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El Portal de Pandemias y Epidemias

Una pandemia ( / p æ n ˈ d ɛ m ɪ k / pan-DEM-ik ) es una epidemia de una enfermedad infecciosa que se ha extendido por una gran región, por ejemplo, en varios continentes o en todo el mundo, y afecta a un número sustancial de personas. Las enfermedades endémicas generalizadas con un número estable de individuos infectados, como las recurrencias de la gripe estacional, generalmente se excluyen, ya que ocurren simultáneamente en grandes regiones del mundo en lugar de propagarse por todo el mundo.

A lo largo de la historia de la humanidad , ha habido una serie de pandemias de enfermedades como la viruela . La Peste Negra , provocada por la Peste , provocó la muerte de hasta la mitad de la población de Europa en el siglo XIV. El término pandemia no se había utilizado entonces, pero se utilizó para epidemias posteriores, incluida la pandemia de influenza A H1N1 de 1918 , más comúnmente conocida como gripe española , que es la pandemia más mortífera de la historia . Las pandemias más recientes incluyen la pandemia de VIH/SIDA , la pandemia de gripe porcina de 2009 y la pandemia de COVID-19 . Casi todas estas enfermedades todavía circulan entre los humanos, aunque su impacto ahora suele ser mucho menor.

En respuesta a la pandemia de COVID-19, 194 estados miembros de la Organización Mundial de la Salud iniciaron negociaciones sobre un Tratado Internacional sobre Prevención, Preparación y Respuesta a Pandemias , con el requisito de presentar un borrador de este tratado a la 77.ª Asamblea Mundial de la Salud durante su 2024. convención. Además, el 6 de mayo de 2024, la Casa Blanca publicó una política oficial para gestionar de forma más segura los proyectos de investigación médica que involucran patógenos potencialmente peligrosos , incluidos virus y bacterias , que pueden representar un riesgo de pandemia. ( Articulo completo... )

Una epidemia (del griego ἐπί epi "sobre o encima" y δῆμος demos "pueblo") es la rápida propagación de una enfermedad a un gran número de huéspedes en una población determinada en un corto período de tiempo. Por ejemplo, en las infecciones meningocócicas , una tasa de ataque superior a 15 casos por 100.000 personas durante dos semanas consecutivas se considera epidemia.

Las epidemias de enfermedades infecciosas generalmente son causadas por varios factores, incluido un cambio en la ecología de la población huésped (por ejemplo, mayor estrés o aumento en la densidad de una especie vectora), un cambio genético en el reservorio del patógeno o la introducción de un patógeno emergente. a una población huésped (por movimiento de patógeno o huésped). Generalmente, una epidemia ocurre cuando la inmunidad del huésped a un patógeno establecido o a un nuevo patógeno emergente se reduce repentinamente por debajo de la encontrada en el equilibrio endémico y se excede el umbral de transmisión.

Una epidemia puede limitarse a un lugar; sin embargo, si se propaga a otros países o continentes y afecta a un número sustancial de personas, puede denominarse pandemia . La declaración de una epidemia suele requerir una buena comprensión de una tasa de incidencia de referencia ; Se define que las epidemias de ciertas enfermedades, como la influenza , alcanzan un aumento definido en la incidencia por encima de esta línea de base. Unos pocos casos de una enfermedad muy rara pueden clasificarse como epidemia, mientras que muchos casos de una enfermedad común (como el resfriado común ) no lo serían. Una epidemia puede causar enormes daños a través de pérdidas financieras y económicas, además de deterioro de la salud y pérdida de vidas. ( Articulo completo... )

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Imagen 1

El cuadro de Pavel Fedotov muestra una muerte por cólera a mediados del siglo XIX.

