China es considerada una de las cunas de la civilización : los primeros habitantes humanos de la región llegaron durante el Paleolítico ; hacia finales del segundo milenio a. C., los primeros estados dinásticos habían surgido en la cuenca del río Amarillo . Los siglos VIII al III a. C. vieron un colapso en la autoridad de la dinastía Zhou , acompañado por el surgimiento de técnicas administrativas y militares, literatura , filosofía e historiografía . En 221 a. C., China se unificó bajo un emperador por primera vez. Los funcionarios designados no hereditarios comenzaron a gobernar condados en lugar de la aristocracia, marcando el comienzo de más de dos milenios de dinastías imperiales, incluidas las dinastías Qin , Han , Tang , Yuan , Ming y Qing . Con la invención de la pólvora y el papel , el establecimiento de la Ruta de la Seda y la construcción de la Gran Muralla , la cultura china , incluidos los idiomas, las tradiciones, la arquitectura, la filosofía y la tecnología, floreció y ha influido enormemente tanto en sus vecinos como en tierras más lejanas. Sin embargo, China comenzó a ceder partes del país a finales del siglo XIX a varias potencias europeas mediante una serie de tratados desiguales .
La palabra "China" se ha utilizado en inglés desde el siglo XVI; sin embargo, no fue utilizada por los propios chinos durante este período. Su origen se ha rastreado a través del portugués , el malayo y el persa hasta la palabra sánscrita Cīna , utilizada en la antigua India . [16] "China" aparece en la traducción de 1555 de Richard Eden [n] del diario de 1516 del explorador portugués Duarte Barbosa . [o] [16] El uso de Barbosa se deriva del persa Chīn ( چین ), que a su vez deriva del sánscrito Cīna ( चीन ). [21] Cīna se utilizó por primera vez en las escrituras hindúes tempranas , incluido el Mahabharata (siglo V a. C.) y las Leyes de Manu (siglo II a. C.). [22] En 1655, Martino Martini sugirió que la palabra China se deriva en última instancia del nombre de la dinastía Qin (221-206 a. C.). [23] [22] Aunque su uso en fuentes indias precede a esta dinastía, esta derivación todavía se da en varias fuentes. [24] El origen de la palabra sánscrita es un tema de debate. [16] Las sugerencias alternativas incluyen los nombres de Yelang y el estado Jing o Chu. [22] [25]
Cerámica de 10.000 años de antigüedad, cultura de la cueva de Xianren (18000–7000 a. C.)
La evidencia arqueológica sugiere que los primeros homínidos habitaron China hace 2,25 millones de años. [34] Los fósiles de homínidos del Hombre de Pekín , un Homo erectus que usaba fuego , [35] han sido datados entre 680.000 y 780.000 años atrás . [36] Los dientes fosilizados del Homo sapiens (datados entre 125.000 y 80.000 años atrás) han sido descubiertos en la cueva de Fuyan . [37] La protoescritura china existió en Jiahu alrededor del 6600 a. C., [38] en Damaidi alrededor del 6000 a. C., [39] Dadiwan desde el 5800 al 5400 a. C., y Banpo data del quinto milenio a. C. Algunos eruditos han sugerido que los símbolos de Jiahu (séptimo milenio a. C.) constituyeron el primer sistema de escritura chino. [38]
Gobierno dinástico temprano
Yinxu , las ruinas de la capital de finales de la dinastía Shang (siglo XIV a. C.)
Según la historiografía tradicional china , la dinastía Xia se estableció a fines del tercer milenio a. C., lo que marca el comienzo del ciclo dinástico que se entendía que sustentaba toda la historia política de China. En la era moderna, la historicidad de la Xia fue objeto de un escrutinio cada vez mayor, en parte debido a que la atestación más antigua conocida de la Xia se escribió milenios después de la fecha dada para su colapso. En 1958, los arqueólogos descubrieron sitios pertenecientes a la cultura Erlitou que existieron durante la Edad del Bronce temprana ; desde entonces se los ha caracterizado como los restos de la Xia histórica, pero esta concepción a menudo se rechaza. [40] [41] [42] La dinastía Shang que tradicionalmente sucedió a la Xia es la más antigua para la que hay registros escritos contemporáneos y evidencia arqueológica indiscutible. [43] Los Shang gobernaron gran parte del valle del río Amarillo hasta el siglo XI a. C., y la evidencia sólida más antigua data de alrededor del 1300 a. C. [44] La escritura en hueso oracular , atestiguada desde alrededor de 1250 a. C. pero generalmente asumida como considerablemente más antigua, [45] [46] representa la forma más antigua conocida de chino escrito , [47] y es el ancestro directo de los caracteres chinos modernos . [48]
Los Shang fueron derrocados por los Zhou , que gobernaron entre los siglos XI y V a. C. , aunque la autoridad centralizada del Hijo del Cielo fue erosionada lentamente por los señores fengjian . Algunos principados finalmente surgieron de los Zhou debilitados y libraron guerras continuamente entre sí durante el período de Primaveras y Otoños de 300 años . En el momento del período de los Reinos Combatientes de los siglos V-III a. C., quedaban siete estados poderosos importantes. [49]
El período de los Reinos Combatientes terminó en 221 a. C. después de que el estado de Qin conquistara los otros seis estados, reunificara China y estableciera el orden dominante de la autocracia . El rey Zheng de Qin se proclamó emperador de la dinastía Qin , convirtiéndose en el primer emperador de una China unificada. Promulgó las reformas legalistas de Qin , en particular la estandarización de los caracteres chinos, las medidas , el ancho de las carreteras y la moneda . Su dinastía también conquistó las tribus Yue en Guangxi , Guangdong y el norte de Vietnam . [50] La dinastía Qin duró solo quince años, cayendo poco después de la muerte del Primer Emperador. [51] [52]
Los Sui restauraron el poder de los Han en China, reformaron su agricultura, economía y sistema de examen imperial , construyeron el Gran Canal y patrocinaron el budismo . Sin embargo, cayeron rápidamente cuando su reclutamiento para obras públicas y una guerra fallida en el norte de Corea provocaron un malestar generalizado. [56] [57]
Bajo las sucesivas dinastías Tang y Song , la economía, la tecnología y la cultura chinas entraron en una edad de oro. [58] La dinastía Tang retuvo el control de las regiones occidentales y la Ruta de la Seda, [59] que llevó a los comerciantes hasta Mesopotamia y el Cuerno de África , [60] e hizo de la capital Chang'an un centro urbano cosmopolita. Sin embargo, fue devastada y debilitada por la rebelión de An Lushan en el siglo VIII. [61] En 907, los Tang se desintegraron por completo cuando los gobernadores militares locales se volvieron ingobernables. La dinastía Song puso fin a la situación separatista en 960, lo que llevó a un equilibrio de poder entre la dinastía Song y la dinastía Liao . La dinastía Song fue el primer gobierno en la historia mundial en emitir papel moneda y el primer sistema político chino en establecer una armada permanente, que se apoyaba en la desarrollada industria de construcción naval junto con el comercio marítimo. [62]
Entre los siglos X y XI d. C., la población de China se duplicó hasta alcanzar unos 100 millones de personas, principalmente debido a la expansión del cultivo de arroz en el centro y sur de China y a la producción de abundantes excedentes de alimentos. La dinastía Song también vio un renacimiento del confucianismo , en respuesta al crecimiento del budismo durante la dinastía Tang, [63] y un florecimiento de la filosofía y las artes, ya que el arte del paisaje y la porcelana alcanzaron nuevos niveles de complejidad. [64] Sin embargo, la debilidad militar del ejército Song fue observada por la dinastía Jin . En 1127, el emperador Huizong de Song y la capital Bianjing fueron capturados durante las guerras Jin-Song . Los remanentes de la dinastía Song se retiraron al sur de China . [65]
A principios de la dinastía Ming, la capital de China se trasladó de Nanjing a Pekín. Con el florecimiento del capitalismo, filósofos como Wang Yangming criticaron y ampliaron el neoconfucianismo con conceptos de individualismo e igualdad de las cuatro ocupaciones . [70] El estrato académico-oficial se convirtió en una fuerza de apoyo de la industria y el comercio en los movimientos de boicot fiscal, que, junto con las hambrunas y la defensa contra las invasiones japonesas de Corea (1592-1598) y las incursiones posteriores de Jin , llevaron a un agotamiento del tesoro. [71] En 1644, Pekín fue capturada por una coalición de fuerzas rebeldes campesinas lideradas por Li Zicheng . El emperador Chongzhen se suicidó cuando la ciudad cayó. La dinastía manchú Qing , entonces aliada con el general de la dinastía Ming Wu Sangui , derrocó a la efímera dinastía Shun de Li y posteriormente tomó el control de Pekín, que se convirtió en la nueva capital de la dinastía Qing. [72]
La dinastía Qing, que duró desde 1644 hasta 1912, fue la última dinastía imperial de China. La transición Ming-Qing (1618-1683) costó 25 millones de vidas, pero la dinastía Qing pareció haber restaurado el poder imperial de China e inaugurado otro florecimiento de las artes. [73] Después de que terminara la dinastía Ming del Sur , la conquista posterior del Kanato de Dzungar agregó Mongolia, Tíbet y Xinjiang al imperio. [74] Mientras tanto, el crecimiento demográfico de China se reanudó y pronto comenzó a acelerarse. Se acepta comúnmente que la población de la China premoderna experimentó dos períodos de crecimiento, uno durante el período Song del Norte (960-1127) y otro durante el período Qing (alrededor de 1700-1830). [75] Para la era Qing alta , China era posiblemente el país más comercializado del mundo, y la China imperial experimentó una segunda revolución comercial a fines del siglo XVIII. [76] Por otra parte, la autocracia centralizada se fortaleció en parte para suprimir el sentimiento anti-Qing con la política de valorar la agricultura y restringir el comercio, como el Haijin durante el período Qing temprano y el control ideológico representado por la inquisición literaria , lo que provocó cierto estancamiento social y tecnológico. [77] [78]
Establecimiento de la República y Segunda Guerra Mundial
El 1 de enero de 1912 se estableció la República de China y Sun Yat-sen del Kuomintang (KMT) fue proclamado presidente provisional. [85] En marzo de 1912, la presidencia fue entregada a Yuan Shikai , un ex general Qing que en 1915 se proclamó Emperador de China . Ante la condena popular y la oposición de su propio Ejército Beiyang , se vio obligado a abdicar y restablecer la república en 1916. [86] Después de la muerte de Yuan Shikai en 1916, China estaba políticamente fragmentada. Su gobierno con sede en Pekín era reconocido internacionalmente pero virtualmente impotente; los caudillos regionales controlaban la mayor parte de su territorio. [87] [88] Durante este período , China participó en la Primera Guerra Mundial y vio un levantamiento popular de largo alcance (el Movimiento del Cuatro de Mayo ). [89]
A fines de la década de 1920, el Kuomintang bajo el mando de Chiang Kai-shek logró reunificar el país bajo su propio control con una serie de hábiles maniobras militares y políticas conocidas colectivamente como la Expedición al Norte . [90] [91] El Kuomintang trasladó la capital de la nación a Nanjing e implementó la "tutela política", una etapa intermedia del desarrollo político delineada en el programa de los Tres Principios del Pueblo de Sun Yat-sen para transformar China en un estado democrático moderno. [92] [93] El Kuomintang se alió brevemente con el Partido Comunista Chino (PCCh) durante la Expedición al Norte, aunque la alianza se rompió en 1927 después de que Chiang reprimiera violentamente al PCCh y a otros izquierdistas en Shanghái, lo que marcó el comienzo de la Guerra Civil China . [94] El PCCh declaró áreas del país como la República Soviética China (Soviet de Jiangxi) en noviembre de 1931 en Ruijin , Jiangxi . El Soviet de Jiangxi fue aniquilado por los ejércitos del KMT en 1934, lo que llevó al PCCh a iniciar la Larga Marcha y trasladarse a Yan'an en Shaanxi . Sería la base de los comunistas antes de que terminaran los principales combates de la Guerra Civil China en 1949.
China salió victoriosa, pero devastada por la guerra y con problemas económicos. La continua desconfianza entre el Kuomintang y los comunistas llevó a la reanudación de la guerra civil. En 1947 se estableció el régimen constitucional, pero debido a los disturbios en curso, muchas disposiciones de la constitución de la República de China nunca se implementaron en China continental. [101] Después, el PCCh tomó el control de la mayor parte de China continental y el gobierno de la República de China se retiró a Taiwán .
La población china aumentó de 550 millones en 1950 a 900 millones en 1974. [109] Sin embargo, el Gran Salto Adelante , un proyecto idealista de industrialización masiva , resultó en un estimado de 15 a 55 millones de muertes entre 1959 y 1961, principalmente por hambre. [110] [111] En 1964, la primera bomba atómica de China explotó con éxito. [112] En 1966, Mao y sus aliados lanzaron la Revolución Cultural , lo que desencadenó una década de recriminaciones políticas y agitación social que duró hasta la muerte de Mao en 1976. En octubre de 1971, la República Popular de China reemplazó a la República de China en las Naciones Unidas y tomó su asiento como miembro permanente del Consejo de Seguridad. [113]
Después de la muerte de Mao, la Banda de los Cuatro fue arrestada por Hua Guofeng y responsabilizada de la Revolución Cultural. La Revolución Cultural fue reprendida, con millones de personas rehabilitadas. Deng Xiaoping tomó el poder en 1978 e instituyó reformas políticas y económicas a gran escala , junto con los " Ocho Ancianos ", los miembros más importantes e influyentes del partido. El gobierno aflojó su control y las comunas se disolvieron gradualmente. [114] La colectivización agrícola fue desmantelada y las tierras agrícolas privatizadas. Mientras que el comercio exterior se convirtió en un foco importante, se crearon zonas económicas especiales (ZEE). Las empresas estatales ineficientes (EPE) fueron reestructuradas y algunas cerradas. Esto marcó la transición de China para alejarse de la economía planificada. [115] China adoptó su constitución actual el 4 de diciembre de 1982. [116]
En el 16º Congreso Nacional del PCCh en 2002, Hu Jintao sucedió a Jiang como secretario general. [118] Bajo Hu, China mantuvo su alta tasa de crecimiento económico, superando al Reino Unido, Francia, Alemania y Japón para convertirse en la segunda economía más grande del mundo. [121] Sin embargo, el crecimiento también impactó severamente los recursos y el medio ambiente del país, [122] [123] y causó un importante desplazamiento social. [124] [125] Xi Jinping sucedió a Hu como líder supremo en el 18º Congreso Nacional del PCCh en 2012. Poco después de su ascenso al poder, Xi lanzó una vasta ofensiva anticorrupción , [126] que procesó a más de 2 millones de funcionarios en 2022. [127] Durante su mandato , Xi ha consolidado el poder nunca antes visto desde el inicio de las reformas económicas y políticas. [128]
El clima de China está dominado principalmente por estaciones secas y monzones húmedos , que provocan diferencias de temperatura pronunciadas entre el invierno y el verano. En invierno, los vientos del norte procedentes de zonas de latitudes altas son fríos y secos; en verano, los vientos del sur procedentes de zonas costeras en latitudes más bajas son cálidos y húmedos. [132]
Un importante problema ambiental en China es la continua expansión de sus desiertos , en particular el desierto de Gobi. [133] [134] Aunque las líneas de árboles de barrera plantadas desde la década de 1970 han reducido la frecuencia de las tormentas de arena , la sequía prolongada y las malas prácticas agrícolas han dado lugar a tormentas de polvo que plagan el norte de China cada primavera, que luego se propagan a otras partes del este de Asia, incluidos Japón y Corea. La calidad del agua, la erosión y el control de la contaminación se han convertido en cuestiones importantes en las relaciones de China con otros países. El derretimiento de los glaciares en el Himalaya podría conducir potencialmente a una escasez de agua para cientos de millones de personas. [135] Según los académicos, para limitar el cambio climático en China a 1,5 °C (2,7 °F), la generación de electricidad a partir de carbón en China sin captura de carbono debe eliminarse gradualmente para 2045. [136] Con las políticas actuales, las emisiones de GEI de China probablemente alcanzarán su punto máximo en 2025, y para 2030 volverán a los niveles de 2022. Sin embargo, dicha vía todavía conduce a un aumento de temperatura de tres grados. [137]
Las estadísticas oficiales del gobierno sobre la productividad agrícola china se consideran poco fiables, debido a la exageración de la producción en los niveles de gobierno subsidiario. [138] [139] Gran parte de China tiene un clima muy adecuado para la agricultura y el país ha sido el mayor productor mundial de arroz, trigo, tomates, berenjenas, uvas, sandía, espinacas y muchos otros cultivos. [140] En 2021, el 12 por ciento de las praderas y pastos permanentes mundiales pertenecían a China, así como el 8% de las tierras de cultivo mundiales. [141]
China alberga al menos 551 especies de mamíferos (la tercera más alta del mundo), [146] 1.221 especies de aves (octava), [147] 424 especies de reptiles (séptima) [148] y 333 especies de anfibios (séptima). [149] La vida silvestre en China comparte hábitat con, y soporta una presión aguda de, una de las poblaciones de humanos más grandes del mundo. Al menos 840 especies animales están amenazadas, vulnerables o en peligro de extinción local , debido principalmente a la actividad humana, como la destrucción del hábitat, la contaminación y la caza furtiva para alimentos, pieles y medicina tradicional china . [150] La vida silvestre en peligro está protegida por ley y, a partir de 2005 [update], el país tiene más de 2.349 reservas naturales , que cubren un área total de 149,95 millones de hectáreas, el 15 por ciento de la superficie terrestre total de China. [151] La mayoría de los animales salvajes han sido eliminados de las principales regiones agrícolas del este y centro de China, pero les ha ido mejor en el sur y el oeste montañosos. [152] [153] El baiji se confirmó extinto el 12 de diciembre de 2006. [154]
China tiene más de 32.000 especies de plantas vasculares, [155] y es el hogar de una variedad de tipos de bosques. Los bosques fríos de coníferas predominan en el norte del país, sustentando especies animales como el alce y el oso negro asiático , junto con más de 120 especies de aves. [156] El sotobosque de los bosques húmedos de coníferas puede contener matorrales de bambú . En las zonas montañosas más altas de enebro y tejo , el bambú es reemplazado por rododendros . Los bosques subtropicales , que predominan en el centro y sur de China, sustentan una alta densidad de especies de plantas, incluidas numerosas endémicas raras. Las selvas tropicales y estacionales , aunque confinadas a Yunnan y Hainan , contienen una cuarta parte de todas las especies animales y vegetales que se encuentran en China. [156] China tiene más de 10.000 especies registradas de hongos . [157]
A principios de la década de 2000, China ha sufrido un deterioro ambiental y contaminación debido a su rápido ritmo de industrialización. [158] [159] Las regulaciones como la Ley de Protección Ambiental de 1979 son bastante estrictas, aunque se aplican de manera deficiente y con frecuencia se ignoran en favor de un rápido desarrollo económico. [160] China tiene el segundo mayor número de muertes por contaminación del aire, después de India , con aproximadamente 1 millón de muertes. [161] [162] Aunque China se ubica como el país con mayor emisión de CO 2 , [163] solo emite 8 toneladas de CO 2 per cápita , significativamente menos que países desarrollados como Estados Unidos (16,1), Australia (16,8) y Corea del Sur (13,6). [164] Las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero de China son las más grandes del mundo . [164] El país tiene importantes problemas de contaminación del agua ; En 2022, el Ministerio de Ecología y Medio Ambiente calificó como apta para el consumo humano solo el 87,9% de las aguas superficiales nacionales de China. [165]
China ha priorizado la lucha contra la contaminación, lo que ha logrado una reducción significativa de la contaminación del aire en la década de 2010. [166] En 2020, el gobierno chino anunció sus objetivos para que el país alcance sus niveles máximos de emisiones antes de 2030 y logre la neutralidad de carbono para 2060 de acuerdo con el Acuerdo de París , [167] lo que, según Climate Action Tracker , reduciría el aumento esperado de la temperatura global en 0,2-0,3 grados, "la mayor reducción individual jamás estimada por Climate Action Tracker". [167]
China es el principal inversor mundial en energía renovable y su comercialización , con 546 mil millones de dólares invertidos en 2022; [168] es un importante fabricante de tecnologías de energía renovable e invierte fuertemente en proyectos de energía renovable a escala local. [169] [168] Si bien durante mucho tiempo China dependió en gran medida de fuentes de energía no renovables, como el carbón, su adaptación a las energías renovables ha aumentado significativamente en los últimos años: su participación aumentó del 26,3 por ciento en 2016 al 31,9 por ciento en 2022. [170] En 2023, el 60,5% de la electricidad de China provino del carbón (el mayor productor del mundo), el 13,2% de la energía hidroeléctrica (el mayor), el 9,4% de la energía eólica (el mayor), el 6,2% de la energía solar (la más grande), el 4,6% de la energía nuclear (la segunda más grande), el 3,3% del gas natural (la quinta más grande) y el 2,2% de la bioenergía (la más grande); en total, el 31% de la energía de China provino de fuentes de energía renovables. [171] A pesar de su énfasis en las energías renovables, China sigue profundamente conectada a los mercados petroleros mundiales y, junto con India, ha sido el mayor importador de petróleo crudo ruso en 2022. [172] [173]
Geografía política
China es el tercer país más grande del mundo por área terrestre después de Rusia , y el tercer o cuarto país más grande del mundo por área total. [s] El área total de China generalmente se indica en aproximadamente 9.600.000 km2 ( 3.700.000 millas cuadradas). [174] Las cifras de área específica varían de 9.572.900 km2 ( 3.696.100 millas cuadradas) según la Enciclopedia Británica , [14] a 9.596.961 km2 ( 3.705.407 millas cuadradas) según el Anuario Demográfico de las Naciones Unidas , [6] y The World Factbook . [5]
Mapa que muestra las disputas territoriales entre la República Popular China y los estados vecinos. Para ver un mapa más grande, consulte aquí .
