Portal:Programación de computadoras

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El portal de programación informática

Muestra de un programa de computadora (una versión minimizada de la biblioteca BootstrapJS ) en una pantalla

La programación o codificación informática es la composición de secuencias de instrucciones, llamadas programas , que las computadoras pueden seguir para realizar tareas. Implica el diseño e implementación de algoritmos , especificaciones paso a paso de procedimientos, mediante la escritura de código en uno o más lenguajes de programación . Los programadores suelen utilizar lenguajes de programación de alto nivel que son más fácilmente inteligibles para los humanos que el código de máquina , que es ejecutado directamente por la unidad central de procesamiento . La programación competente generalmente requiere experiencia en varias materias diferentes, incluido el conocimiento del dominio de la aplicación , detalles de los lenguajes de programación y bibliotecas de códigos genéricos , algoritmos especializados y lógica formal .

Las tareas auxiliares que acompañan y están relacionadas con la programación incluyen el análisis de requisitos , las pruebas , la depuración (investigación y solución de problemas), la implementación de sistemas de compilación y la gestión de artefactos derivados , como el código de máquina de los programas . Si bien a veces se las considera programación, a menudo se utiliza el término desarrollo de software para este proceso general más amplio, y los términos programación , implementación y codificación se reservan para la escritura y edición del código en sí. A veces, el desarrollo de software se conoce como ingeniería de software , especialmente cuando emplea métodos formales o sigue un proceso de diseño de ingeniería . ( Artículo completo... )

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Imagen 1
En informática , un compilador es un programa informático que traduce el código informático escrito en un lenguaje de programación (el lenguaje fuente ) a otro lenguaje (el lenguaje destino ). El nombre "compilador" se utiliza principalmente para los programas que traducen el código fuente de un lenguaje de programación de alto nivel a un lenguaje de programación de bajo nivel (por ejemplo , lenguaje ensamblador , código objeto o código máquina ) para crear un programa ejecutable

. Hay muchos tipos diferentes de compiladores que producen resultados en diferentes formas útiles. Un compilador cruzado produce código para una CPU o sistema operativo diferente al que se ejecuta el compilador cruzado. Un compilador de arranque es a menudo un compilador temporal, utilizado para compilar un compilador más permanente o mejor optimizado para un lenguaje.

El software relacionado incluye descompiladores , programas que traducen de lenguajes de bajo nivel a otros de nivel superior; programas que traducen entre lenguajes de alto nivel, generalmente llamados compiladores de fuente a fuente o transpiladores ; reescritores de lenguaje , generalmente programas que traducen la forma de las expresiones sin un cambio de lenguaje; y compiladores-compiladores , compiladores que producen compiladores (o partes de ellos), a menudo de forma genérica y reutilizable para poder producir muchos compiladores diferentes. ( Artículo completo... )
Imagen 2
Diagrama de bloques de una computadora básica con CPU monoprocesador. Las líneas negras indican el flujo de control, mientras que las líneas rojas indican el flujo de datos. Las flechas indican la dirección del flujo.

En informática e ingeniería informática , la arquitectura informática es una descripción de la estructura de un sistema informático formado por sus componentes. A veces puede ser una descripción de alto nivel que ignora los detalles de la implementación. En un nivel más detallado, la descripción puede incluir el diseño de la arquitectura del conjunto de instrucciones , el diseño de la microarquitectura , el diseño lógico y la implementación . ( Artículo completo... )
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The Greek lowercase omega (ω) character is used to represent Null in database theory.

In SQL, null or NULL is a special marker used to indicate that a data value does not exist in the database. Introduced by the creator of the relational database model, E. F. Codd, SQL null serves to fulfil the requirement that all true relational database management systems (RDBMS) support a representation of "missing information and inapplicable information". Codd also introduced the use of the lowercase Greek omega (ω) symbol to represent null in database theory. In SQL, NULL is a reserved word used to identify this marker.

A null should not be confused with a value of . A null indicates a lack of a value, which is not the same thing as a zero value. For example, consider the question "How many books does Adam own?" The answer may be "zero" (we know that he owns none) or "null" (we do not know how many he owns). In a database table, the column reporting this answer would start out with no value (marked by null), and it would not be updated with the value zero until it is ascertained that Adam owns no books.

In SQL, null is a marker, not a value. This usage is quite different from most programming languages, where a null value of a reference means it is not pointing to any object. (Full article...)
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Artificial intelligence (AI), in its broadest sense, is intelligence exhibited by machines, particularly computer systems. It is a field of research in computer science that develops and studies methods and software that enable machines to perceive their environment and use learning and intelligence to take actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined goals. Such machines may be called AIs.

