris, 1974 p.510: J. Marquardt "Le cult chez les romaines" Manuel des antiquités romaines XII 1. French Transl. 1889 pp. 187-188: See also Cicero, De Legibus, 2.2, & Servius,Aeneid, 4.200.
  553. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2266–2267 online, and 2292–2293. On legal usage, see also Elizabeth A. Meyer, Legitimacy and Law in the Roman World (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 80ff.; Daniel J. Gargola, Land, Laws and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremony in the Regulation of Public Lands in Republican Rome (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 202, note 55 online.
  554. ^ Meyer, Legitimacy and Law, p. 62 online.[permanent dead link]
  555. ^ Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Augustus and Vesta", in Pietas: Selected Studies in Roman Religion (Brill, 1980), p. 211 online.
  556. ^ Matthias Klinghardt, "Prayer Formularies for Public Recitation: Their Use and Function in Ancient Religion", Numen 46 (1999) 1–52.
  557. ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2246, 2267ff.
  558. ^ The jurist Gaius (4.30) says that concepta verba is synonymous with formulae, as cited by Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philosophical Society, 1991 reprint), p. 401, and Shane Butler, The Hand of Cicero (Routledge, 2002), p. 10.
  559. ^ T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 131–132.
  560. ^ Augustine, Confessions 11.xviii, as cited by Paolo Bartoloni, On the Cultures of Exile, Translation, and Writing (Purdue University Press, 2008), p. 69 online.
  561. ^ For instance, Karla Taylor, Chaucer Reads "The Divine Comedy" (Stanford University Press, 1989), p. 27 online. For an overview of the Indo-European background regarding the relation of memory to poetry, charm, and formulaic utterance, see Calvert Watkins, How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics (Oxford University Press, 1995), passim, especially pp. 68–70 on memory and the poet-priest (Latin vates) as "the preserver and the professional of the spoken word". "For the Romans", notes Frances Hickson Hahn, "there was no distinction between prayer and spell and poetry and song; all were intimately linked to one another"; see "Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 236
  562. ^ Gian Biagio Conte, Latin Literature: A History (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994, originally published 1987 in Italian), pp. 15–23; George A. Sheets, "Elements of Style in Catullus," in A Companion to Catullus (Blackwell, 2011) n.p.
  563. ^ Katja Moede, "Reliefs, Public and Private", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 173.
  564. ^ John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), pp. 264, 266.
  565. ^ For the Taurobolium, see Duthoy, Robert, The Taurobolium: Its Evolution and Terminology, Volume 10, Brill, 1969, p. 1 ff, and Cameron, Alan, The Last Pagans of Rome, Oxford University press, 2011, p. 163. The earliest known Taurobolium was dedicated to the goddess Venus Caelestis in 134 AD.
  566. ^ Steven J. Green, Ovid, Fasti 1: A Commentary (Brill, 2004), pp.159–160.
  567. ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 1. 334.
  568. ^ Victima quae dextra cecidit victrice vocatur, Ovid, Fasti 1.335:; hostibus a domitis hostia nomen habet ("the hostia gets its name from the 'hostiles' that have been defeated"), 1.336.
  569. ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 368.
  570. ^ Katja Moede, "Reliefs, Public and Private", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 168.
  571. ^ Marietta Horster, "Living on Religion: Professionals and Personnel", in A Companion to Roman Religion (ed. Rüpke), pp. 332–334.
  572. ^ Therefore the election must have been vitiated in some way known only to Jupiter: see Veit Rosenberger, in Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, p.298; citing Cicero, De Divinatione, 2.77.
  573. ^ David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 178.
  574. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia III 2,12.
  575. ^ William Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1908), p. 179'; Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2001), p. 75.
  576. ^ John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 270; William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), pp. 200–202.