China ha resuelto sus fronteras terrestres con 12 de los 14 países vecinos, habiendo buscado compromisos sustanciales en la mayoría de ellos. [176] [177] [178] China actualmente tiene una frontera terrestre en disputa con India [179] y Bután . [180] China también está involucrada en disputas marítimas con varios países sobre territorio en los mares de China Oriental y Meridional , como las islas Senkaku y la totalidad de las islas del mar de China Meridional . [181] [182]
Gobierno y política
La República Popular China es un estado unipartidista gobernado por el Partido Comunista Chino (PCCh), que se considera marxista-leninista . Esto convierte a China en uno de los pocos países gobernados por un partido comunista. La constitución china establece que la RPC "es un estado socialista gobernado por una dictadura democrática popular dirigida por la clase obrera y basada en una alianza de trabajadores y campesinos", que las instituciones estatales "practicarán el principio del centralismo democrático " [183] y que "la característica definitoria del socialismo con características chinas es el liderazgo del Partido Comunista Chino". [184]
El Partido Comunista Chino es el partido político fundador y gobernante de la República Popular China.
Según la constitución del PCCh , su máximo órgano es el Congreso Nacional, que se celebra cada cinco años. [192] El Congreso Nacional elige al Comité Central , que a su vez elige al Politburó del partido , al Comité Permanente del Politburó y al secretario general ( líder del partido ), el máximo liderazgo del país. [192] El secretario general tiene el máximo poder y autoridad sobre el estado y el gobierno y actúa como líder supremo informal . [193] El actual secretario general es Xi Jinping , que asumió el cargo el 15 de noviembre de 2012. [194] A nivel local, el secretario del comité del PCCh de una subdivisión supera en rango al nivel de gobierno local; el secretario del comité del PCCh de una división provincial supera en rango al gobernador, mientras que el secretario del comité del PCCh de una ciudad supera en rango al alcalde. [195] El PCCh se guía oficialmente por el marxismo adaptado a las circunstancias chinas . [196]
Gobierno
El gobierno de China está bajo el control exclusivo del PCCh. [197] El PCCh controla los nombramientos en los órganos gubernamentales, y la mayoría de los funcionarios gubernamentales de alto rango son miembros del PCCh. [197]
El Congreso Nacional del Pueblo (CNP), con casi 3.000 miembros, es constitucionalmente el " órgano más alto del poder estatal ", [183] aunque también se lo ha descrito como un organismo " de sello de goma ". [198] El CNP se reúne anualmente, mientras que el Comité Permanente del CNP , alrededor de 150 miembros elegidos entre los delegados del CNP, se reúne cada dos meses. [198] Las elecciones son indirectas y no pluralistas, y las nominaciones a todos los niveles están controladas por el PCCh. [186] El CNP está dominado por el PCCh, con otros ocho partidos menores que tienen representación nominal bajo la condición de defender el liderazgo del PCCh. [199]
La gobernanza de China se caracteriza por un alto grado de centralización política pero una descentralización económica significativa. [201] : 7 Los instrumentos o procesos de política a menudo se prueban localmente antes de aplicarse más ampliamente, lo que da como resultado una política que implica experimentación y retroalimentación. [202] : 14 En general, el liderazgo del gobierno central se abstiene de redactar políticas específicas, y en su lugar utiliza las redes informales y las visitas a los sitios para afirmar o sugerir cambios en la dirección de los experimentos de política local o los programas piloto. [203] : 71 El enfoque típico es que el liderazgo del gobierno central comienza a redactar políticas, leyes o regulaciones formales después de que se haya desarrollado la política a nivel local. [203] : 71
La República Popular de China tiene relaciones diplomáticas con 179 estados miembros de las Naciones Unidas y mantiene embajadas en 174. A partir de 2024 [update], China tiene una de las redes diplomáticas más grandes de cualquier país del mundo. [207] En 1971, la República Popular de China reemplazó a la República de China (ROC) como el único representante de China en las Naciones Unidas y como uno de los cinco miembros permanentes del Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas . [208] Es miembro de organizaciones intergubernamentales que incluyen el G20 , [209] la OCS , [210] la Cumbre de Asia Oriental , [211] y la APEC . [212] China también fue un ex miembro y líder del Movimiento de Países No Alineados , y todavía se considera un defensor de los países en desarrollo . [213] Junto con Brasil, Rusia, India y Sudáfrica, China es miembro del grupo BRICS de las principales economías emergentes y fue sede de la tercera cumbre oficial del grupo en abril de 2011. [214]
La República Popular de China mantiene oficialmente el principio de una sola China , que sostiene que solo hay un estado soberano en nombre de China, representado por la República Popular de China, y que Taiwán es parte de esa China. [215] El estatus único de Taiwán ha llevado a los países que reconocen a la República Popular de China a mantener "políticas de una sola China" únicas que difieren entre sí; algunos países reconocen explícitamente el reclamo de la República Popular de China sobre Taiwán, mientras que otros, incluidos los EE. UU. y Japón, solo reconocen el reclamo. [215] Los funcionarios chinos han protestado en numerosas ocasiones cuando países extranjeros han hecho propuestas diplomáticas a Taiwán, [216] especialmente en el asunto de las ventas de armamento. [217] La mayoría de los países han cambiado el reconocimiento de la República de China a la República Popular de China desde que esta última reemplazó a la primera en la ONU en 1971. [218]
El 21 de mayo de 2014, China y Rusia firmaron un acuerdo de gas por 400 mil millones de dólares . Actualmente, [ ¿cuándo? ] Rusia suministra gas natural a China.
Gran parte de la actual política exterior china se basa, según se informa, en los Cinco Principios de Coexistencia Pacífica del Primer Ministro Zhou Enlai , y también está impulsada por el concepto de "armonía sin uniformidad", que fomenta las relaciones diplomáticas entre los estados a pesar de las diferencias ideológicas. [219] Esta política puede haber llevado a China a apoyar o mantener estrechos vínculos con estados que las naciones occidentales consideran peligrosos y represivos, como Sudán , [220] Corea del Norte e Irán . [221] La estrecha relación de China con Myanmar ha implicado el apoyo a sus gobiernos gobernantes, así como a sus grupos rebeldes étnicos, [222] incluido el Ejército de Arakan . [223] China tiene una estrecha relación política, económica y militar con Rusia, [224] y los dos estados a menudo votan al unísono en el Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU. [225] [226] [227] La relación de China con los Estados Unidos es compleja e incluye profundos lazos comerciales pero diferencias políticas significativas. [228]
Desde principios de la década de 2000, China ha seguido una política de compromiso con las naciones africanas para el comercio y la cooperación bilateral. [229] [230] [231] Mantiene vínculos comerciales extensos y altamente diversificados con la Unión Europea, y se convirtió en su mayor socio comercial de bienes. [232] China está aumentando su influencia en Asia Central [233] y el Pacífico Sur. [234] El país tiene fuertes lazos comerciales con los países de la ASEAN [235] y las principales economías sudamericanas, [236] y es el mayor socio comercial de Brasil, Chile, Perú, Uruguay, Argentina y varios otros. [237]
En 2013, China inició la Iniciativa del Cinturón y la Ruta (BRI), una gran iniciativa global de construcción de infraestructura con una financiación del orden de 50.000 a 100.000 millones de dólares al año. [238] La BRI podría ser uno de los planes de desarrollo más grandes de la historia moderna. [239] Se ha expandido significativamente en los últimos seis años y, a abril de 2020 [update], incluye a 138 países y 30 organizaciones internacionales. Además de intensificar las relaciones de política exterior, el enfoque se centra particularmente en la construcción de rutas de transporte eficientes, especialmente la Ruta de la Seda marítima con sus conexiones con África Oriental y Europa. Sin embargo, muchos préstamos realizados en el marco del programa son insostenibles y China se ha enfrentado a una serie de pedidos de alivio de la deuda de las naciones deudoras. [240] [241]
El Ejército Popular de Liberación (EPL) es considerado uno de los ejércitos más poderosos del mundo y se ha modernizado rápidamente en las últimas décadas. [242] También ha sido acusado de robo de tecnología por algunos países. [243] [244] [245] Desde 2024, consta de cuatro servicios: la Fuerza Terrestre (PLAGF), la Armada (PLAN), la Fuerza Aérea (PLAAF) y la Fuerza de Cohetes (PLARF). También tiene cuatro brazos independientes: la Fuerza Aeroespacial , la Fuerza Ciberespacial , la Fuerza de Apoyo de Información y la Fuerza de Apoyo Logístico Conjunta , las tres primeras de las cuales se separaron de la disuelta Fuerza de Apoyo Estratégico (PLASSF). [246] Sus casi 2,2 millones de efectivos en servicio activo son los más grandes del mundo . El EPL posee el tercer arsenal de armas nucleares más grande del mundo , [247] [248] y la segunda armada más grande del mundo por tonelaje. [249] El presupuesto militar oficial de China para 2023 ascendió a 224.000 millones de dólares (1,55 billones de yuanes), el segundo más grande del mundo , aunque el SIPRI estima que su gasto real ese año fue de 296.000 millones de dólares, lo que representa el 12% del gasto militar mundial y el 1,7% del PIB del país. [250] Según el SIPRI, su gasto militar de 2012 a 2021 promedió 215.000 millones de dólares al año o el 1,7% del PIB, solo por detrás de Estados Unidos con 734.000 millones de dólares al año o el 3,6% del PIB. [251] El EPL está comandado por la Comisión Militar Central (CMC) del partido y el estado; aunque oficialmente son dos organizaciones separadas, las dos CMC tienen una membresía idéntica excepto durante los períodos de transición de liderazgo y funcionan efectivamente como una sola organización. El presidente de la CMC es el comandante en jefe del EPL. [252]
Cuestiones sociopolíticas y derechos humanos
Marcha en memoria del Premio Nobel de la Paz chino Liu Xiaobo , quien murió de insuficiencia orgánica mientras estaba bajo custodia del gobierno en 2017
Aunque se toleran algunas críticas a las políticas gubernamentales y al PCCh gobernante, la censura de la información y el discurso políticos se encuentra entre las más duras del mundo y se utiliza rutinariamente para impedir la acción colectiva. [257] China también tiene el régimen de censura de Internet más completo y sofisticado del mundo, con numerosos sitios web bloqueados. [258] El gobierno reprime las protestas y manifestaciones populares que considera una amenaza potencial a la "estabilidad social". [259] China utiliza además una red masiva de espionaje de cámaras, software de reconocimiento facial, sensores y vigilancia de tecnología personal como medio de control social de las personas que viven en el país. [260]
En Xinjiang , se ha acusado a China de cometer genocidio contra los uigures y de detener a más de un millón de uigures y otras minorías étnicas en campos. [261]
China es acusada regularmente de represión a gran escala y abusos de los derechos humanos en el Tíbet y Xinjiang, [262] [263] [264] donde reside un número significativo de minorías étnicas, incluidas violentas represiones policiales y supresión religiosa . [265] [266] Desde 2017, el gobierno chino ha estado involucrado en una dura represión en Xinjiang, con alrededor de un millón de uigures y otras minorías étnicas y religiosas detenidos en campos de internamiento destinados a cambiar el pensamiento político de los detenidos, sus identidades y sus creencias religiosas. [267] Según informes occidentales, el adoctrinamiento político, la tortura, el abuso físico y psicológico , la esterilización forzada , el abuso sexual y el trabajo forzado son comunes en estas instalaciones. [268] Según un informe de Foreign Policy de 2020 , el trato de China a los uigures cumple con la definición de genocidio de la ONU, [269] mientras que un informe separado de la Oficina de Derechos Humanos de la ONU dijo que potencialmente podrían cumplir con las definiciones de crímenes contra la humanidad . [270] Las autoridades chinas también han tomado medidas enérgicas contra la disidencia en Hong Kong , especialmente después de la aprobación de una ley de seguridad nacional en 2020. [271]
En 2017 y 2020, el Pew Research Center clasificó la severidad de las restricciones del gobierno chino a la religión como una de las más altas del mundo, a pesar de clasificar las hostilidades sociales relacionadas con la religión en China como de baja severidad. [272] [273] El Índice Global de Esclavitud estimó que en 2016 más de 3,8 millones de personas (0,25% de la población) vivían en "condiciones de esclavitud moderna ", incluidas víctimas de trata de personas, trabajo forzado, matrimonio forzado, trabajo infantil y trabajo forzado impuesto por el estado. El sistema de reeducación a través del trabajo ( laojiao ) impuesto por el estado se abolió formalmente en 2013, pero no está claro hasta qué punto sus prácticas han cesado. [274] El sistema de reforma a través del trabajo ( laogai ) mucho más amplio incluye fábricas de prisiones laborales, centros de detención y campos de reeducación; La Fundación de Investigación Laogai estimó en junio de 2008 que había cerca de 1.422 de estas instalaciones, aunque advirtió que ese número probablemente fuera una subestimación. [275]
Opiniones públicas sobre el gobierno
Las preocupaciones políticas en China incluyen la creciente brecha entre ricos y pobres y la corrupción gubernamental. [276] No obstante, las encuestas internacionales muestran que el público chino tiene un alto nivel de satisfacción con su gobierno. [201] : 137 Estas opiniones se atribuyen generalmente a las comodidades materiales y la seguridad disponibles para grandes segmentos de la población china, así como a la atención y capacidad de respuesta del gobierno. [201] : 136 Según la Encuesta Mundial de Valores (2022), el 91% de los encuestados chinos tienen una confianza significativa en su gobierno. [201] : 13 Una encuesta de la Universidad de Harvard publicada en julio de 2020 encontró que la satisfacción de los ciudadanos con el gobierno había aumentado desde 2003, y también calificó al gobierno de China como más eficaz y capaz que nunca en la historia de la encuesta. [277]
Economía
China tiene la segunda economía más grande del mundo en términos de PIB nominal , [278] y la más grande del mundo en términos de paridad de poder adquisitivo (PPA). [279] A partir de 2022 [update], China representa alrededor del 18% de la economía mundial por PIB nominal. [280] China es una de las principales economías de más rápido crecimiento del mundo , [281] con su crecimiento económico que ha sido casi consistentemente superior al 6 por ciento desde la introducción de reformas económicas en 1978. [ 282] Según el Banco Mundial, el PIB de China creció de $ 150 mil millones en 1978 a $ 17,96 billones para 2022. [283] Ocupa el puesto 64 en PIB nominal per cápita , lo que lo convierte en un país de ingresos medios altos. [284] De las 500 empresas más grandes del mundo , 135 tienen su sede en China. [285] Al menos a partir de 2024, China tendrá el segundo mercado de acciones y mercados de futuros más grande del mundo, así como el tercer mercado de bonos más grande. [286] : 153
China y otras importantes economías en desarrollo por PIB per cápita en paridad de poder adquisitivo , 1990-2013. El rápido crecimiento económico de China (azul) es claramente evidente. [292]
La China actual se describe a menudo como un ejemplo de capitalismo de Estado o capitalismo de partido-estado . [293] [294] El Estado domina en sectores "pilares" estratégicos como la producción de energía y las industrias pesadas , pero la empresa privada se ha expandido enormemente, con alrededor de 30 millones de empresas privadas registradas en 2008. [295] [296] [297] Según las estadísticas oficiales, las empresas privadas constituyen más del 60% del PIB de China. [298]
China ha sido la nación manufacturera más grande del mundo desde 2010, después de superar a los EE. UU., que había sido el más grande durante los cien años anteriores. [299] [300] China también ha sido el segundo país más grande en fabricación de alta tecnología desde 2012, según la Fundación Nacional de Ciencias de EE. UU . [301] China es el segundo mercado minorista más grande después de Estados Unidos. [302] China lidera el mundo en comercio electrónico, representando más del 37% de la participación de mercado global en 2021. [303] China es el líder mundial en consumo y producción de vehículos eléctricos, fabricando y comprando la mitad de todos los autos eléctricos enchufables (BEV y PHEV) en el mundo a partir de 2022. [update][ 304] China también es el principal productor de baterías para vehículos eléctricos, así como varias materias primas clave para baterías. [305]
China representó el 17,9% de la riqueza total del mundo en 2021, la segunda más alta del mundo después de EE. UU. [308] China sacó a más personas de la pobreza extrema que cualquier otro país en la historia [309] [310] —entre 1978 y 2018, China redujo la pobreza extrema en 800 millones. [201] : 23 De 1990 a 2018, la proporción de la población china que vive con un ingreso de menos de $ 1,90 por día ( PPA de 2011 ) disminuyó del 66,3% al 0,3%, la proporción que vive con un ingreso de menos de $ 3,20 por día del 90,0% al 2,9%, y la proporción que vive con un ingreso de menos de $ 5,50 por día disminuyó del 98,3% al 17,0%. [311]