La tercera pandemia de cólera (1846-1860) fue el tercer gran brote de cólera originado en la India en el siglo XIX y que llegó mucho más allá de sus fronteras, y que investigadores de la Universidad de California en Los Ángeles (UCLA) creen que pudo haber comenzado ya en 1837. y duró hasta 1863. En el Imperio ruso , más de un millón de personas murieron de cólera . En 1853-1854, la epidemia en Londres se cobró más de 10.000 vidas y hubo 23.000 muertes en toda Gran Bretaña . Se consideró que esta pandemia tuvo la mayor mortalidad de las epidemias del siglo XIX.

Tuvo un alto número de muertes entre poblaciones de Asia, Europa, África y América del Norte. En 1854, considerado el peor año, murieron 23.000 personas en Gran Bretaña. ( Articulo completo... )
Imagen 2
La gripe de Hong Kong , también conocida como pandemia de gripe de 1968 , fue una pandemia de gripe que se produjo en 1968 y 1969 y que mató a entre uno y cuatro millones de personas en todo el mundo. Se encuentra entre las pandemias más mortíferas de la historia y fue causada por una cepa H3N2 del virus de la influenza A. El virus descendió del H2N2 (que causó la pandemia de gripe asiática en 1957-1958) a través de un cambio antigénico , un proceso genético en el que genes de múltiples subtipos se reordenan para formar un nuevo virus. ( Articulo completo... )
Image 3
The first plague pandemic was the first historically recorded Old World pandemic of plague, the contagious disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Also called the early medieval pandemic, it began with the Plague of Justinian in 541 and continued until 750 or 767; at least fifteen or eighteen major waves of plague following the Justinianic plague have been identified from historical records. The pandemic affected the Mediterranean Basin most severely and most frequently, but also infected the Near East and Northern Europe, and potentially East Asia as well. The Roman emperor Justinian I's name is sometimes applied to the whole series of plague epidemics in late Antiquity.

The pandemic is best known from its first and last outbreaks: the Justinianic Plague of 541–549, described by the contemporary Roman historian Procopius, and the late 8th century plague of Naples described by Neapolitan historian John the Deacon in the following century (distinct from the much later Naples Plague). Other accounts from contemporaries of the pandemic are included in the texts of Evagrius Scholasticus, John of Ephesus, Gregory of Tours, Paul the Deacon, and Theophanes the Confessor; most seem to have believed plague was a divine punishment for human misdeeds. (Full article...)
Image 4

Medical professionals treating a COVID-19 patient in critical condition in an intensive care unit in São Paulo in May 2020

The COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the coronavirus pandemic, is a global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The novel virus was first identified in an outbreak in Wuhan, the capital of Hubei, China, in December 2019, before it spread to other areas of Asia, and then worldwide in early 2020. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the outbreak a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) on 30 January 2020, and assessed the outbreak had become a pandemic on 11 March 2020. The WHO ended the PHEIC on 5 May 2023. As of 25 May 2024, the pandemic has caused 7,049,376^[1] confirmed deaths, making it the fifth-deadliest pandemic or epidemic in history.

COVID-19 symptoms range from asymptomatic to deadly, but most commonly include fever, sore throat, nocturnal cough, and fatigue. Transmission of the virus is often through airborne particles. Mutations have produced many strains (variants) with varying degrees of infectivity and virulence. (Full article...)
Image 5

Soldiers sick with Spanish flu at a hospital ward at Camp Funston in Fort Riley, Kansas

The 1918–1920 flu pandemic, also known as the Great Influenza epidemic or by the common misnomer Spanish flu, was an exceptionally deadly global influenza pandemic caused by the H1N1 influenza A virus. The earliest documented case was March 1918 in the state of Kansas in the United States, with further cases recorded in France, Germany and the United Kingdom in April. Two years later, nearly a third of the global population, or an estimated 500 million people, had been infected in four successive waves. Estimates of deaths range from 17 million to 50 million, and possibly as high as 100 million, making it one of the deadliest pandemics in history.