Some high-profile applications of AI include advanced web search engines (e.g., Google Search); recommendation systems (used by YouTube, Amazon, and Netflix); interacting via human speech (e.g., Google Assistant, Siri, and Alexa); autonomous vehicles (e.g., Waymo); generative and creative tools (e.g., ChatGPT, and AI art); and superhuman play and analysis in strategy games (e.g., chess and Go). However, many AI applications are not perceived as AI: "A lot of cutting edge AI has filtered into general applications, often without being called AI because once something becomes useful enough and common enough it's not labeled AI anymore."

The various subfields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools. The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, and support for robotics. General intelligence—the ability to complete any task performable by a human on an at least equal level—is among the field's long-term goals. To reach these goals, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of techniques, including search and mathematical optimization, formal logic, artificial neural networks, and methods based on statistics, operations research, and economics. AI also draws upon psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience, and other fields. (Full article...)
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D, also known as dlang, is a multi-paradigm system programming language created by Walter Bright at Digital Mars and released in 2001. Andrei Alexandrescu joined the design and development effort in 2007. Though it originated as a re-engineering of C++, D is now a very different language. As it has developed, it has drawn inspiration from other high-level programming languages. Notably, it has been influenced by Java, Python, Ruby, C#, and Eiffel.

The D language reference describes it as follows: (Full article...)
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In the C++ programming language, decltype is a keyword used to query the type of an expression. Introduced in C++11, its primary intended use is in generic programming, where it is often difficult, or even impossible, to express types that depend on template parameters.

As generic programming techniques became increasingly popular throughout the 1990s, the need for a type-deduction mechanism was recognized. Many compiler vendors implemented their own versions of the operator, typically called typeof, and some portable implementations with limited functionality, based on existing language features were developed. In 2002, Bjarne Stroustrup proposed that a standardized version of the operator be added to the C++ language, and suggested the name "decltype", to reflect that the operator would yield the "declared type" of an expression.

decltype's semantics were designed to cater to both generic library writers and novice programmers. In general, the deduced type matches the type of the object or function exactly as declared in the source code. Like the sizeof operator, decltype's operand is not evaluated. (Full article...)
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Node.js is a cross-platform, open-source JavaScript runtime environment that can run on Windows, Linux, Unix, macOS, and more. Node.js runs on the V8 JavaScript engine, and executes JavaScript code outside a web browser.

Node.js lets developers use JavaScript to write command line tools and for server-side scripting. The ability to run JavaScript code on the server is often used to generate dynamic web page content before the page is sent to the user's web browser. Consequently, Node.js represents a "JavaScript everywhere" paradigm, unifying web-application development around a single programming language, as opposed to using different languages for the server- versus client-side programming.

Node.js has an event-driven architecture capable of asynchronous I/O. These design choices aim to optimize throughput and scalability in web applications with many input/output operations, as well as for real-time Web applications (e.g., real-time communication programs and browser games). (Full article...)
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Information technology (IT) is a set of related fields that encompass computer systems, software, programming languages, and data and information processing, and storage. IT forms part of information and communications technology (ICT). An information technology system (IT system) is generally an information system, a communications system, or, more specifically speaking, a computer system — including all hardware, software, and peripheral equipment — operated by a limited group of IT users, and an IT project usually refers to the commissioning and implementation of an IT system. IT systems play a vital role in facilitating efficient data management, enhancing communication networks, and supporting organizational processes across various industries. Successful IT projects require meticulous planning, seamless integration, and ongoing maintenance to ensure optimal functionality and alignment with organizational objectives.

Although humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating, and communicating information since the earliest writing systems were developed, the term information technology in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review; authors Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that "the new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology (IT)." Their definition consists of three categories: techniques for processing, the application of statistical and mathematical methods to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-order thinking through computer programs.

The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several products or services within an economy are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, and e-commerce. (Full article...)
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Mya was an intelligent personal assistant under development by Motorola. Proposed features for the program included the ability to read emails and answer questions 24 hours a day. Mya was intended to work with an internet service Motorola was developing called Myosphere, and was planned to be a paid service that would eventually be used by other mobile carriers. A female computer-generated character was created to represent Mya in advertising. While the quality of the character's animation was praised, it received criticism for being over sexualised.

Both the character and the program were announced to the public via an advertisement in March 2000, though the program was not ready for use at that time. Despite the announcement generating a considerable amount of attention, little was heard regarding the project in subsequent months. The program was never officially released nor cancelled, though the trademarks for both Myosphere and Mya were abandoned by Motorola in 2002. The name Mya was believed to be a play on the words 'My assistant'. (Full article...)
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Object Pascal is an extension to the programming language Pascal that provides object-oriented programming (OOP) features such as classes and methods.