De 1978 a 2018, el nivel de vida promedio se multiplicó por un factor de veintiséis. [312] Los salarios en China han crecido significativamente en los últimos 40 años: los salarios reales (ajustados a la inflación) se multiplicaron por siete entre 1978 y 2007. [313] Los ingresos per cápita también han aumentado significativamente: cuando se fundó la República Popular China en 1949, el ingreso per cápita en China era una quinta parte del promedio mundial; los ingresos per cápita ahora igualan el promedio mundial. [312] El desarrollo de China es muy desigual. Sus principales ciudades y áreas costeras son mucho más prósperas en comparación con las regiones rurales e interiores. [314] Tiene un alto nivel de desigualdad económica, [315] que ha aumentado rápidamente después de las reformas económicas, [316] aunque ha disminuido significativamente en la década de 2010. [317] En 2020, el coeficiente de Gini de China fue 0,371, según el Banco Mundial . [12]
En marzo de 2024 [update], China ocupaba el segundo lugar en el mundo, después de Estados Unidos, en número total de multimillonarios y millonarios , con 473 multimillonarios chinos [318] y 6,2 millones de millonarios. [308] En 2019, China superó a Estados Unidos como el hogar del mayor número de personas con una riqueza personal neta de al menos 110 000 dólares, según el informe de riqueza global de Credit Suisse . [319] [320] China tenía 85 multimillonarias en enero de 2021 [update], dos tercios del total mundial. [321] China tiene la población de clase media más grande del mundo desde 2015; [322] la clase media creció a 500 millones en 2024. [323]
China en la economía global
China es miembro de la OMC desde 2001 y es la mayor potencia comercial del mundo. [324] En 2016, China era el mayor socio comercial de 124 países. [325] China se convirtió en la mayor nación comercial del mundo en 2013 por la suma de importaciones y exportaciones, así como en el mayor importador de materias primas del mundo, representando aproximadamente el 45% del mercado de graneles secos del transporte marítimo . [326] [327]
Las reservas de divisas de China alcanzaron los 3,246 billones de dólares estadounidenses en marzo de 2024 [update], lo que las convierte en las mayores del mundo con diferencia. [328] En 2022, China fue uno de los mayores receptores mundiales de inversión extranjera directa (IED), atrayendo 180.000 millones de dólares, aunque se especuló que la mayoría de ellos procedían de Hong Kong. [329] En 2021, las remesas de divisas de China fueron de 53.000 millones de dólares estadounidenses, lo que la convierte en el segundo mayor receptor de remesas del mundo. [330] China también invierte en el extranjero, con una IED saliente total de 147.900 millones de dólares en 2023, [331] y una serie de adquisiciones importantes de empresas extranjeras por parte de empresas chinas. [332]
El gobierno chino ha promovido la internacionalización del renminbi para reducir su dependencia del dólar estadounidense como resultado de las debilidades percibidas del sistema monetario internacional. [338] El renminbi es un componente de los derechos especiales de giro del FMI y la cuarta moneda más comercializada del mundo a partir de 2023. [update][ 339] Sin embargo, en parte debido a los controles de capital que hacen que el renminbi no sea una moneda totalmente convertible, sigue estando muy por detrás del euro, el dólar estadounidense y el yen japonés en volúmenes de comercio internacional. [340]
China fue un líder mundial en ciencia y tecnología hasta la dinastía Ming . [341] Los descubrimientos e inventos chinos antiguos y medievales , como la fabricación de papel , la imprenta , la brújula y la pólvora (los Cuatro Grandes Inventos ), se difundieron por el este de Asia, Oriente Medio y más tarde Europa. Los matemáticos chinos fueron los primeros en utilizar números negativos . [342] [343] En el siglo XVII, el mundo occidental superó a China en avances científicos y tecnológicos. [344] Los académicos siguen debatiendo las causas de esta Gran Divergencia moderna temprana . [345]
Después de repetidas derrotas militares por parte de las potencias coloniales europeas y el Japón imperial en el siglo XIX, los reformistas chinos comenzaron a promover la ciencia y la tecnología modernas como parte del Movimiento de Autofortalecimiento . Después de que los comunistas llegaron al poder en 1949, se hicieron esfuerzos para organizar la ciencia y la tecnología basándose en el modelo de la Unión Soviética , en el que la investigación científica era parte de la planificación central. [346] Después de la muerte de Mao en 1976, la ciencia y la tecnología fueron promovidas como una de las Cuatro Modernizaciones , [347] y el sistema académico de inspiración soviética fue reformado gradualmente. [348]
Era moderna
Desde el final de la Revolución Cultural , China ha realizado importantes inversiones en investigación científica [349] y rápidamente se está poniendo al día con los EE. UU. en gasto en I+D . [350] [351] China gastó oficialmente alrededor del 2,6% de su PIB en I+D en 2023, totalizando alrededor de $ 458,5 mil millones. [352] Según los Indicadores Mundiales de Propiedad Intelectual , China recibió más solicitudes que los EE. UU. en 2018 y 2019 y ocupó el primer lugar a nivel mundial en patentes, modelos de utilidad, marcas registradas, diseños industriales y exportaciones de bienes creativos en 2021. [353] [354] [355] Ocupó el puesto 12 en el Índice de Innovación Global en 2023, una mejora considerable con respecto a su puesto 35 en 2013. [356] [357] [358] Las supercomputadoras chinas se ubicaron entre las más rápidas del mundo . [359] [v] Sus esfuerzos por desarrollar los semiconductores y motores a reacción más avanzados han sufrido retrasos y contratiempos. [360] [361]
The Chinese space program started in 1958 with some technology transfers from the Soviet Union. However, it did not launch the nation's first satellite until 1970 with the Dong Fang Hong I, which made China the fifth country to do so independently.[368]
In 2003, China became the third country in the world to independently send humans into space with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5. As of 2023, eighteen Chinese nationals have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China launched its first space station testbed, Tiangong-1.[369] In 2013, a Chinese robotic rover Yutu successfully touched down on the lunar surface as part of the Chang'e 3 mission.[370]
In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe—Chang'e 4—on the far side of the Moon.[371] In 2020, Chang'e 5 successfully returned Moon samples to the Earth, making China the third country to do so independently.[372] In 2021, China became the third country to land a spacecraft on Mars and the second one to deploy a rover (Zhurong) on Mars.[373] China completed its own modular space station, the Tiangong, in low Earth orbit on 3 November 2022.[374][375][376] On 29 November 2022, China performed its first in-orbit crew handover aboard the Tiangong.[377][378]
China sent Chang'e 6 on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return from Apollo Basin on the far side of the Moon.[382] This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved by Chang'e 5 from the lunar near side 4 years ago.[383] It also carried a Chinese rover called Jinchan to conduct infrared spectroscopy of lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.[384] The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing on 1 June 2024 at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024.[385][386] The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024 at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, which later completed another robotic rendezvous, before docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed on Inner Mongolia in June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission.
Internet penetration rates in China in the context of East Asia and Southeast Asia, 1995–2012
China is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country, with over 1.7 billion subscribers, as of February 2023[update]. It has the largest number of internet and broadband users, with over 1.09 billion Internet users as of December 2023[update][392]—equivalent to around 77.5% of its population.[393] By 2018, China had more than 1 billion 4G users, accounting for 40% of world's total.[394] China is making rapid advances in 5G—by late 2018, China had started large-scale and commercial 5G trials.[395] As of December 2023[update], China had over 810 million 5G users and 3.38 million base stations installed.[396]
China Mobile, China Unicom and China Telecom, are the three large providers of mobile and internet in China. China Telecom alone served more than 145 million broadband subscribers and 300 million mobile users; China Unicom had about 300 million subscribers; and China Mobile, the largest of them all, had 925 million users, as of 2018[update].[397] Combined, the three operators had over 3.4 million 4G base-stations in China.[398] Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notably Huawei and ZTE, have been accused of spying for the Chinese military.[399]
China has developed its own satellite navigation system, dubbed BeiDou, which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012[400] as well as global services by the end of 2018.[401] Beidou followed GPS and GLONASS as the third completed global navigation satellite.[402]
Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of national highways and expressways. In 2022, China's highways had reached a total length of 177,000 km (110,000 mi), making it the longest highway system in the world.[403] China has the world's largest market for automobiles,[404][405] having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and production. The country is the world's largest exporter of cars by number as of 2023.[406][407] A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents.[408] In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – as of 2023[update], there are approximately 200 million bicycles in China.[409]
The civil aviation industry in China is mostly state-dominated, with the Chinese government retaining a majority stake in the majority of Chinese airlines. The top three airlines in China, which collectively made up 71% of the market in 2018, are all state-owned. Air travel has expanded rapidly in the last decades, with the number of passengers increasing from 16.6 million in 1990 to 551.2 million in 2017.[419] China had approximately 259 airports in 2024.[420]
Population density map of the People's Republic of China (2000)
The 2020 Chinese census recorded the population as approximately 1,411,778,724. About 17.95% were 14 years old or younger, 63.35% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 18.7% were over 60 years old.[427] Between 2010 and 2020, the average population growth rate was 0.53%.[427]
Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a "1.5"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015; ethnic minorities were also exempt from one-child limits.[428] The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.[429] In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a two-child policy.[430] A three-child policy was announced on 31 May 2021, due to population aging,[430] and in July 2021, all family size limits as well as penalties for exceeding them were removed.[431] In 2023, the total fertility rate was reported to be 1.09, ranking among the lowest in the world.[432] In 2023, National Bureau of Statistics estimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961.[433]
According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth[434] or total population size.[435] However, these scholars have been challenged.[436] The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the sex ratio at birth.[437][438] The 2020 census found that males accounted for 51.2% of the total population.[439] However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.8% of the population.[440]
The cultural preference for male children, combined with the one-child policy, led to an excess of female child orphans in China, and in the 1990s through around 2007, there was an active stream of adoptions of (mainly female) babies by American and other foreign parents.[441] However, increased restrictions by the Chinese Government slowed foreign adoptions significantly in 2007 and again in 2015.[442]
China has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 66% in 2023.[443][444][445] China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,[446] including the 17 megacities as of 2021[update][447][448] (cities with a population of over 10 million) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Tianjin, Xi'an, Suzhou, Zhengzhou, Wuhan, Hangzhou, Linyi, Shijiazhuang, Dongguan, Qingdao and Changsha.[449] The total permanent population of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing and Chengdu is above 20 million.[450] Shanghai is China's most populous urban area[451][452] while Chongqing is its largest city proper, the only city in China with a permanent population of over 30 million.[453] The figures in the table below are from the 2020 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists for total municipal populations. The large "floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;[454] the figures below include only long-term residents.
^The data of Chongqing in the list is the data of "Metropolitan Developed Economic Area", which contains two parts: "City Proper" and "Metropolitan Area". The "City proper" are consist of 9 districts: Yuzhong, Dadukou, Jiangbei, Shapingba, Jiulongpo, Nan'an, Beibei, Yubei, & Banan, has the urban population of 5,646,300 as of 2018. And the "Metropolitan Area" are consist of 12 districts: Fuling, Changshou, Jiangjin, Hechuan, Yongchuan, Nanchuan, Qijiang, Dazu, Bishan, Tongliang, Tongnan, & Rongchang, has the urban population of 5,841,700.[457] Total urban population of all 26 districts of Chongqing are up to 15,076,600.
Ethnic groups
Ethnolinguistic map of China in 1967
China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who comprise the Zhonghua minzu. The largest of these nationalities are the Han Chinese, who constitute more than 91% of the total population.[427] The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group[458] – outnumber other ethnic groups in every place excluding Tibet, Xinjiang,[459]Linxia,[460] and autonomous prefectures like Xishuangbanna.[461] Ethnic minorities account for less than 10% of the population of China, according to the 2020 census.[427] Compared with the 2010 population census, the Han population increased by 60,378,693 persons, or 4.93%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 11,675,179 persons, or 10.26%.[427] The 2020 census recorded a total of 845,697 foreign nationals living in mainland China.[462]
Languages
Lihaozhai High School in Jianshui, Yunnan. The sign is in Hani (Latin alphabet), Nisu (Yi script), and Chinese.
Standard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect, is the national language and de facto official language of China.[2] It is used as a lingua franca between people of different linguistic backgrounds.[470][471] In the autonomous regions of China, other languages may also serve as a lingua franca, such as Uyghur in Xinjiang, where governmental services in Uyghur are constitutionally guaranteed.[472][473]
Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China's constitution (Chapter 2, Article 36), although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.[183] The government of the country is officially atheist. Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the National Religious Affairs Administration, under the United Front Work Department.[478]
Over the millennia, the Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The "three doctrines", including Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism (Chinese Buddhism), historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture,[479][480] enriching a theological and spiritual framework of traditional religion which harks back to the early Shang and Zhou dynasty. Chinese folk religion, which is framed by the three doctrines and by other traditions,[481] consists in allegiance to the shen (神), a character that signifies the "energies of generation", who can be deities of the surrounding nature or ancestral principles of human groups, concepts of civility, culture heroes, many of whom feature in Chinese mythology and history.[482] Amongst the most popular cults of folk religion are those of Huangdi, embodiment of the God of Heaven and one of the two divine patriarchs of the Chinese people,[483][484] of Mazu (goddess of the seas),[483]Guandi (god of war and business), Caishen (god of prosperity and richness), Pangu and many others. In the early decades of the 21st century, the Chinese government has been engaged in a rehabilitation of folk cults — formally recognizing them as "folk beliefs" (a category different from that of doctrinal religions),[485] and often reconstructing them into forms of "highly curated" civil religion[486] — as well as in a national and international promotion of Buddhism.[487] China is home to many of the world's tallest religious statues, representing either deities of Chinese folk religion or enlightened beings of Buddhism; the tallest of all is the Spring Temple Buddha in Henan.