The pandemic broke out near the end of World War I, when wartime censors in the belligerent countries suppressed bad news to maintain morale, but newspapers freely reported the outbreak in neutral Spain, creating a false impression of Spain as the epicenter and leading to the "Spanish flu" misnomer. Limited historical epidemiological data make the pandemic's geographic origin indeterminate, with competing hypotheses on the initial spread. (Full article...)
Image 6
The 735–737 Japanese smallpox epidemic (天平の疫病大流行, Tenpyō no ekibyō dairyūkō, "Epidemic of the Tenpyō era") was a major smallpox epidemic that afflicted much of Japan. Killing approximately one third (around 1 million individuals) of the entire Japanese population, the epidemic had significant social, economic, and religious repercussions throughout the country. (Full article...)
Image 7

"Chrysotis chloronota" (Festive Amazon). Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum, Vol. 20 (1891).

The 1929–1930 psittacosis pandemic, also known as the psittacosis outbreak of 1929–1930 and the great parrot fever pandemic, was a series of simultaneous outbreaks of psittacosis (parrot fever) which, accelerated by the breeding and transportation of birds in crowded containers for the purpose of trade, was initially seen to have its origin in parrots from South America. It was shortly found to have spread from several species of birds from several countries worldwide to humans between mid 1929 and early 1930. Diagnosed by its clinical features and link to birds, it affected around 750 to 800 people globally, with a mortality of 15%. Its mode of transmission to humans by mouth-to-beak contact or inhaling dried bird secretions and droppings was not known at the time. The cause, Chlamydia psittaci, which usually remains dormant in birds until activated by stress of capture and confinement, was discovered after the pandemic.

Cases of psittacosis were reported in mid 1929, in Birmingham, United Kingdom, and linked to parrots from Buenos Aires, Argentina, where an ongoing outbreak of the disease had led to cautioning bird owners to declare their sick parrots. The origin of the outbreak in the Argentine city of Córdoba was traced to an import of 5,000 parrots from Brazil. Although the Argentine parrot trade was stopped, a number of birds were illegally sold on to visitors at its seaports, with the consequence that psittacosis was transmitted to several countries. (Full article...)
Image 8

An outbreak of cholera began in Yemen in October 2016. The outbreak peaked in 2017 with over 2,000 reported deaths in that year alone. In 2017 and 2019, war-torn Yemen accounted for 84% and 93% of all cholera cases in the world, with children constituting the majority of reported cases. As of November 2021, there have been more than 2.5 million cases reported, and more than 4,000 people have died in the Yemen cholera outbreak, which the United Nations deemed the worst humanitarian crisis in the world at that time. However, the outbreak has substantially decreased by 2021, with a successful vaccination program implemented and only 5,676 suspected cases with two deaths reported between January 1 and March 6 of 2021.

Vulnerable to water-borne diseases before the conflict, 16 months went by before a program of oral vaccines was started. The cholera outbreak was worsened as a result of the ongoing civil war and the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen against the Houthi movement that began in March 2015. Airstrikes damaged hospital infrastructure, and water supply and sanitation in Yemen were affected by the ongoing conflict. The government of Yemen stopped funding public health in 2016; sanitation workers were not paid by the government, causing garbage to accumulate, and healthcare workers either fled the country or were not paid. (Full article...)
Image 9

The red ribbon is a symbol for solidarity with HIV-positive people and those living with AIDS.

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that attacks the immune system. It can be managed with treatment. Without treatment it can lead to a spectrum of conditions including acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Effective treatment for HIV-positive people (people living with HIV) involves a life-long regimen of medicine to suppress the virus, making the viral load undetectable. There is no vaccine or cure for HIV. An HIV-positive person on treatment can expect to live a normal life, and die with the virus, not of it. (Full article...)
Image 10

The 2009 swine flu pandemic, caused by the H1N1/swine flu/influenza virus and declared by the World Health Organization (WHO) from June 2009 to August 2010, was the third recent flu pandemic involving the H1N1 virus (the first being the 1918–1920 Spanish flu pandemic and the second being the 1977 Russian flu). The first identified human case was in La Gloria, Mexico, a rural town in Veracruz. The virus appeared to be a new strain of H1N1 that resulted from a previous triple reassortment of bird, swine, and human flu viruses which further combined with a Eurasian pig flu virus, leading to the term "swine flu".