The language was originally developed by Apple Computer as Clascal for the Lisa Workshop development system. As Lisa gave way to Macintosh, Apple collaborated with Niklaus Wirth, the author of Pascal, to develop an officially standardized version of Clascal. This was renamed Object Pascal. Through the mid-1980s, Object Pascal was the main programming language for early versions of the MacApp application framework. The language lost its place as the main development language on the Mac in 1991 with the release of the C++-based MacApp 3.0. Official support ended in 1996.

Symantec also developed a compiler for Object Pascal for their Think Pascal product, which could compile programs much faster than Apple's own Macintosh Programmer's Workshop (MPW). Symantec then developed the Think Class Library (TCL), based on MacApp concepts, which could be called from both Object Pascal and THINK C. The Think suite largely displaced MPW as the main development platform on the Mac in the late 1980s. (Full article...)
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In C++ computer programming, allocators are a component of the C++ Standard Library. The standard library provides several data structures, such as list and set, commonly referred to as containers. A common trait among these containers is their ability to change size during the execution of the program. To achieve this, some form of dynamic memory allocation is usually required. Allocators handle all the requests for allocation and deallocation of memory for a given container. The C++ Standard Library provides general-purpose allocators that are used by default, however, custom allocators may also be supplied by the programmer.

Allocators were invented by Alexander Stepanov as part of the Standard Template Library (STL). They were originally intended as a means to make the library more flexible and independent of the underlying memory model, allowing programmers to utilize custom pointer and reference types with the library. However, in the process of adopting STL into the C++ standard, the C++ standardization committee realized that a complete abstraction of the memory model would incur unacceptable performance penalties. To remedy this, the requirements of allocators were made more restrictive. As a result, the level of customization provided by allocators is more limited than was originally envisioned by Stepanov.

Nevertheless, there are many scenarios where customized allocators are desirable. Some of the most common reasons for writing custom allocators include improving performance of allocations by using memory pools, and encapsulating access to different types of memory, like shared memory or garbage-collected memory. In particular, programs with many frequent allocations of small amounts of memory may benefit greatly from specialized allocators, both in terms of running time and memory footprint. (Full article...)
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Programming languages are used for controlling the behavior of a machine (often a computer). Like natural languages, programming languages follow rules for syntax and semantics.

There are thousands of programming languages and new ones are created every year. Few languages ever become sufficiently popular that they are used by more than a few people, but professional programmers may use dozens of languages in a career.

Most programming languages are not standardized by an international (or national) standard, even widely used ones, such as Perl or Standard ML (despite the name). Notable standardized programming languages include ALGOL, C, C++, JavaScript (under the name ECMAScript), Smalltalk, Prolog, Common Lisp, Scheme (IEEE standard), ISLISP, Ada, Fortran, COBOL, SQL, and XQuery. (Full article...)
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Computer class at Chkalovski Village School No. 2 in 1985–1986

The history of computing in the Soviet Union began in the late 1940s, when the country began to develop its Small Electronic Calculating Machine (MESM) at the Kiev Institute of Electrotechnology in Feofaniya. Initial ideological opposition to cybernetics in the Soviet Union was overcome by a Khrushchev era policy that encouraged computer production.

By the early 1970s, the uncoordinated work of competing government ministries had left the Soviet computer industry in disarray. Due to lack of common standards for peripherals and lack of digital storage capacity the Soviet Union's technology significantly lagged behind the West's semiconductor industry. The Soviet government decided to abandon development of original computer designs and encouraged cloning of existing Western systems (e.g. the 1801 CPU series was scrapped in favor of the PDP-11 ISA by the early 1980s).

Soviet industry was unable to mass-produce computers to acceptable quality standards and locally manufactured copies of Western hardware were unreliable. As personal computers spread to industries and offices in the West, the Soviet Union's technological lag increased. (Full article...)
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Atari BASIC (1979) for Atari 8-bit computers

BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages designed for ease of use. The original version was created by John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz at Dartmouth College in 1963. They wanted to enable students in non-scientific fields to use computers. At the time, nearly all computers required writing custom software, which only scientists and mathematicians tended to learn.

In addition to the programming language, Kemeny and Kurtz developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System (DTSS), which allowed multiple users to edit and run BASIC programs simultaneously on remote terminals. This general model became popular on minicomputer systems like the PDP-11 and Data General Nova in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Hewlett-Packard produced an entire computer line for this method of operation, introducing the HP2000 series in the late 1960s and continuing sales into the 1980s. Many early video games trace their history to one of these versions of BASIC.