Taoism has been nominated as a state religion a number of times throughout China's history.[488]
Statistics on religious affiliation in China are difficult to gather due to complex and varying definitions of religion and the diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between the three doctrines and local folk religious practices.[479] Chinese religions or some of their currents are also definable as non-theistic and humanistic, since they do not hold that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but that it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being.[489] According to studies published in 2023, compiling reliable demographic analyses holden throughout the 2010s and the early 2020s, 70% of the Chinese population believes in or practices Chinese folk religion; among them, with an approach of non-exclusivity, 33.4% may be identified as Buddhists, 19.6% as Taoists, and 17.7% as adherents of other types of folk religion.[4] Of the remaining population, 25.2% are fully non-believers or atheists, 2.5% are adherents of Christianity, and 1.6% are adherents of Islam.[4] Chinese folk religion also comprises a variety of salvationist doctrinal organized movements which emerged since the Song dynasty.[490] There are also ethnic minorities in China who maintain their own indigenous religions, while major religions characteristic of specific ethnic groups include Tibetan Buddhism among Tibetans, Mongols and Yugurs,[491] and Islam among the Hui, Uyghur, Kazakh,[472] and Kyrgyz peoples, and other ethnicities in the northern and northwestern regions of the country.
Compulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school, which together last for nine years from the age of 6 and 15.[494] The Gaokao, China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level.[495] More than 10 million Chinese students graduated from vocational colleges every year.[496] In 2023, about 91.8 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school, while 60.2 percent of secondary school graduates were enrolled in higher education.[497]
China has the largest education system in the world,[498] with about 291 million students and 18.92 million full-time teachers in over 498,300 schools in 2023.[499] Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$817 billion in 2020.[500][501] However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in Guizhou, one of the poorest provinces, only totalled ¥3,204.[502] China's literacy rate has grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979,[503] to 97% of the population over age 15 in 2020.[504]
As of 2023[update], China has over 3,074 universities, with over 47.6 million students enrolled in mainland China, giving China the largest higher education system in the world.[505][506] As of 2023[update], China had the world's highest number of top universities.[507][508] Currently, China trails only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of representation on lists of the top 200 universities according to the 2023 Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities, a composite ranking system of three world-most followed university rankings (ARWU+QS+ THE).[509] China is home to two of the highest-ranking universities (Tsinghua University and Peking University) in Asia and emerging economies, according to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings[510] and the QS World University Rankings.[511] These universities are members of the C9 League, an alliance of elite Chinese universities offering comprehensive and leading education.[512]
The National Health Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the population.[513] An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. The Communist Party started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and scarlet fever, which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign.[514]
After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a three-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion.[515] By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage.[516] By 2022, China had established itself as a key producer and exporter of pharmaceuticals, producing around 40 percent of active pharmaceutical ingredients in 2017.[517]
As of 2023[update], the life expectancy at birth exceeds 78 years.[518]: 163 As of 2021[update], the infant mortality rate is 5 per thousand.[519] Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.[w] Rates of stunting, a condition caused by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.[522] Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution,[523]hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers,[524] and an increase in obesity among urban youths.[525][526] In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.[527]Chinese mental health services are inadequate.[528] China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks, such as SARS in 2003, although this has since been largely contained.[529] The COVID-19 pandemic was first identified in Wuhan in December 2019;[530][531] pandemic led the government to enforce strict public health measures intended to completely eradicate the virus, a goal that was eventually abandoned in December 2022 after protests against the policy.[532][533]
Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Chinese culture, in turn, has heavily influenced East Asia and Southeast Asia.[535] For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which have their origins in the Han dynasty.[536] The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective.[537] Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today.[538]
Fenghuang County, an ancient town that harbors many architectural remains of Ming and Qing styles[539]
Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,[540][541] and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.[542] Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted.[543]
Architecture
Chinese architecture has developed over millennia in China and has remained a vestigial source of perennial influence on the development of East Asian architecture,[544][545][546] including in Japan, Korea, and Mongolia.[547] and minor influences on the architecture of Southeast and South Asia including the countries of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines.[548][549]
Chinese architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of enclosed open spaces, feng shui (e.g. directional hierarchies),[550] a horizontal emphasis, and an allusion to various cosmological, mythological or in general symbolic elements. Chinese architecture traditionally classifies structures according to type, ranging from pagodas to palaces.[551][547]
Chinese architecture varies widely based on status or affiliation, such as whether the structures were constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other variations in Chinese architecture are shown in vernacular styles associated with different geographic regions and different ethnic heritages, such as the stilt houses in the south, the Yaodong buildings in the northwest, the yurt buildings of nomadic people, and the Siheyuan buildings in the north.[552]
Chinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to modern music. Chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times. Traditional Chinese musical instruments were traditionally grouped into eight categories known as bayin (八音). Traditional Chinese opera is a form of musical theatre in China originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beijing and Cantonese opera.[562] Chinese pop (C-Pop) includes mandopop and cantopop. Chinese hip hop and Hong Kong hip hop have become popular.[563]
Fashion
Hanfu is the historical clothing of the Han people in China. The qipao or cheongsam is a popular Chinese female dress.[564] The hanfu movement has been popular in contemporary times and seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothing.[565]China Fashion Week is the country's only national-level fashion festival.[566]
Cinema
Cinema was first introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, Dingjun Mountain, was released in 1905.[567] China has the largest number of movie screens in the world since 2016;[568] China became the largest cinema market in 2020.[569][570] The top three highest-grossing films in China as of 2023[update] were The Battle at Lake Changjin (2021), Wolf Warrior 2 (2017), and Hi, Mom (2021).[571]
Cuisine
Map showing major regional cuisines of China
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the "Eight Major Cuisines", including Sichuan, Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong, Fujian, Hunan, Anhui, and Zhejiang cuisines.[572] Chinese cuisine is known for its breadth of cooking methods and ingredients.[573] China's staple food is rice in the northeast and south, and wheat-based breads and noodles in the north. Bean products such as tofu and soy milk remain a popular source of protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption.[574] There is also the vegetarian Buddhist cuisine and the pork-free Chinese Islamic cuisine. Chinese cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables. Offshoots of Chinese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese cuisine, have emerged in the Chinese diaspora.
Sports
Go is an abstract strategy board game for two players, in which the aim is to surround more territory than the opponent, and which was invented in China more than 2,500 years ago.
Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as qigong and tai chi widely practiced,[577] and commercial gyms and private fitness clubs are gaining popularity.[578] Basketball is the most popular spectator sport in China.[579] The Chinese Basketball Association and the American National Basketball Association also have a huge national following amongst the Chinese populace, with native-born and NBA-bound Chinese players and well-known national household names such as Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian being held in high esteem.[580] China's professional football league, known as Chinese Super League, is the largest football market in East Asia.[581] Other popular sports include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, swimming and snooker. China is home to a huge number of cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012[update].[582] China has the world's largest esports market.[583] Many more traditional sports, such as dragon boat racing, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are also popular.[584]
^The size of Chonqging Municipality is about that of the country of Austria. University of Washington professor Kam Wing Chan argued that Chongqing's status is more akin to that of a province rather than a city.[1]
^Joined as the Republic of China on mainland China. UN representative changed to the People's Republic on 25 October 1971, who began representing China at the UN from 15 November 1971.
^UN figure for mainland China, which excludes Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.[6] It also excludes the Trans-Karakoram Tract (5,180 km2 (2,000 sq mi)), Aksai Chin (38,000 km2 (15,000 sq mi)) and other territories in dispute with India. The total area of China is listed as 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) by the Encyclopædia Britannica.[7]
^GDP figures exclude Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau.
^China's border with Pakistan is disputed by India, which claims the entire Kashmir region as its territory. China is tied with Russia as having the most land borders of any country.
^The total area ranking relative to the United States depends on the measurement of the total areas of both countries. See list of countries and dependencies by area for more information. The following two primary sources represent the range of estimates of China's and the United States' total areas.
The Encyclopædia Britannica lists China as world's third-largest country (after Russia and Canada) with a total area of 9,572,900 km2,[7] and the United States as fourth-largest at 9,525,067 km2.[14]
The CIA World Factbook lists China as the fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada and the United States) with a total area of 9,596,960 km2,[5] and the United States as the third-largest at 9,833,517 km2.[15]
Both sources exclude both Taiwan and coastal and territorial waters from the area of China. However, the CIA World Factbook includes the United States coastal and territorial waters, while Encyclopædia Britannica excludes them. Notably, the Encyclopædia Britannica specifies the United States' area (excluding coastal and territorial waters) as 9,525,067 km2, which is less than either source's figure given for China's area.[14] Therefore, it is unclear which country has a larger area including coastal and territorial waters. The United Nations Statistics Division's figure for the United States is 9,833,517 km2 (3,796,742 sq mi) and China is 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi). These closely match the CIA World Factbook figures and similarly include coastal and territorial waters for the United States, but exclude coastal and territorial waters for China.[excessive detail?]
^Excluding the disputed Taiwan Province. See § Administrative divisions.
^"...Next into this, is found the great China, whose king is thought to be the greatest prince in the world, and is named Santoa Raia".[17][18]
^"...The Very Great Kingdom of China".[19] (Portuguese: ...O Grande Reino da China...).[20]
^Its earliest extant use is on the ritual bronze vessel He zun, where it apparently refers to only the Shang's immediate demesne conquered by the Zhou.[26]
^Its meaning "Zhou's royal demesne" is attested from the 6th-century BC Classic of History, which states "Huangtian bestowed the lands and the peoples of the central state to the ancestors" (皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王).[27]
^According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the total area of the United States, at 9,522,055 km2 (3,676,486 sq mi), is slightly smaller than that of China. Meanwhile, the CIA World Factbook states that China's total area was greater than that of the United States until the coastal waters of the Great Lakes was added to the United States' total area in 1996. From 1989 through 1996, the total area of US was listed as 9,372,610 km2 (3,618,780 sq mi) (land area plus inland water only). The listed total area changed to 9,629,091 km2 (3,717,813 sq mi) in 1997 (with the Great Lakes areas and the coastal waters added), to 9,631,418 km2 (3,718,711 sq mi) in 2004, to 9,631,420 km2 (3,718,710 sq mi) in 2006, and to 9,826,630 km2 (3,794,080 sq mi) in 2007 (territorial waters added).
^China's border with Pakistan and part of its border with India falls in the disputed region of Kashmir. The area under Pakistani administration is claimed by India, while the area under Indian administration is claimed by Pakistan.
^The People's Republic of China claims the islands of Taiwan and Penghu, which it does not control, as its disputed 23rd province, i.e. Taiwan Province; along with Kinmen and Matsu Islands as part of Fujian Province. These are controlled by the Taipei-based Republic of China (ROC). See § Administrative divisions for more details.
^Some of the chips used were not domestically developed until Sunway TaihuLight in 2016. China has not submitted newer entries to TOP500 amid tensions with the United States.
^The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in 1949 to 75 years in 2008,[520] and infant mortality decreased from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001.[521]
References
^"The world's biggest cities: How do you measure them?". BBC. 29 January 2012. Retrieved 2024-08-08.
^ a bAdamson, Bob; Feng, Anwei (27 December 2021). Multilingual China: National, Minority and Foreign Languages. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-000-48702-2. Despite not being defined as such in the Constitution, Putonghua enjoys de facto status of the official language in China and is legislated as the standard form of Chinese.
^"Main Data of the Seventh National Population Census". Stats.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 2021-05-11. Retrieved 2021-07-25.
^ a b c2023 approximations of the statistics from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) of the year 2018, as contained in the following analyses:
"Measuring Religion in China" (PDF). Pew Research Center. 30 August 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-09-09."Measuring Religions in China". 30 August 2023. Archived from the original on 2023-09-30. A compilation of statistics from reliable surveys held throughout the 2010s and early 2020s, with an emphasis on the CFPS 2018.
Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina (2023). "Statistics on Religions and Churches in the People's Republic of China – Update for the Year 2022" (PDF). Religions & Christianity in Today's China. XIII. China Zentrum: 18–44. ISSN 2192-9289. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-06-23.
Zhang, Chunni; Lu, Yunfeng; He, Sheng (2021). "Exploring Chinese folk religion: Popularity, diffuseness, and diversities" (PDF). Chinese Journal of Sociology. 7 (4). SAGE Publications: 575–592. doi:10.1177/2057150X211042687. ISSN 2057-150X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-10-15.
^ a b"Demographic Yearbook—Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density" (PDF). UN Statistics. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-12-24. Retrieved 2010-07-31.
^ a b"China". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2019-07-27. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
^"Total surface area as of 19 January 2007". United Nations Statistics Division. Archived from the original on 2023-12-03. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Master, Farah (17 January 2024). "China's population drops for second year, with record low birth rate". Reuters. Retrieved 2024-01-17.
^"Population density (people per km2 of land area)". IMF. Archived from the original on 2015-05-16. Retrieved 2015-05-16.
^ a b c d"World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (China)". International Monetary Fund. 16 April 2024. Archived from the original on 2024-05-01. Retrieved 2024-04-16.
^ a b"Gini index – China". World Bank. Archived from the original on 2024-03-19. Retrieved 2022-05-24.
^"Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-13.
^ a b c"United States". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2015-05-28. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
^Myers, Henry Allen (1984). Western Views of China and the Far East, Volume 1. Asian Research Service. p. 34.
^Barbosa, Duarte (1918). Dames, Mansel Longworth (ed.). The Book of Duarte Barbosa. Vol. II. London: Asian Educational Services. p. 211. ISBN 978-81-206-0451-3.
^Barbosa, Duarte (1946). Augusto Reis Machado (ed.). Livro em que dá Relação do que Viu e Ouviu no Oriente. Lisbon: Agência Geral das Colónias. Archived from the original on 2008-10-22.. (in Portuguese)
^"China Archived 2011-09-21 at the Wayback Machine". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2000). Boston and New York: Houghton-Mifflin.
^ a b cWade, Geoff. "The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China' Archived 2017-11-17 at the Wayback Machine". Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 188, May 2009, p. 20.
^Martino, Martin, Novus Atlas Sinensis, Vienna 1655, Preface, p. 2.
^Bodde, Derk (1986). "The state and empire of Ch'in". In Denis Twitchett; Michael Loewe (eds.). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521243278.003. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Archived from the original on 2023-04-11. Retrieved 2017-09-09.
^Yule, Henry (1866). Cathay and the Way Thither. Asian Educational Services. pp. 3–7. ISBN 978-81-206-1966-1.
^Chen Zhi (9 November 2004). "From Exclusive Xia to Inclusive Zhu-Xia: The Conceptualisation of Chinese Identity in Early China". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 14 (3): 185–205. doi:10.1017/S135618630400389X. JSTOR 25188470. S2CID 162643600.
^《尚書》, 梓材.(in Chinese)
^Wilkinson, Endymion (2000). Chinese History: A Manual. Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph No. 52. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4.
^Tang, Xiaoyang; Guo, Sujian; Guo, Baogang (2010). Greater China in an Era of Globalization. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-0-7391-3534-1.
^"Two 'Chinese' flags in Chinatown 美國唐人街兩面「中國」國旗之爭". BBC. Archived from the original on 2020-12-02. Retrieved 2020-11-05.
^"Chou Hsi-wei on Conflict Zone". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2020-11-05. So-called 'China', we call it 'Mainland', we are 'Taiwan'. Together we are 'China'.
^"China-Taiwan Relations". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 2020-07-26. Retrieved 2020-11-05.
^ a b"What's behind China-Taiwan tensions?". BBC News. 6 November 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-11-07. Retrieved 2022-11-10.
^Ciochon, Russell; Larick, Roy (1 January 2000). "Early Homo erectus Tools in China". Archaeology. Archived from the original on 2020-01-06. Retrieved 2012-11-30.
^"The Peking Man World Heritage Site at Zhoukoudian". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 2016-06-23. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
^Shen, G.; Gao, X.; Gao, B.; Granger, De (March 2009). "Age of Zhoukoudian Homo erectus determined with (26)Al/(10)Be burial dating". Nature. 458 (7235): 198–200. doi:10.1038/nature07741. PMID 19279636. S2CID 19264385.
^Rincon, Paul (14 October 2015). "Fossil teeth place humans in Asia '20,000 years early'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2017-08-17. Retrieved 2015-10-14.
^ a bRincon, Paul (17 April 2003). "'Earliest writing' found in China". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2020-01-14.
^Qiu Xigui (2000) Chinese Writing English translation of 文字學概論 by Gilbert L. Mattos and Jerry Norman Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7
^Tanner, Harold M. (2009). China: A History. Hackett Publishing. pp. 35–36. ISBN 978-0-87220-915-2.
^"Bronze Age China". National Gallery of Art. Archived from the original on 2013-07-25. Retrieved 2013-07-11.
^China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. City University of HK Press. 2007. p. 25. ISBN 978-962-937-140-1.
^Pletcher, Kenneth (2011). The History of China. Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-61530-181-2.
^Fowler, Jeaneane D.; Fowler, Merv (2008). Chinese Religions: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-84519-172-6.
^Boltz, William G. (February 1986). "Early Chinese Writing". World Archaeology. 17 (3, Early Writing Systems): 420–436 (436). doi:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979980. JSTOR 124705.
^Keightley, David N. (Autumn 1996). "Art, Ancestors, and the Origins of Writing in China". Representations. 56 (Special Issue: The New Erudition): 68–95 [68]. doi:10.2307/2928708. JSTOR 2928708. S2CID 145426302.
^Hollister, Pam (1996). "Zhengzhou". In Schellinger, Paul E.; Salkin, Robert M. (eds.). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 904. ISBN 978-1-884964-04-6.
^Allan, Keith (2013). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-19-958584-7.
^"Warring States". Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 September 2023. Archived from the original on 2024-01-19. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Sima Qian, Translated by Burton Watson. Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty I, pp. 11–12. ISBN 0-231-08165-0.
^ a bBodde, Derk. (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in", in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0.
^ a bLewis, Mark Edward (2007). The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02477-9.
^Cotterell, Arthur (2011). The Imperial Capitals of China. Pimlico. pp. 35–36.
^ a bDahlman, Carl J.; Aubert, Jean-Eric (2001). China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century (Report). WBI Development Studies. Herndon, VA: World Bank Publications. ERIC ED460052.
^Goucher, Candice; Walton, Linda (2013). World History: Journeys from Past to Present – Volume 1: From Human Origins to 1500 CE. Routledge. p. 108. ISBN 978-1-135-08822-4.
^Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A new history of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-674-61576-2.
^Graff, David Andrew (2002). Medieval Chinese warfare, 300–900. Routledge. p. 13. ISBN 0-415-23955-9.
^Adshead, S. A. M. (2004). T'ang China: The Rise of the East in World History. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 54. doi:10.1057/9780230005518_2. ISBN 9780230005518.
^Nishijima, Sadao (1986). "The Economic and Social History of Former Han". In Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.). Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220. Cambridge University Press. pp. 545–607. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521243278.012. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
^Bowman, John S. (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. pp. 104–105.
^China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. City University of HK Press. 2007. p. 71. ISBN 978-9-629-37140-1.
^Paludan, Ann (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors. Thames & Hudson. p. 136. ISBN 0-500-05090-2.
^Huang, Siu-Chi (1999). Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods. Greenwood. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-313-26449-8.
^"Northern Song dynasty (960–1127)". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2013-11-27.
^Gernet, Jacques (1962). Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276. Stanford University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-804-70720-6. OCLC 1029050217.
^May, Timothy (2012). The Mongol Conquests in World History. Reaktion. p. 1211. ISBN 978-1-861-89971-2.
^Ping-ti Ho (1970). "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China". Études Song. 1 (1): 33–53.
^Rice, Xan (25 July 2010). "Chinese archaeologists' African quest for sunken ship of Ming admiral". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2016-12-27. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
^"Wang Yangming (1472–1529)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 2013-11-09. Retrieved 2013-12-09.
^论明末士人阶层与资本主义萌芽的关系. 8 April 2012. Archived from the original on 2015-09-09. Retrieved 2015-09-02.
^"Qing dynasty". Britannica. Archived from the original on 2018-03-09. Retrieved 2022-11-10.
^John M. Roberts (1997). A Short History of the World. Oxford University Press. p. 272. ISBN 0-19-511504-X.
^Fletcher, Joseph (1978). "Ch'ing Inner Asia c. 1800". In John K. Fairbank (ed.). The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 10, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 37. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214476.003. ISBN 978-1-139-05477-5.
^Deng, Kent (2015). China's Population Expansion and Its Causes during the Qing Period, 1644–1911 (PDF). p. 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-03-09. Retrieved 2023-08-28.
^Rowe, William (2010). China's Last Empire – The Great Qing. Harvard University Press. p. 123. ISBN 9780674054554.
^"Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2021-09-20. Retrieved 2022-01-16.
^Li Enhan (李恩涵) (2004). 近代中國外交史事新研. 臺灣商務印書館. p. 78. ISBN 978-957-05-1891-7.
^"Dimensions of need – People and populations at risk". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1995. Archived from the original on 2023-10-30. Retrieved 2013-07-03.
^Li Xiaobing (2007). A History of the Modern Chinese Army. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 13, 26–27. ISBN 978-0-8131-2438-4.
^"The abdication decree of Emperor Puyi (1912)". Chinese Revolution. 4 June 2013. Archived from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2021-05-29.
^Eileen Tamura (1997) China: Understanding Its Past. Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press ISBN 0-8248-1923-3 p.146
^Stephen Haw (2006). Beijing: A Concise History. Taylor & Francis. p. 143. ISBN 0-415-39906-8.
^Bruce Elleman (2001). Modern Chinese Warfare. Routledge. p. 149. ISBN 0-415-21474-2.
^Graham Hutchings (2003). Modern China: A Guide to a Century of Change. Harvard University Press. p. 459. ISBN 0-674-01240-2.
^Ankit Panda (5 May 2015). "The Legacy of China's May Fourth Movement". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 2024-02-22. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Peter Zarrow (2005). China in War and Revolution, 1895–1949. Routledge. p. 230. ISBN 0-415-36447-7.
^M. Leutner (2002). The Chinese Revolution in the 1920s: Between Triumph and Disaster. Routledge. p. 129. ISBN 0-7007-1690-4.
^Hung-Mao Tien (1972). Government and Politics in Kuomintang China, 1927–1937. Vol. 53. Stanford University Press. pp. 60–72. ISBN 0-8047-0812-6.
^Suisheng Zhao (2000). China and Democracy: Reconsidering the Prospects for a Democratic China. Routledge. p. 43. ISBN 0-415-92694-7.
^David Ernest Apter; Tony Saich (1994). Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic. Harvard University Press. p. 198. ISBN 0-674-76780-2.
^"Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan". BBC. Archived from the original on 2015-11-28. Retrieved 2013-07-14.
^"Judgement: International Military Tribunal for the Far East" Archived 2018-08-04 at the Wayback Machine. Chapter VIII: Conventional War Crimes (Atrocities). November 1948. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
^"The Moscow Declaration on general security". Yearbook of the United Nations 1946–1947. United Nations. 1947. p. 3. OCLC 243471225. Archived from the original on 2015-05-18. Retrieved 2015-04-25.
^"Declaration by United Nations". United Nations. Archived from the original on 2017-05-25. Retrieved 2015-06-20.
^Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley FDR and the Creation of the U.N. (Yale University Press, 1997)
^Gaddis, John Lewis (1972). The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947. Columbia University Press. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-231-12239-9.
^ a bTien, Hung-mao (1991). "The Constitutional Conundrum and the Need for Reform". In Feldman, Harvey (ed.). Constitutional Reform and the Future of the Republic of China. M.E. Sharpe. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-87332-880-7. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^李丹青. "What's behind the founding ceremony of the PRC?". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Archived from the original on 2023-02-18. Retrieved 2023-02-18.
^Ben Westcott; Lily Lee (30 September 2019). "They were born at the start of Communist China. 70 years later, their country is unrecognizable". CNN. Archived from the original on 2019-12-15. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^"Red Capture of Hainan Island". The Tuscaloosa News. 9 May 1950. Archived from the original on 2023-08-10. Retrieved 2013-07-20.
^John W. Garver (1997). The Sino-American alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War strategy in Asia. M.E. Sharpe. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-7656-0025-7. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2013-07-20.
^Busky, Donald (2002). Communism in History and Theory. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 11. ISBN 9780275977337. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^"A Country Study: China". loc.gov. Archived from the original on 2016-06-12. Retrieved 2017-10-03.
^Madelyn Holmes (2008). Students and teachers of the new China: thirteen interviews. McFarland. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-7864-3288-2. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Mirsky, Jonathan (9 December 2012). "Unnatural Disaster". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2012-12-11. Retrieved 2012-12-07.
^Holmes, Leslie (2009). Communism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-19-955154-5. Most estimates of the number of Chinese dead are in the range of 15 to 30 million.
^"1964: China's first atomic bomb explodes". china.org.cn. Archived from the original on 2023-03-22. Retrieved 2023-02-18.
^Michael Y.M. Kao; Michael Y. M. Kao (1988). "Taiwan's and Beijing's Campaigns for Unification". In Harvey Feldman (ed.). Taiwan in a Time of Transition. Paragon House. p. 188.
^Hamrin, Carol Lee; Zhao, Suisheng (15 January 1995). Decision-making in Deng's China: Perspectives from Insiders. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-3694-2. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^Hart-Landsberg, Martin; Burkett, Paul (March 2005). China and Socialism: Market Reforms and Class Struggle. Monthly Review Press. ISBN 9781583671238.
"Review". Monthly Review. 28 February 2001. Archived from the original on 2009-01-05. Retrieved 2008-10-30.
^"Primary Source Document with Questions (DBQs) CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLE ' S REPUBLIC OF CHINA (1982)" (PDF). Columbia College.
^Harding, Harry (December 1990). "The Impact of Tiananmen on China's Foreign Policy". National Bureau of Asian Research. Archived from the original on 2014-04-04. Retrieved 2013-11-28.
^ a b c d"Jiang Zemin, who guided China's economic rise, dies". Associated Press. 30 November 2022. Archived from the original on 2023-04-03. Retrieved 2022-11-30.
^"China Gets Down to Business at Party Congress". Los Angeles Times. 13 September 1997. Archived from the original on 2022-10-18. Retrieved 2020-01-12.
^Vogel, Ezra (2011). Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China. Belknap Press. p. 682. ISBN 978-0-674-72586-7.
^Orlik, Tom (16 November 2012). "Charting China's Economy: A Decade Under Hu Jintao". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 2016-12-21. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^Carter, Shan; Cox, Amanda; Burgess, Joe; Aigner, Erin (26 August 2007). "China's Environmental Crisis". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2012-01-16. Retrieved 2012-05-16.
^Griffiths, Daniel (16 April 2004). "China worried over pace of growth". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2020-11-18. Retrieved 2006-04-16.
^China: Migrants, Students, Taiwan Archived 2016-12-27 at the Wayback MachineUC Davis Migration News January 2006
^Cody, Edward (28 January 2006). "In Face of Rural Unrest, China Rolls Out Reforms". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2017-10-14. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
^"China's anti-corruption campaign expands with new agency". BBC News. 20 March 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-09-24. Retrieved 2019-09-13.
^Wingfield-Hayes, Rupert (23 October 2022). "Xi Jinping's party is just getting started". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2023-03-17. Retrieved 2022-10-23.
^"Nepal and China agree on Mount Everest's height". BBC News. 8 April 2010. Archived from the original on 2018-07-12. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
^"Lowest Places on Earth". National Park Service. 28 February 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-02-07. Retrieved 2013-12-02.
^Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (30 October 2018). "Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Scientific Data. 5: 180214. Bibcode:2018NatSD...580214B. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214. PMC 6207062. PMID 30375988.
^Regional Climate Studies of China. Springer. 2008. p. 1. ISBN 978-3-540-79242-0. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Waghorn, Terry (7 March 2011). "Fighting Desertification". Forbes. Archived from the original on 2017-07-29. Retrieved 2020-01-21.
^"Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm". BBC News. 17 April 2006. Archived from the original on 2009-01-01. Retrieved 2020-01-21.
^Reilly, Michael (24 November 2008). "Himalaya glaciers melting much faster". NBC News. Archived from the original on 2020-10-23. Retrieved 2011-09-21.
^China's New Growth Pathway: From the 14th Five-Year Plan to Carbon Neutrality (PDF) (Report). Energy Foundation China. December 2020. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2020-12-16.
^Lui, Swithin (19 May 2022). "Guest post: Why China is set to significantly overachieve its 2030 climate goals". Carbon Brief. Archived from the original on 2022-05-23. Retrieved 2022-05-24.
^Chow, Gregory (2006) Are Chinese Official Statistics Reliable? CESifo Economic Studies 52. 396–414. 10.1093/cesifo/ifl003.
^Liu G, Wang X, Baiocchi G, Casazza M, Meng F, Cai Y, Hao Y, Wu F, Yang Z (October 2020). "On the accuracy of official Chinese crop production data: Evidence from biophysical indexes of net primary production". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (41): 25434–25444. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11725434L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1919850117. PMC 7568317. PMID 32978301.
^"Countries by commodity". FAOSTAT. Archived from the original on 2020-06-29. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
^World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2023. doi:10.4060/cc8166en. ISBN 978-92-5-138262-2. Archived from the original on 2023-12-15. Retrieved 2023-12-13.
^Williams, Jann (10 December 2009). "Biodiversity Theme Report". Environment.gov.au. Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2010-04-27.
^Countries with the Highest Biological Diversity Archived 26 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
^"translation: China Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan. Years 2011–2030" (PDF). Convention on Biological Diversity. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2012-12-09.
^IUCN Initiatives – Mammals – Analysis of Data – Geographic Patterns 2012 Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. IUCN. Retrieved 24 April 2013. Data does not include species in Taiwan.
^Countries with the most bird species Archived 16 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
^Countries with the most reptile species Archived 2013-02-16 at the Wayback Machine. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
^IUCN Initiatives – Amphibians – Analysis of Data – Geographic Patterns 2012 Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. IUCN. Retrieved 24 April 2013. Data does not include species in Taiwan.
^Top 20 countries with most endangered species IUCN Red List Archived 24 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine. 5 March 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
^Turvey, Samuel (2013). "Holocene survival of Late Pleistocene megafauna in China: a critical review of the evidence". Quaternary Science Reviews. 76: 156–166. Bibcode:2013QSRv...76..156T. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.06.030.
^Lander, Brian; Brunson, Katherine (2018). "Wild Mammals of Ancient North China". The Journal of Chinese History. 2 (2). Cambridge University Press: 291–312. doi:10.1017/jch.2017.45. S2CID 90662935.
^Turvey, Samuel (2008). Witness to Extinction: How we failed to save the Yangtze River dolphin. Oxford University Press.
^Countries with the most vascular plant species Archived 12 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
^ a bChina (3 ed.). Rough Guides. 2003. p. 1213. ISBN 978-1-84353-019-0. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Conservation Biology: Voices from the Tropics. John Wiley & Sons. 2013. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-118-67981-4. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Ma, Xiaoying; Ortalano, Leonard (2000). Environmental Regulation in China. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8476-9399-3. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^"China acknowledges 'cancer villages'". BBC News. 22 February 2013. Archived from the original on 2024-03-21. Retrieved 2013-02-23.
^Soekov, Kimberley (28 October 2012). "Riot police and protesters clash over China chemical plant". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2016-04-10. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
^"Is air quality in China a social problem?". Center for Strategic and International Studies. ChinaPower Project. 15 February 2016. Archived from the original on 2020-03-26. Retrieved 2020-03-26.
^"Ambient air pollution: A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 2016-09-28. Retrieved 2018-04-28.
^Chestney, Nina (10 June 2013). "Global carbon emissions hit record high in 2012". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2013-11-19. Retrieved 2013-11-03.
^ a b"Each Country's Share of CO2 Emissions". Union of Concerned Scientists. August 2020. Archived from the original on 2019-10-15. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
^"2022 State of Ecology & Environment Report Review". China Water Risk. 21 July 2023. Archived from the original on 2024-01-17. Retrieved 2024-01-02.
^Jayaram, Kripa; Kay, Chris; Murtaugh, Dan (14 June 2022). "China Reduced Air Pollution in 7 Years as Much as US Did in Three Decades". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2023-11-07. Retrieved 2024-01-13.
^ a b"China going carbon neutral before 2060 would lower warming projections by around 0.2 to 0.3 degrees C". Climate Action Tracker. 23 September 2020. Archived from the original on 2024-02-11. Retrieved 2020-09-27.
^ a bSchonhardt, Sara (30 January 2023). "China Invests $546 Billion in Clean Energy, Far Surpassing the U.S." Scientific American. Archived from the original on 2023-05-19. Retrieved 2023-05-19.
^Meng, Meng (5 January 2017). "China to plow $361 billion into renewable fuel by 2020". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2023-07-27. Retrieved 2018-05-28.
^Maguire, Gavin (23 November 2022). "Column: China on track to hit new clean & dirty power records in 2022". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2023-04-16. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
^"Global Electricity Review 2024: Analysis of key power sector emitters in 2023". Ember. 8 May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^Perkins, Robert (7 October 2022). "Russian seaborne crude exports slide to 12-month low as EU ban, price caps loom". S&P Global. Archived from the original on 2022-10-14.
^International Energy Agency (24 February 2022). "Oil Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets". IEA. Archived from the original on 2023-01-16. Retrieved 2022-04-27.
^Ma, Jin Shuang; Liu, Quan Riu (February 1998). "The Present Situation and Prospects of Plant Taxonomy in China". Taxon. 47 (1). Wiley: 67–74. doi:10.2307/1224020. JSTOR 1224020.
^Wei, Yuwa (2014). "China and ITS Neighbors". Willamette Journal of International Law and Dispute Resolution. 22 (1). Willamette University College of Law: 105–136. JSTOR 26210500.
^"Groundless to view China as expansionist, says Beijing after PM Modi's Ladakh visit". India Today. 3 July 2020. Archived from the original on 2023-08-10. Retrieved 2020-08-13.
^Fravel, M. Taylor (1 October 2005). "Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes". International Security. 30 (2): 46–83. doi:10.1162/016228805775124534. S2CID 56347789.
^"India-China dispute: The border row explained in 400 words". BBC News. 14 December 2022. Archived from the original on 2022-04-20. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^"Bhutan wants a border deal with China: Will India accept?". BBC News. 26 April 2023. Archived from the original on 2023-05-15. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^"China denies preparing war over South China Sea shoal". BBC News. 12 May 2012. Archived from the original on 2020-02-07. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
^"How uninhabited islands soured China-Japan ties". BBC News. 27 November 2013. Archived from the original on 2018-07-10. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
^ a b c d"Constitution of the People's Republic of China". National People's Congress. 20 November 2019. Archived from the original on 2023-07-02. Retrieved 2021-03-20.
^Wei, Changhao (11 March 2018). "Annotated Translation: 2018 Amendment to the P.R.C. Constitution (Version 2.0)". NPC Observer. Archived from the original on 2018-12-22. Retrieved 2019-08-22.