The emergence of microcomputers in the mid-1970s led to the development of multiple BASIC dialects, including Microsoft BASIC in 1975. Due to the tiny main memory available on these machines, often 4 KB, a variety of Tiny BASIC dialects were also created. BASIC was available for almost any system of the era, and became the de facto programming language for home computer systems that emerged in the late 1970s. These PCs almost always had a BASIC interpreter installed by default, often in the machine's firmware or sometimes on a ROM cartridge. (Full article...)
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Wozniak in 2017

Stephen Gary Wozniak (/ˈwɒzniæk/; born August 11, 1950), also known by his nickname Woz, is an American technology entrepreneur, electrical engineer, computer programmer, philanthropist, and inventor. In 1976, he co-founded Apple Computer with his early business partner Steve Jobs. Through his work at Apple in the 1970s and 1980s, he is widely recognized as one of the most prominent pioneers of the personal computer revolution.

In 1975, Wozniak started developing the Apple I into the computer that launched Apple when he and Jobs first began marketing it the following year. He was the primary designer of the Apple II, introduced in 1977, known as one of the first highly successful mass-produced microcomputers, while Jobs oversaw the development of its foam-molded plastic case and early Apple employee Rod Holt developed its switching power supply.

With human–computer interface expert Jef Raskin, Wozniak had a major influence over the initial development of the original Macintosh concepts from 1979 to 1981, when Jobs took over the project following Wozniak's brief departure from the company due to a traumatic airplane accident. After permanently leaving Apple in 1985, Wozniak founded CL 9 and created the first programmable universal remote, released in 1987. He then pursued several other businesses and philanthropic ventures throughout his career, focusing largely on technology in K–12 schools. (Full article...)

Imágenes seleccionadas

Image 1Un choque de cabezales en una unidad de disco duro moderna
Image 2Grace Hopper en el teclado de UNIVAC, c. 1960. Grace Brewster Murray: matemática estadounidense y contralmirante de la Marina de los EE. UU. que fue pionera en el desarrollo de tecnología informática, ayudando a idear UNIVAC I, la primera computadora electrónica comercial, y aplicaciones navales para COBOL (lenguaje común orientado a los negocios).
Image 3Vista parcial del conjunto de Mandelbrot . Paso 1 de una secuencia de zoom: Espacio entre la "cabeza" y el "cuerpo", también llamado "valle del caballito de mar".
Image 4Margaret Hamilton junto al software de navegación que ella y su equipo del MIT produjeron para el Proyecto Apolo .
Image 5Resultado de un modelo de ecuación de aguas poco profundas (linealizado) del agua en una bañera. El agua experimenta cinco salpicaduras que generan ondas de gravedad superficial que se propagan desde los puntos de salpicadura y se reflejan en las paredes de la bañera.
Image 6GNOME Shell, GNOME Clocks, Evince, gThumb y archivos de GNOME en la versión 3.30, en un tema oscuro
Image 7Stephen Wolfram es un informático, físico y empresario británico-estadounidense. Es conocido por su trabajo en informática, matemáticas y física teórica.
Image 8El cañón planeador de Bill Gosper en acción
Image 9Mapa parcial de Internet basado en los datos del 15 de enero de 2005 encontrados en opte.org. Cada línea se dibuja entre dos nodos, que representan dos direcciones IP. La longitud de las líneas indica el retraso entre esos dos nodos. Este gráfico representa menos del 30% de las redes de clase C alcanzables por el programa de recopilación de datos a principios de 2005.
Image 10Una tarjeta perforada IBM Port-A-Punch
Image 11Ada Lovelace fue una matemática y escritora inglesa, conocida principalmente por su trabajo en la máquina analítica , la computadora mecánica de propósito general propuesta por Charles Babbage . Fue la primera en reconocer que la máquina tenía aplicaciones más allá del cálculo puro y en publicar el primer algoritmo destinado a ser ejecutado por una máquina de este tipo. Como resultado, a menudo se la considera la primera programadora de computadoras .
Image 12Una captura de pantalla de GNU Emacs 22.0.91.1, del paquete emacs-snapshot-gtk de Ubuntu .
Image 13Deep Blue era un sistema experto de ajedrez que funcionaba en una supercomputadora IBM especialmente diseñada para ese fin. Fue la primera computadora en ganar una partida y la primera en ganar una partida contra un campeón mundial en ejercicio bajo controles de tiempo regulares. Fotografía tomada en el Museo de Historia de la Computación .
Image 14Animación de una superficie B-spline racional no uniforme . Modelada y renderizada en Cobalt .
Image 15Una animación del algoritmo de ordenación rápida que ordena una matriz de valores aleatorios
Image 16Esta imagen (cuando se ve en tamaño completo, 1000 píxeles de ancho) contiene 1 millón de píxeles , cada uno de un color diferente.
Image 17Una vista del editor de texto GNU nano versión 6.0
Image 18Una casa solitaria. Imagen realizada con Blender 3D .

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