^Jia, Qinglin (1 January 2013). "The Development of Socialist Consultative Democracy in China". Qiushi. Archived from the original on 2017-03-09. Retrieved 2018-05-13.
^ a b"Democracy". Decoding China. Heidelberg University. 4 February 2021. Archived from the original on 2022-08-16. Retrieved 2022-08-22.
^Qian, Isabelle; Xiao, Muyi; Mozur, Paul; Cardia, Alexander (21 June 2022). "Four Takeaways From a Times Investigation Into China's Expanding Surveillance State". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2023-01-16. Retrieved 2022-07-23.
^ a b c"Freedom in the World 2024: China". Freedom House. 2024. Retrieved 2024-04-05.
^"Where democracy is most at risk". The Economist. 14 February 2024. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 2024-02-14. Retrieved 2024-02-15.
^ a bRuwitch, John (13 October 2022). "China's major party congress is set to grant Xi Jinping a 3rd term. And that's not all". NPR. Archived from the original on 2022-10-14. Retrieved 2022-10-15.
^Hernández, Javier C. (25 October 2017). "China's 'Chairman of Everything': Behind Xi Jinping's Many Titles". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2017-10-25. Retrieved 2020-01-14. Mr. Xi's most important title is general secretary, the most powerful position in the Communist Party. In China's one party system, this ranking gives him virtually unchecked authority over the government.
^Phillips, Tom (24 October 2017). "Xi Jinping becomes most powerful leader since Mao with China's change to constitution". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2017-10-24. Retrieved 2017-10-24.
^Lawrence, Susan V.; Lee, Mari Y. (24 November 2021). "China's Political System in Charts: A Snapshot Before the 20th Party Congress". Congressional Research Service. Archived from the original on 2022-06-16. Retrieved 2022-12-20.
^"Xi reiterates adherence to socialism with Chinese characteristics". Xinhua News Agency. 5 January 2013. Archived from the original on 2016-02-01. Retrieved 2020-01-14.
^ a bMa, Josephine (17 May 2021). "Party-state relations under China's Communist Party: separation of powers, control over government and reforms". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2023-05-28. Retrieved 2023-06-23.
^ a b"How China is Ruled: National People's Congress". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2020-04-13. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
^"China: Nipped In The Bud – Background". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-03-18.
^Tiezzi, Shannon (4 March 2021). "What Is the CPPCC Anyway?". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
^ a b c d eJin, Keyu (2023). The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism. Viking. ISBN 978-1-9848-7828-1.
^Chang, Bi-yu (2015). Place, Identity, and National Imagination in Post-war Taiwan. Routledge. pp. 35–40, 46–60. ISBN 978-1-317-65812-2. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Kerry Brown (2013). Contemporary China. Macmillan International Higher Education – University of Sydney. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-137-28159-3. Archived from the original on 2020-11-03.
^"Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank". Lowy Institute. Archived from the original on 2024-02-25. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
^Chang, Eddy (22 August 2004). "Perseverance will pay off at the UN". The Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 2007-08-06.
^"About G20". G20. Archived from the original on 2023-08-25. Retrieved 2023-07-04.
^"Riyadh joins Shanghai Cooperation Organization as ties with Beijing grow". Reuters. 29 March 2023. Archived from the original on 2023-10-11. Retrieved 2023-11-22.
^"EAS Participating Countries". East Asia Summit. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2023-07-04.
^"China says communication with other developing countries at Copenhagen summit transparent". People's Daily. 21 December 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-12-22. Retrieved 2019-01-31.
^"Bric summit ends in China with plea for more influence". BBC News. 14 April 2011. Archived from the original on 2024-02-25. Retrieved 2011-10-24.
^ a bDrun, Jessica (28 December 2017). "One China, Multiple Interpretations". Center for Advanced China Research. Archived from the original on 2020-03-09. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
^"Taiwan's Ma to stopover in US: report". Agence France-Presse. 12 January 2010. Archived from the original on 2015-09-09.
^Macartney, Jane (1 February 2010). "China says US arms sales to Taiwan could threaten wider relations". The Times. Archived from the original on 2023-07-12. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
^Hale, Erin (25 October 2021). "Taiwan taps on United Nations' door, 50 years after departure". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 2023-01-29. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
^Keith, Ronald C. China from the inside out – fitting the People's republic into the world. PlutoPress. pp. 135–136.
^Timothy Webster (17 May 2013). "China's Human Rights Footprint in Africa". Case Western Reserve University School of Law. pp. 628 and 638. Archived from the original on 2024-02-29. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Martel, William C. (29 June 2012). "An Authoritarian Axis Rising?". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 2013-12-16.
^Maria Siow (27 March 2021). "Could Myanmar's ethnic armed groups turn the tide against the junta, with a little help from Beijing?". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2023-11-27. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^DAVID BREWSTER (8 November 2022). "How China, India and Bangladesh could be drawn into Myanmar's conflict". Lowy Institute. Archived from the original on 2024-02-24. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Davidson, Helen (16 March 2022). "How close are China and Russia and where does Beijing stand on Ukraine?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2022-03-22. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
^"Energy to dominate Russia President Putin's China visit". BBC News. 5 June 2012. Archived from the original on 2024-02-14. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
^Gladstone, Rick (19 July 2012). "Friction at the U.N. as Russia and China Veto Another Resolution on Syria Sanctions". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-01-01. Retrieved 2012-11-15.
^"Xi Jinping: Russia-China ties 'guarantee world peace'". BBC News. 23 March 2013. Archived from the original on 2024-01-20. Retrieved 2013-03-23.
^Martin, Eric; Monteiro, Ana (7 February 2023). "US-China Goods Trade Hits Record Even as Political Split Widens". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2023-05-02. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^McLaughlin, Abraham (30 March 2005). "A rising China counters US clout in Africa". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 2007-08-16. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
^Lyman, Princeton (21 July 2005). "China's Rising Role in Africa". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 2007-07-15. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
^Politzer, Malia (6 August 2008). "China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration". Migration Policy Institute. Archived from the original on 2023-12-02. Retrieved 2013-01-26.
^Timsit, Annabelle (15 February 2021). "China dethroned the US as Europe's top trade partner in 2020". Quartz. Archived from the original on 2023-10-02. Retrieved 2021-03-18.
^Stefan Wolff (24 May 2023). "How China is increasing its influence in central Asia as part of global plans to offer an alternative to the west". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Owen Greene; Christoph Bluth (9 February 2024). "China's increasing political influence in the south Pacific has sparked an international response". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^"ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2022" (PDF). ASEAN. December 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-05-16. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^"The U.S. and China Are Battling for Influence in Latin America, and the Pandemic Has Raised the Stakes". Time. 4 February 2021. Archived from the original on 2024-03-23. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
^Garrison, Cassandra (14 December 2020). "In Latin America, a Biden White House faces a rising China". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2023-11-08. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
^Dollar, David (October 2020). "Seven years into China's Belt and Road". Brookings. Archived from the original on 2023-05-30. Retrieved 2020-12-01.
^Cai, Peter. "Understanding China's Belt and Road Initiative". Lowy Institute. Archived from the original on 2022-09-01. Retrieved 2020-11-30.
^Kynge, James; Sun, Yu (30 April 2020). "China faces wave of calls for debt relief on 'Belt and Road' projects". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 2022-10-28.
^Harry G. Broadman (2007). Africa's Silk Road: China and India's New Economic Frontier. World Bank. hdl:10986/7186. ISBN 9780821368350. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
Wolf D. Hartmann; Wolfgang Maennig; Run Wang (2017). Chinas neue Seidenstraße Kooperation statt Isolation - der Rollentausch im Welthandel. Frankfurter Allgemeine Buch. p. 59. ISBN 9783956012242.
Marcus Hernig (2018). Die Renaissance der Seidenstrasse : der Weg des chinesischen Drachens ins Herz Europas. FinanzBuch Verlag (FBV). p. 112. ISBN 9783959721387.
Harry de Wilt (17 December 2019). "Is 'One Belt, One Road' a China Crisis for North Sea Main Ports?". World Cargo News. 17. Archived from the original on 2023-10-18. Retrieved 2023-10-16.
Guido Santevecchi (November 2019). "Di Maio e la Via della Seta: «Faremo i conti nel 2020», siglato accordo su Trieste". Corriere della Sera. 5. Archived from the original on 2023-10-18. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Maizland, Lindsay (5 February 2020). "China's Modernizing Military". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 2022-08-14. Retrieved 2022-08-14.
^"Russia up in arms over Chinese theft of military technology". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-01.
^"Chinese Spy Sentenced to 20 Years for Trying to Steal US Aviation Trade Secrets". NBC New York. 17 November 2022. Archived from the original on 2024-02-01. Retrieved 2024-02-01.
^"Office of Public Affairs | Chinese National Admits to Stealing Sensitive Military Program Documents From United Technologies | United States Department of Justice". www.justice.gov. 19 December 2016. Archived from the original on 2024-02-01. Retrieved 2024-02-01.
^"Chinese PLA embraces a new system of services and arms: Defense spokesperson - China Military". eng.chinamil.com.cn. Archived from the original on 2024-04-20. Retrieved 2024-04-20.
^"Which Countries Have the Most Nuclear Weapons?". Visual Capitalist. 30 September 2021. Archived from the original on 2023-08-10. Retrieved 2021-11-27.
^"Chinese Nuclear Program". Atomic Heritage Foundation. 19 July 2018. Archived from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Lendon, Brad (6 March 2021). "Analysis: China has built the world's largest navy. Now what's Beijing going to do with it?". CNN. Archived from the original on 2022-08-10. Retrieved 2022-08-14.
^"SIPRI Military Expenditure Database". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Archived from the original on 2022-11-08. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^"What China's New Central Military Commission Tells Us About Xi's Military Strategy". Asia Society. Archived from the original on 2022-12-21. Retrieved 2022-12-21.
^ a b"China". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 2023-05-15. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
^Sorman, Guy (2008). Empire of Lies: The Truth About China in the Twenty-First Century. Encounter Books. pp. 46, 152. ISBN 978-1-59403-284-4. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^"China: Events of 2021". World Report 2022: China. Human Rights Watch. 2 December 2021. Archived from the original on 2023-05-17. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
^"For China's LGBTQ community, safe spaces are becoming harder to find". NBC News. 13 June 2023. Archived from the original on 2024-01-19. Retrieved 2023-08-08.
^King, Gary; Pan, Jennifer; Roberts, Margaret E. (May 2013). "How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression" (PDF). American Political Science Review. 107 (2): 326–343. doi:10.1017/S0003055413000014. S2CID 53577293. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2015-03-06. Our central theoretical finding is that, contrary to much research and commentary, the purpose of the censorship program is not to suppress criticism of the state or the Communist Party.
^"Freedom on the Net: 2022". Freedom House. 2022. Archived from the original on 2023-01-23. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
^Christian Göbel and Lynette H. Ong, "Social unrest in China." Long Briefing, Europe China Research and Academic Network (ECRAN) (2012) p 18 Archived 2021-01-16 at the Wayback Machine. Chatham House
^Qian, Isabelle; Xiao, Muyi; Mozur, Paul; Cardia, Alexander (21 June 2022). "Four Takeaways From a Times Investigation Into China's Expanding Surveillance State". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2023-01-16. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^"Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide". BBC News. 8 February 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-02-08. Retrieved 2021-02-08.
^Anna Morcom (June 2018). "The Political Potency of Tibetan Identity in Pop Music and Dunglen". Himalaya. 38. Royal Holloway, University of London. Archived from the original on 2021-10-02. Retrieved 2021-10-18.
^"Dalai Lama hits out over burnings". BBC. 7 November 2011. Archived from the original on 2019-11-03. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Asat, Rayhan; Yonah Diamond (15 July 2020). "The World's Most Technologically Sophisticated Genocide Is Happening in Xinjiang". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^Hatton, Celia (27 June 2013). "China 'moves two million Tibetans'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2024-02-29. Retrieved 2013-06-27.
^"Fresh unrest hits China's Xinjiang". BBC News. 29 June 2013. Archived from the original on 2024-01-20. Retrieved 2013-06-29.
^Graham-Harrison, Emma; Garside, Juliette (24 November 2019). "'Allow no escapes': leak exposes reality of China's vast prison camp network". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2024-03-14. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
^Khatchadourian, Raffi (5 April 2021). "Surviving the Crackdown in Xinjiang". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 2021-04-10. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^"China Suppression Of Uighur Minorities Meets U.N. Definition Of Genocide, Report Says". NPR. 4 July 2020. Archived from the original on 2020-10-19. Retrieved 2020-09-28.
^Cumming-Bruce, Nick; Ramzy, Austin (31 August 2022). "U.N. Says China May Have Committed 'Crimes Against Humanity' in Xinjiang". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-09-01. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
^"Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?". BBC News. 28 June 2022. Archived from the original on 2020-05-28. Retrieved 2022-08-12.
^"3. Middle East still home to highest levels of restrictions on religion, although levels have declined since 2016". Pew Research Center. 15 July 2019. Archived from the original on 2024-01-06. Retrieved 2024-01-06.
^"3. Small changes in median scores for government restrictions, social hostilities involving religion in 2020". Pew Research Center. 29 November 2022. Archived from the original on 2024-01-06. Retrieved 2024-01-02.
^"China". Global Slavery Index. 2016. Archived from the original on 2016-07-06. Retrieved 2018-03-13.
^"Laogai Handbook: 2007–2008" (PDF). Laogai Research Foundation. 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-12-25. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^"China sounds alarm over fast growing gap between rich and poor". Associated Press. 11 May 2002. Archived from the original on 2014-06-10. Retrieved 2013-02-01.
^Zhao, Suisheng (2023). The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy. Stanford University Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-5036-3088-8.
^Kollewe, Justin McCurry Julia (14 February 2011). "China overtakes Japan as world's second-largest economy". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2019-07-19. Retrieved 2019-07-08.
^"GDP PPP (World Bank)". World Bank. 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-02-19. Retrieved 2019-02-18.
^"World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023". International Monetary Fund. April 2023. Archived from the original on 2023-04-13. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^"Overview". World Bank. Archived from the original on 2020-09-30. Retrieved 2020-09-13.
^"GDP growth (annual %) – China". World Bank. Archived from the original on 2022-05-31. Retrieved 2018-05-25.
^"GDP (current US$) – China". World Bank. Archived from the original on 2019-09-06. Retrieved 2023-07-07.
^"GDP PPP (World Bank)". World Bank. 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-09-02. Retrieved 2019-02-18.
^"Global 500". Fortune Global 500. Archived from the original on 2023-01-16. Retrieved 2023-08-03.
^Curtis, Simon; Klaus, Ian (2024). The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. doi:10.2307/jj.11589102. ISBN 9780300266900. JSTOR jj.11589102.
^Maddison, Angus (2007). Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History. Oxford University Press. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-19-164758-1. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
^"Angus Maddison. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Development Centre Studies" (PDF). p. 29. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2017-09-15.
^"Top 10 Largest Stock Exchanges in the World By Market Capitalization". ValueWalk. 19 February 2019. Archived from the original on 2019-05-15. Retrieved 2019-11-28.
^"China's Stock Market Tops $10 Trillion First Time Since 2015". Bloomberg L.P. 13 October 2020. Archived from the original on 2020-10-31. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
^"The Global Financial Centres Index 28" (PDF). Long Finance. September 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2020-09-26.
^"World Bank World Development Indicators". World Bank. Archived from the original on 2014-12-20. Retrieved 2014-12-08.
^Pearson, Margaret; Rithmire, Meg; Tsai, Kellee S. (1 September 2021). "Party-State Capitalism in China". Current History. 120 (827): 207–213. doi:10.1525/curh.2021.120.827.207.
^Pearson, Margaret M.; Rithmire, Meg; Tsai, Kellee S. (1 October 2022). "China's Party-State Capitalism and International Backlash: From Interdependence to Insecurity". International Security. 47 (2): 135–176. doi:10.1162/isec_a_00447.
^John Lee. "Putting Democracy in China on Hold". The Center for Independent Studies. 26 July 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
^"China Is a Private-Sector Economy". Bloomberg Businessweek. 22 August 2005. Archived from the original on 2008-02-13. Retrieved 2010-04-27.
^"Microsoft Word – China2bandes.doc" (PDF). OECD. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-10. Retrieved 2010-04-27.
^Hancock, Tom (30 March 2022). "China Crackdowns Shrink Private Sector's Slice of Big Business". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
^Marsh, Peter (13 March 2011). "China noses ahead as top goods producer". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
^Levinson, Marc (21 February 2018). "U.S. Manufacturing in International Perspective" (PDF). Federation of American Scientists. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
^"Report – S&E Indicators 2018". nsf.gov. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2019-07-08.
^Shane, Daniel (23 January 2019). "China will overtake the US as the world's biggest retail market this year". CNN. Archived from the original on 2024-04-25. Retrieved 2019-02-18.
^Cameron, Isabel (9 August 2022). "China continues to lead global ecommerce market with over $2 trillion sales in 2022". Charged. Archived from the original on 2023-12-02. Retrieved 2023-05-19.
^Baraniuk, Chris (11 October 2022). "China's electric car market is booming but can it last?". BBC News. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
^"China Dominates the Global Lithium Battery Market". Institute for Energy Research. 9 September 2020. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
^ a b"UNWTO World Tourism Barometer and Statistical Annex, December 2020 | World Tourism Organization". UNWTO World Tourism Barometer (English Version). 18 (7): 1–36. 18 December 2020. doi:10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.7.
^Liang, Xinlu (19 August 2021). "How has China's travel industry been hurt by the coronavirus pandemic, and when will tourism recover?". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^ a bShorrocks, Anthony; Davies, James; Lluberas, Rodrigo (2022). Global Wealth Databook 2022 (PDF). Credit Suisse Research Institute.
^"China lifting 800 million people out of poverty is historic: World Bank". Business Standard India. Press Trust of India. 13 October 2017. Retrieved 2019-02-22.
^Four Decades of Poverty Reduction in China: Drivers, Insights for the World, and the Way Ahead. World Bank Publications. 2022. p. ix. ISBN 9781464818783. By any measure, the speed and scale of China's poverty reduction is historically unprecedented.
^"Is China Succeeding at Eradicating Poverty?". Center for Strategic and International Studies. 23 October 2020. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
^ a bBergsten, C. Fred (2022). The United States vs. China: The Quest for Global Economic Leadership. Polity Press. ISBN 978-1-5095-4735-7.
^"Rising Wages: Has China Lost Its Global Labor Advantage?". iza.org. Retrieved 2019-02-21.
^King, Stephen (2 February 2016). "China's path to tackling regional inequality". Financial Times.
^Duggan, Jennifer (12 January 2013). "Income inequality on the rise in China". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 2013-07-22. Retrieved 2020-01-14.
^Tobin, Damian (29 June 2011). "Inequality in China: Rural poverty persists as urban wealth balloons". BBC News. Retrieved 2020-01-14.
^"Just how Dickensian is China?". The Economist. 2 October 2021. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
^"Forbes World's Billionaires List: The Richest People in the World 2023". Forbes. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
^Khan, Yusuf (22 October 2019). "China has overtaken the US to have the most wealthy people in the world | Markets Insider". Business Insider. Retrieved 2019-11-12.[permanent dead link]
^Dawkins, David (21 October 2019). "China Overtakes U.S. In Global Household Wealth Rankings 'Despite' Trade Tensions – Report". Forbes. Retrieved 2019-11-12.
^Chen, Qin (27 March 2021). "China is now home to two-thirds of the world's top women billionaires, four times more than the US, Hurun research institute reveals". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
^Zheping, Huang (14 October 2015). "China's middle class has overtaken the US's to become the world's largest". Quartz. Retrieved 2019-06-22.
^Zuo, Mandy (3 March 2024). "China's middle-income population passes 500 million mark, state-owned newspaper says". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^He, Laura (13 January 2023). "China's exports plunge as global demand weakens, but trade with Russia hits record high". CNN. Retrieved 2023-05-19.
^Desjardins, Jeff (27 April 2016). "Four Maps Showing China's Rising Dominance in Trade". Visual Capitalist. Retrieved 2019-12-04.
^Monaghan, Angela (10 January 2014). "China surpasses US as world's largest trading nation". The Guardian. Retrieved 2019-12-04.
^Paris, Costas (27 April 2021). "China's Imports of Commodities Drive a Boom in Dry-Bulk Shipping". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2021-04-29.
^"China forex reserves rise to $3.246 trln in March". Reuters. 7 April 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^"China Foreign Investment Posts Record Slump as Covid Zero Ended". Bloomberg News. 19 January 2023. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
^"With $87 billion, India beats China as top remittance recipient in 2021". India Today. 21 July 2022. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
^Chow, Loletta (5 February 2024). "Overview of China outbound investment of 2023". Ernst & Young. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^"Being eaten by the dragon". The Economist. 11 November 2010.
^He, Laura (4 June 2021). "China's stronger currency means difficult choices for Beijing". CNN Business. CNN. Retrieved 2022-07-27.
^"Intellectual Property Rights" (PDF). Asia Business Council. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. September 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-03-26. Retrieved 2012-01-13.
^"MIT CIS: Publications: Foreign Policy Index". MIT Center for International Studies. Archived from the original on 2007-02-14. Retrieved 2010-05-15.
^"China theft of technology is biggest law enforcement threat to US, FBI says". The Guardian. 6 February 2020. Retrieved 2022-12-19.
^Hancock, Tom (26 January 2023). "The US Hasn't Noticed That China-Made Cars Are Taking Over the World". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^Huang, Yukon (Fall 2013). "Does Internationalizing the RMB Make Sense for China?" (PDF). Cato Journal. Retrieved 2014-07-28.
^Kawate, Iori (23 December 2023). "China's yuan rises to 4th most used currency in global settlements". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^"In Our Time: Negative Numbers". BBC News. 9 March 2006. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
^Struik, Dirk J. (1987). A Concise History of Mathematics. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 32–33. "In these matrices we find negative numbers, which appear here for the first time in history."
^Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology. Vol. 179. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 1996. pp. 137–138. ISBN 978-0-7923-3463-7.
^Frank, Andre (2001). "Review of The Great Divergence". Journal of Asian Studies. 60 (1): 180–182. doi:10.2307/2659525. JSTOR 2659525.
^Yu, Q. Y. (1999). The Implementation of China's Science and Technology Policy. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-56720-332-5.
^DeGlopper, Donald D. (1987). "Soviet Influence in the 1950s". China: a country study. Library of Congress.
^Jia, Hepeng (9 September 2014). "R&D share for basic research in China dwindles". Chemistry World. Archived from the original on 2015-02-19. Retrieved 2020-01-21.
^Normile, Dennis (10 October 2018). "Surging R&D spending in China narrows gap with United States". Science. Retrieved 2019-02-20.
^"China Has Surpassed the U.S. in R&D Spending, According to New National Academy of Arts and Sciences Report – ASME". asme.org. Retrieved 2020-10-26.
^Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha; León, Lorena Rivera; World Intellectual Property Organization (2021). Global Innovation Index 2021: Tracking Innovation Through the COVID-19 Crisis (14th ed.). World Intellectual Property Organization. doi:10.34667/tind.44315. ISBN 9789280532494.
^"World Intellectual Property Indicators: Filings for Patents, Trademarks, Industrial Designs Reach Record Heights in 2018". wipo.int. Retrieved 2020-05-10.
^"China Becomes Top Filer of International Patents in 2019". wipo.int. Retrieved 2020-10-26.
^Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha; León, Lorena Rivera; World Intellectual Property Organization (9 December 2023). Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition. WIPO. doi:10.34667/tind.46596. ISBN 9789280534320. Retrieved 2023-10-17.
^Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha; León, Lorena Rivera; World Intellectual Property Organization (2022). Global Innovation Index 2022: What Is the Future of Innovation Driven Growth?. Global Innovation Index (15th ed.). World Intellectual Property Organization. doi:10.34667/tind.46596. ISBN 9789280534320. Retrieved 2022-09-29.
^"Global Innovation Index". INSEAD Knowledge. 28 October 2013. Archived from the original on 2021-09-02. Retrieved 2021-09-02.
^"China retakes supercomputer crown". BBC News. 17 June 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
^Zhu, Julie (14 December 2022). "Exclusive: China readying $143 billion package for its chip firms in face of U.S. curbs". Reuters. Retrieved 2022-12-23.
^Day, Lewin (28 July 2020). "80 Years From Invention, China Is Struggling With Jet Engines". HackADay Insider.
^Colvin, Geoff (29 July 2010). "Desperately seeking math and science majors". CNN Business. Archived from the original on 2010-10-17. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
^Orszag, Peter R. (12 September 2018). "China is Overtaking the U.S. in Scientific Research". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2019-02-20. Retrieved 2019-02-19.
^Tollefson, Jeff (18 January 2018). "China declared world's largest producer of scientific articles". Nature. 553 (7689): 390. Bibcode:2018Natur.553..390T. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-00927-4.
^Koshikawa, Noriaki (8 August 2020). "China passes US as world's top researcher, showing its R&D might". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 2022-06-08.
^Baker, Simon (19 May 2023). "China overtakes United States on contribution to research in Nature Index". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-023-01705-7.
^Hawkins, Amy (24 May 2023). "China overtakes US in contributions to nature and science journals". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-09-23.
^Long, Wei (25 April 2000). "China Celebrates 30th Anniversary of First Satellite Launch". Space daily. Archived from the original on 2016-05-15.
^Amos, Jonathan (29 September 2011). "Rocket launches Chinese space lab". BBC News. Retrieved 2012-05-20.
^Rincon, Paul (14 December 2013). "China lands Jade Rabbit robot rover on Moon". BBC News. Retrieved 2014-07-26.
^Lyons, Kate. "Chang'e 4 landing: China probe makes historic touchdown on far side of the moon". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2019-01-03. Retrieved 2019-01-03.
^"Moon rock samples brought to Earth for first time in 44 years". The Christian Science Monitor. 17 December 2020. Retrieved 2021-02-23.
^"China succeeds on country's first Mars landing attempt with Tianwen-1". NASASpaceFlight.com. 15 May 2021. Retrieved 2021-05-15.
^China 'N Asia Spaceflight [@CNSpaceflight] (3 November 2022). "Official completion time of #Mengtian relocation is 01:32UTC" (Tweet). Retrieved 2022-11-03 – via Twitter.
^Skibba, Ramin. "China Is Now a Major Space Power". Wired. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
^"Celestial second fiddle no more, China completes its space station". Washington Post. Retrieved 2022-11-24.
^"Chinese astronauts meet in space for historic crew handover". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved 2022-12-16.
^Woo, Ryan; Liangping, Gao (30 November 2022). "Chinese astronauts board space station in historic mission". Reuters. Retrieved 2022-12-16.
^Wang, Vivian (29 May 2023). "China Announces Plan to Land Astronauts on Moon by 2030". The New York Times.
^Jones, Andrew (6 March 2022). "China wants its new rocket for astronaut launches to be reusable". Space.com. Retrieved 2023-10-05.
^Andrew Jones (17 July 2023). "China sets out preliminary crewed lunar landing plan". spacenews.com. Retrieved 2023-07-24.
^Andrew Jones [@AJ_FI] (25 April 2023). "China's Chang'e-6 sample return mission (a first ever lunar far side sample-return) is scheduled to launch in May 2024, and expected to take 53 days from launch to return module touchdown. Targeting southern area of Apollo basin (~43º S, 154º W)" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
^Jones, Andrew (10 January 2024). "China's Chang'e-6 probe arrives at spaceport for first-ever lunar far side sample mission". SpaceNews. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
^Jones, Andrew (6 May 2024). "China's Chang'e-6 is carrying a surprise rover to the moon". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 2024-05-08. Retrieved 2024-05-08.
^Jones, Andrew (1 June 2024). "Chang'e-6 lands on far side of the moon to collect unique lunar samples". SpaceNews. Retrieved 2024-06-01.
^Seger Yu [@SegerYu] (1 June 2024). "落月时刻 2024-06-02 06:23:15.861" (Tweet) (in Chinese) – via Twitter.
^Qu, Hongbin. "China's infrastructure builds foundation for growth". HSBC. Archived from the original on 2022-05-28. Retrieved 2020-12-01.
^"China has built the world's largest bullet-train network". The Economist. 13 January 2017. Retrieved 2020-09-13.
^"Countries or Jurisdictions Ranked by Number of 150m+ Completed Buildings". The Skyscraper Center. Retrieved 2020-11-30.
^"Three Gorges Dam: The World's Largest Hydroelectric Plant". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2020-12-01.
^Gao, Ryan Woo (12 June 2020). "China set to complete Beidou network rivalling GPS in global navigation". Reuters. Retrieved 2020-12-01.
^"The 50th Statistical Report on China's Internet Development". CNNIC. August 2023.
^"China Internet Overview". China Internet Watch. 29 March 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^"China breaks 1B 4G subscriber mark". Mobile World Live. 22 January 2018. Retrieved 2019-02-23.
^Woyke, Elizabeth. "China is racing ahead in 5G. Here's what that means". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 2019-02-21.
^Zuo, Mandy (29 March 2024). "China's 5G market set to expand, fuel economic growth as tech solidifies status as pillar industry". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^"Blog: China operator H1 2018 scorecard". Mobile World Live. 21 August 2018. Retrieved 2019-02-23.
^"China ranked in top 5 for 4G penetration". TechNode. 8 November 2018. Retrieved 2019-02-23.
^Engleman, Eric (8 October 2012). "Huawei, ZTE Provide Opening for China Spying, Report Says". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 2012-10-26.
^"China's Beidou GPS-substitute opens to public in Asia". BBC News. 27 December 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
^"China Is Building a $9 Billion Rival to the American-Run GPS". Bloomberg News. 26 November 2018. Retrieved 2019-02-21.
^Elmer, Keegan (3 August 2020). "China promises state support to keep BeiDou satellite system at cutting edge". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
^"China overtakes US as world's biggest car market". The Guardian. 8 January 2010. Retrieved 2023-06-07.
^Ho, Patricia Jiayi (12 January 2010). "China Overtakes U.S. to Become Largest Auto Market". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2023-06-06.
^Harley, Michael. "China Overtakes Japan As The World's Biggest Exporter Of Passenger Cars". Forbes. Retrieved 2023-06-06.
^"China overtakes Japan as world's top car exporter". BBC News. 19 May 2023. Retrieved 2023-06-06.
^"Road Traffic Accidents Increase Dramatically Worldwide". Population Reference Bureau. Archived from the original on 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2013-11-16.
^"China has 200 million bicycles in use: industry association". China Daily. 17 September 2023. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^"Chinese Railways Carry Record Passengers, Freight". Xinhua. 21 June 2007.
^"中国国家铁路集团有限公司2023年统计公报" [China State Railway Group Co., Ltd. Statistical Bulletin 2023] (in Chinese). 1 March 2024. Archived from the original on 2024-04-08. Retrieved 2024-04-08.
^"China's trains desperately overcrowded for Lunar New Year". The Seattle Times. 22 January 2009.
^Hook, Leslie (14 May 2013). "China: High and dry: Water shortages put a brake on economic growth". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 2013-05-15.
^"Website of the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation" (PDF). JMP (WHO and UNICEF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
^Freeman, Carla. "Quenching the Dragon's Thirst: The South-North Water Transfer Project—Old Plumbing for New China?" (PDF). Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^ a b c d e"Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 2)". National Bureau of Statistics of China. 11 May 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-05-11. Retrieved 2021-05-11.
^Kızlak, Kamuran (21 June 2021). "Çin'de üç çocuk: Siz yapın, biz bakalım" [Three children in China: You do it, we'll see]. BirGün (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2022-08-16.
^"China formalizes easing of one-child policy". USA Today. 28 December 2013. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^ a bBirtles, Bill (31 May 2021). "China introduces three-child policy to alleviate problem of ageing population". ABC News. Retrieved 2021-05-31.
^Cheng, Evelyn (21 July 2021). "China scraps fines, will let families have as many children as they'd like". CNBC. Retrieved 2022-04-29.
^Qi, Liyan (19 August 2023). "China's Fertility Rate Dropped Sharply, Study Shows". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2023-12-12.
^Ng, Kelly (17 January 2023). "China's population falls for first time since 1961". BBC News. Retrieved 2023-01-17.
^Feng, Wang; Yong, Cai; Gu, Baochang (2012). "Population, Policy, and Politics: How Will History Judge China's One-Child Policy?" (PDF). Population and Development Review. 38: 115–129. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00555.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-06-06. Retrieved 2018-05-16.
^Whyte, Martin K.; Wang, Feng; Cai, Yong (2015). "Challenging Myths about China's One-Child Policy" (PDF). The China Journal. 74: 144–159. doi:10.1086/681664. PMC 6701844. PMID 31431804. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
^Goodkind, Daniel (2017). "The Astonishing Population Averted by China's Birth Restrictions: Estimates, Nightmares, and Reprogrammed Ambitions". Demography. 54 (4): 1375–1400. doi:10.1007/s13524-017-0595-x. PMID 28762036. S2CID 13656899.
^Parry, Simon (9 January 2005). "Shortage of girls forces China to criminalize selective abortion". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-10. Retrieved 2012-10-22.
^"Chinese facing shortage of wives". BBC News. 12 January 2007. Retrieved 2009-03-23.
^"Chinese mainland gender ratios most balanced since 1950s: census data". Xinhua News Agency. 20 October 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-09-11. Retrieved 2023-05-19.
^The Chinese Adoption Effect by Diane Clehane, Vanity Fair, August 2008 Issue. Last access 8/31/2024.
^Adoption in China: Past, Present and Yet to Come by Margaret Gyznar, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, 5/17/2017. See pages 40-42. Last access 8/31/2024.
^"Urban population (% of total)". World Bank. Retrieved 2018-05-28.
^"Where China's future will happen". The Economist. 16 April 2014. Retrieved 2023-02-18.
^"Statistical communiqué of the People's Republic of China on the 2023 national economic and social development". National Bureau of Statistics of China. Retrieved 2024-03-07.
^FlorCruz, Jaime A. (20 January 2012). "China's urban explosion: A 21st century challenge". CNN. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
^Maggie Hiufu Wong. "Megacities and more: A guide to China's most impressive urban centers". CNN. Retrieved 2020-10-26.
^张洁. "Chongqing, Chengdu top new first-tier cities by population". China Daily. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
^"17 Chinese cities have a population of over 10 million in 2021". www.ecns.cn. Retrieved 2022-05-31.
^孙迟. "China's inland rides waves of innovation, new opportunities". global.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2022-05-31. Chengdu and Chongqing are now two of the only four cities (the other two are Beijing and Shanghai) in China with populations of more than 20 million.
^Demographia (March 2013). Demographia World Urban Areas (PDF) (9th ed.). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-01.
^OECD Urban Policy Reviews: China 2015. OECD. 18 April 2015. p. 37. doi:10.1787/9789264230040-en. ISBN 9789264230033.
^2015年重庆常住人口3016.55万人 继续保持增长态势 (in Chinese). Chongqing News. 28 January 2016. Archived from the original on 29 January 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
^Francesco Sisci. "China's floating population a headache for census". The Straits Times. 22 September 2000.
^Chongqing Statistics Bureau (2019). 重庆统计年鉴2019 [Chongqing Statistical Yearbook 2019] (in Chinese). Beijing: China Statistic Publishing House. p. 613. ISBN 978-7-5037-8854-3.
^Lilly, Amanda (7 July 2009). "A Guide to China's Ethnic Groups". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2013-12-09. Retrieved 2023-05-19.
^Zhang, Bo; Druijven, Peter; Strijker, Dirk (17 September 2017). "A tale of three cities: negotiating ethnic identity and acculturation in northwest China". Journal of Cultural Geography. 35 (1). University of Groningen: 44–74. doi:10.1080/08873631.2017.1375779. ISSN 0887-3631. The major Muslim groups in Linxia are the Hui and the Dongxiang, accounting for 31.6% and 26.0% of the population, respectively, while the Han group makes up 39.7% (The Sixth National Census).
^"Ecosystem services and management of Long Forest created by Dai Indigenous People in Xishuangbanna, China". Open Case Studies. University of British Columbia. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
^Languages of China – from Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International.
^"Over 80 percent of Chinese population speak Mandarin". People's Daily Online. Retrieved 2023-09-15.
^Kaplan, Robert B.; Baldauf, Richard B. (2008). Language Planning and Policy in Asia: Japan, Nepal, Taiwan and Chinese characters. Multilingual Matters. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-84769-095-1.
^Li Yang (17 November 2015). "Yugur people and Sunan Yugur autonomous county". China Daily. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
^"Yugur, Saragh in China". Joshua Project. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
^"Languages". 2005. Gov.cn. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
^"Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37)". Chinese Government. 31 October 2000. Archived from the original on 2013-07-24. Retrieved 2013-06-21. For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.
^Rough Guide Phrasebook: Mandarin Chinese. Rough Guides. 2011. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-4053-8884-9.
^ a bnl:Lode Vanoost [in Dutch] (10 March 2024). "Op bezoek bij de Oeigoeren in Xinjiang" [Visiting the Uyghurs in Xinjiang]. DeWereldMorgen. Archived from the original on 2024-04-04.
^Dwyer, Arienne M. (2005). The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur Identity, Language Policy, and Political Discourse. East-West Center Washington. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-1-932728-28-6.
^Dumortier, Brigitte (2002). "Religions en Chine" (Map). Atlas des religions. Croyances, pratiques et territoires. Atlas/Monde (in French). Autrement. ISBN 2746702649. Archived from the original on 2017-04-27. p. 34.
^"Religions in China" (Map). Narody Vostochnoi Asii [Ethnic Groups of East Asia]. 1965. Archived from the original on 2017-04-27. Zhongguo Minsu Dili [Folklore Geography of China], 1999; Zhongguo Dili [Geography of China], 2002.
^Gao 高, Wende 文德, ed. (1995). "Religions in China" (Map). 中国少数民族史大辞典 [Chinese Dictionary of Minorities' History] (in Chinese). Jilin Education Press (吉林教育出版社). Archived from the original on 2017-04-27.
^Yin 殷, Haishan 海山; Li 李, Yaozong 耀宗; Guo 郭, Jie 洁, eds. (1991). "Religions in China" (Map). 中国少数民族艺术词典 [Chinese Minorities' Arts Dictionary] (in Chinese). National Publishing House (民族出版社). Archived from the original on 2017-04-27.
^"国家宗教事务局" [National Religious Affairs Administration] (in Chinese). Chinese Government.
^ a bYao, Xinzhong (2010). Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach. London: A&C Black. ISBN 9781847064752. pp. 9–11.
^Miller, James (2006). Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781851096268. p. 57.
^Tam Wai Lun, "Local Religion in Contemporary China", in Xie, Zhibin (2006). Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 9780754656487. p. 73.
^Teiser, Stephen F. (1996), "The Spirits of Chinese Religion" (PDF), in Donald S. Lopez Jr. (ed.), Religions of China in Practice, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Extracts in The Chinese Cosmos: Basic Concepts.
^ a bLaliberté, André (2011). "Religion and the State in China: The Limits of Institutionalization". Journal of Current Chinese Affairs. 40 (2): 3–15. doi:10.1177/186810261104000201. S2CID 30608910. p. 7.
^Sautman, Barry (1997). "Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People's Republic of China". In Dikötter, Frank (ed.). The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-962-209-443-7. pp. 80–81.
^Wang, Xiaoxuan (2019). "'Folk Belief', Cultural Turn of Secular Governance and Shifting Religious Landscape in Contemporary China". In Dean, Kenneth; Van der Veer, Peter (eds.). The Secular in South, East, and Southeast Asia. Global Diversities. Palgrave Macmillan Cham. pp. 137–164. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89369-3_7. ISBN 9783030077518. S2CID 158975292.
^Johnson, Ian (21 December 2019). "China's New Civil Religion". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2020-04-19.
^Ashiwa, Yoshiko; Wank, David L. (2020). The Chinese State's Global Promotion of Buddhism (PDF) (Report). The Geopolitics of Religious Soft Power. Berkley Center, Georgetown University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-16.
^Adler, Joseph A. (2011). The Heritage of Non-Theistic Belief in China (PDF). (Conference paper) Toward a Reasonable World: The Heritage of Western Humanism, Skepticism, and Freethought. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
^Broy, Nikolas (2015). "Syncretic Sects and Redemptive Societies. Toward a New Understanding of 'Sectarianism' in the Study of Chinese Religions" (PDF). Review of Religion and Chinese Society. 2 (4): 145–185. doi:10.2307/2059958. JSTOR 2059958. S2CID 162946271. p. 158.
^"Menjumpai etnis Yugur di atas ketinggian 3.830 mdpl puncak Bars Snow". Antara News (in Indonesian). 10 June 2021. Retrieved 2024-02-23. Bedanya lagi, Yugur memeluk agama Buddha Tibet, sedangkan Uighur beragama Islam. Konon, Yugur merupakan orang-orang Uighur yang beragama Buddha yang melarikan diri ke Gansu sejak Kerajaan Khaganate Uighur tumbang pada tahun 840 Masehi.
^"Peking University". Times Higher Education (THE). 18 September 2020. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
^"Overall Ranking, Best Chinese Universities Rankings – 2019". shanghairanking.com. Archived from the original on 2020-03-30. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
^"Compulsory Education Law of the People's Republic of China". Ministry of Education. 23 July 2009. Archived from the original on 2022-03-19. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
^"Statistical report on China's educational achievements in 2022". Ministry of Education. 3 April 2023. Retrieved 2023-12-17.
^"MOE press conference presents China's educational achievements in 2023". Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. 4 March 2024. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
^"China Case Study: Situation Analysis of the Effect of and Response to COVID-19 in Asia" (PDF). UNICEF. August 2021. p. 21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
^"MOE press conference presents China's educational achievements in 2023". Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. 4 March 2024. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
^"In Education, China Takes the Lead". The New York Times. 16 January 2013. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
^"MOE releases 2020 Statistical Bulletin on Educational Spending". Ministry of Education. 7 May 2021. Archived from the original on 2023-03-21. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
^Roberts, Dexter (4 April 2013). "Chinese Education: The Truth Behind the Boasts". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2013-04-06. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
^"Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) - China". World Bank. Retrieved 2022-10-04.
^"MOE press conference presents China's educational achievements in 2023". Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. 4 March 2024. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
^Zou, Shuo (3 December 2020). "China's higher education system is world's largest, officials say". China Daily. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
^"ShanghaiRanking's Academic Ranking of World Universities 2023 Press Release". ShanghaiRanking. 15 August 2023. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
^"U.S. News Unveils 2022–2023 Best Global Universities Rankings". U.S. News & World Report. 25 October 2022. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
^"Country Analysis | Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities 2023". UNSW Research. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
^"Peking University of Health Sciences". 14 December 2015. Retrieved 2023-06-09.
^Lawrence, Dune; Liu, John (22 January 2009). "China's $124 Billion Health-Care Plan Aims to Boost Consumption". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
^Liu, Yuanli (1 November 2011). "China's Health Care Reform: Far From Sufficient". The New York Times. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^"The great medicines migration". Nikkei Asia. 5 April 2022. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^"Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – China". World Bank. Retrieved 2013-10-28.
^"Life expectancy increases by 44 years from 1949 in China's economic powerhouse Guangdong". People's Daily. 4 October 2009.
^"China's Infant Mortality Rate Down". 11 September 2001. China.org.cn. Retrieved 3 May 2006.
^Stone, R. (2012). "Despite Gains, Malnutrition Among China's Rural Poor Sparks Concern". Science. 336 (6080): 402. doi:10.1126/science.336.6080.402. PMID 22539691.
^McGregor, Richard (2 July 2007). "750,000 a year killed by Chinese pollution". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 2007-07-22.
^Tatlow, Didi Kirsten (10 June 2010). "China's Tobacco Industry Wields Huge Power". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-01-01. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
^"Serving the people?". 1999. Bruce Kennedy. CNN. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
^"Obesity Sickening China's Young Hearts". 4 August 2000. People's Daily. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
^Wong, Edward (1 April 2013). "Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature Deaths in China". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-01-01. Retrieved 2020-01-14.
^"Chinese mental health services falling short: report". China Plus. 25 February 2019.
^"China's latest SARS outbreak has been contained, but biosafety concerns remain". 18 May 2004. World Health Organization. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
^"The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) – China, 2020" (PDF). China CDC Weekly. 2: 1–10. 20 February 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-02-22 – via Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention.
^Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Emergency Response Epidemiology Team (17 February 2020). "The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) in China". China CDC Weekly 中华流行病学杂志 (in Chinese). 41 (2): 145–151. doi:10.3760/cma.j.issn.0254-6450.2020.02.003. PMID 32064853. S2CID 211133882.
^Che, Chang; Chien, Amy Chang; Stevenson, Alexandra (7 December 2022). "What Has Changed About China's 'Zero Covid' Policy". The New York Times.
^"China abandons key parts of zero-Covid strategy after protests". BBC News. 7 December 2022. Retrieved 2023-06-30.
^Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Temple of Heaven: an Imperial Sacrificial Altar in Beijing". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2023-02-18.
^Bader, Jeffrey A. (6 September 2005). "China's Role in East Asia: Now and the Future". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
^Jacques, Martin (19 October 2012). "A Point of View: What kind of superpower could China be?". BBC News. Retrieved 2012-10-21.
^"Historical and Contemporary Exam-driven Education Fever in China" (PDF). KEDI Journal of Educational Policy. 2 (1): 17–33. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-03-01.
^Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Fenghuang Ancient City". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2023-02-19.
^""China: Traditional arts". Library of Congress – Country Studies". Library of Congress Country Studies. July 1987. Archived from the original on 2005-02-26. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
^"China: Folk and Variety Arts". Library of Congress Country Studies. July 1987. Archived from the original on 2004-11-14. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
^Kuo, Lily (13 March 2013). "Why China is letting 'Django Unchained' slip through its censorship regime". Quartz. Archived from the original on 2013-05-14. Retrieved 2013-07-12.
^Goodrich, L. Carrington (2007). A Short History of the Chinese People (Third ed.). Sturgis Press. ISBN 978-1-4067-6976-0.
^Chiara Formichi (2013). Religious pluralism, state and society in Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-57542-8.
^Robin W. Winks; Alaine M. Low (2001). Historiography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-154241-1.
^ a bCartwright, Mark. "Ancient Chinese Architecture". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2023-02-19.
^Bandaranayake, Senake (1974). Sinhalese monastic architecture: the viháras of Anurádhapura. Brill. ISBN 90-04-03992-9.
^Nithi Sathāpitānon; Brian Mertens (2012). Architecture of Thailand: a guide to traditional and contemporary forms. Didier Millet. ISBN 978-981-4260-86-2.
^Tuobin; 托宾 Toibin, Colm (2021). Bu lu ke lin = Brooklyn (in Chinese). Bo,Li, 柏栎 (Di 1 ban ed.). Shang hai yi wen chu ban she you xian gong si. ISBN 978-7-5327-8659-6.
^Itō, Chūta; 伊藤忠太 (2017). Zhongguo jian zhu shi. Yizhuang Liao, 廖伊庄 (Di 1 ban ed.). 中国画报出版社. ISBN 978-7-5146-1318-6.
^徐怡涛. (2010). Zhong guo jian zhu. Xu yi tao, 徐怡涛. Gao deng jiao yu chu ban she. ISBN 978-7-04-027421-9.
^中国文学史概述. jstvu.edu.cn. Archived from the original on 2015-07-22. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
^"The Canonical Books of Confucianism – Canon of the Literati". 14 November 2013. Archived from the original on 2014-02-02. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
^Guo, Dan. 史传文学与中国古代小说. 明清小说研究 (April 1997). Archived from the original on 2015-07-22. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
^第一章 中国古典小说的发展和明清小说的繁荣. nbtvu.net.cn. Archived from the original on 2015-10-15. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
^金庸作品从流行穿越至经典. Baotou News. 12 March 2014. Archived from the original on 2015-07-22. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
^四大名著在日、韩的传播与跨文化重构. Journal of Northeast Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences) (June 2010). Retrieved 2015-07-18.
^新文化运动中的胡适与鲁迅 (in Chinese (China)). CCP Hangzhou Party School Paper (中共杭州市委党校学报). April 2000. Archived from the original on 2015-07-22. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
^魔幻现实主义文学与"寻根"小说". literature.org.cn (in Chinese (China)). February 2006. Archived from the original on 2015-07-23. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
^"莫言：寻根文学作家" (in Chinese (China)). Dongjiang Times (东江时报). 12 October 2012. Archived from the original on 2015-07-22. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
^"A Brief History of Chinese Opera". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
^"Why Chinese rappers don't fight the power". BBC. Retrieved 2021-11-23.
^"Current and Former EXO Members Are Some of China's Most Expensive Singers". JayneStars.com. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
^Zhu Xingxin (19 September 2023). "China fashion week struts its stuff". China Daily.
^Hays, Jeffrey. "Early history of chinese film". factsanddetails.com. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
^Brzeski, Patrick (20 December 2016). "China Says It Has Passed U.S. as Country With Most Movie Screens". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
^Tartaglione, Nancy (15 November 2016). "China Will Overtake U.S. In Number Of Movie Screens This Week: Analyst". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved 2016-11-15.
^PricewaterhouseCoopers. "Strong revenue growth continues in China's cinema market". PwC. Archived from the original on 2020-03-03. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
^"内地总票房排名" [All-Time Domestic Box Office Rankings]. China Box Office (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2020-02-16. Retrieved 2020-03-02.
^"Eight Major Cuisines". chinese.cn. 2 June 2011. Archived from the original on 2015-09-12. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
^中国美食成外国网友"噩梦" 鸡爪内脏鱼头不敢吃. Xinhua News Agency. 23 September 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-09-26. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
^"China's Hunger For Pork Will Impact The U.S. Meat Industry". Forbes. 19 June 2013. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
^Historical Dictionary of Soccer. Scarecrow Press. 2011. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8108-7188-5.
^"Sport in Ancient China". JUE LIU (刘珏) (The World of Chinese). 31 August 2013. Archived from the original on 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2014-06-28.
^Thornton, E. W.; Sykes, K. S.; Tang, W. K. (2004). "Health benefits of Tai Chi exercise: Improved balance and blood pressure in middle-aged women". Health Promotion International. 19 (1): 33–38. doi:10.1093/heapro/dah105. PMID 14976170.
^"China health club market – Huge potential & challenges". China Sports Business. 1 July 2011. Retrieved 2012-07-31.
^2014年6岁至69岁人群体育健身活动和体质状况抽测结果发布. Wenzhou People's Government. 7 August 2014. Archived from the original on 2015-11-09. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
^Beech, Hannah (28 April 2003). "Yao Ming". Time. Archived from the original on 2011-07-05. Retrieved 2007-03-30.
^足球不给劲观众却不少 中超球市世界第9亚洲第1. Sohu Sports. 14 July 2013. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
^"Bike-Maker Giant Says Fitness Lifestyle Boosting China Sales". Bloomberg News. 17 August 2012. Retrieved 2012-09-08.
^Arjun Kharpal (15 July 2022). "China remains the world's largest e-sports market despite gaming crackdown". CNBC.
^Qinfa, Ye. "Sports History of China" Archived 3 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine. About.Com. Retrieved 21 April 2006.
^"China targets more golds in 2012". BBC Sport. 27 August 2008. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
^"Medal Count". London2012.com. Archived from the original on 2012-08-30. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
^"China dominates medals; U.S. falls short at Paralympics". USA Today. 9 September 2012. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
^"Beijing: The world's first dual Olympic city". olympics.com. Retrieved 2022-02-06.
^"Beijing 2022 Winter Games Olympics – results & video highlights". International Olympic Committee. 23 February 2018. Retrieved 2018-02-23.
Sources
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023, FAO, FAO.
.jpg/1280px-Hong_Kong_anti-extradition_bill_protest_(48108594957).jpg)
.jpg/1280px-20045-Shanghai-Pano_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg/1280px-CR400BF-Z-0312@BJI_(20231009152047).jpg)
.jpg/1280px-China_Population_Density,_2000_(6171905307).jpg)
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: "United States". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2016-07-03. (Archived 2016 edition.)
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023, FAO, FAO. 
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage
Wikimedia Atlas of the People's Republic of China
Geographic data related to China at OpenStreetMap