Some studies estimated that the real number of cases including asymptomatic and mild cases could be 700 million to 1.4 billion people—or 11 to 21 percent of the global population of 6.8 billion at the time. The lower value of 700 million is more than the 500 million people estimated to have been infected by the Spanish flu pandemic. However, the Spanish flu infected approximately a third of the world population at the time, a much higher proportion. (Full article...)
Image 11
Hand bill from the New York City Board of Health, 1832. The outdated public health advice demonstrates the lack of understanding of the disease and its actual causative factors.

Seven cholera pandemics have occurred in the past 200 years, with the first pandemic originating in India in 1817. The seventh cholera pandemic is officially a current pandemic and has been ongoing since 1961, according to a World Health Organization factsheet in March 2022. Additionally, there have been many documented major local cholera outbreaks, such as a 1991–1994 outbreak in South America and, more recently, the 2016–2021 Yemen cholera outbreak.

Although much is known about the mechanisms behind the spread of cholera, this has not led to a full understanding of what makes cholera outbreaks happen in some places and not others. Lack of treatment of human feces and lack of treatment of drinking water greatly facilitate its spread. Bodies of water have been found to serve as a reservoir, and seafood shipped long distances can spread the disease. (Full article...)
Image 12

Saint Sebastian pleads with Jesus for the life of a gravedigger afflicted during the plague of Justinian. (Josse Lieferinxe, c. 1497–1499)

The plague of Justinian or Justinianic plague (AD 541–549) was an epidemic that afflicted the entire Mediterranean Basin, Europe, and the Near East, severely affecting the Sasanian Empire and the Byzantine Empire, especially Constantinople. The plague is named for the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565), who according to his court historian Procopius contracted the disease and recovered in 542, at the height of the epidemic which killed about a fifth of the population in the imperial capital. The contagion arrived in Roman Egypt in 541, spread around the Mediterranean Sea until 544, and persisted in Northern Europe and the Arabian Peninsula until 549. By 543, the plague had spread to every corner of the empire. As the first episode of the first plague pandemic, it had profound economic, social, and political effects across Europe and the Near East and cultural and religious impact on Eastern Roman society.

In 2013, researchers confirmed earlier speculation that the cause of the plague of Justinian was Yersinia pestis, the same bacterium responsible for the Black Death (1346–1353). Ancient and modern Yersinia pestis strains are closely related to the ancestor of the Justinian plague strain that has been found in the Tian Shan, a system of mountain ranges on the borders of Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and China, suggesting that the Justinian plague originated in or near that region. However, there would appear to be no mention of bubonic plague in China until the year 610. (Full article...)
Image 13
Example of an epidemic showing the number of new infections over time.

An epidemic (from Greek ἐπί epi "upon or above" and δῆμος demos "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of hosts in a given population within a short period of time. For example, in meningococcal infections, an attack rate in excess of 15 cases per 100,000 people for two consecutive weeks is considered an epidemic.

Epidemics of infectious disease are generally caused by several factors including a change in the ecology of the host population (e.g., increased stress or increase in the density of a vector species), a genetic change in the pathogen reservoir or the introduction of an emerging pathogen to a host population (by movement of pathogen or host). Generally, an epidemic occurs when host immunity to either an established pathogen or newly emerging novel pathogen is suddenly reduced below that found in the endemic equilibrium and the transmission threshold is exceeded. (Full article...)
Image 14
Melchiorre Gherardini, Piazza S. Babila, Milan, during the plague of 1630: plague carts carry the dead for burial.

The Italian plague of 1629–1631, also referred to as the Great Plague of Milan, was part of the second plague pandemic that began with the Black Death in 1348 and ended in the 18th century. One of two major outbreaks in Italy during the 17th century, it affected northern and central Italy and resulted in at least 280,000 deaths, with some estimating fatalities as high as one million, or about 35% of the population. The plague may have contributed to the decline of Italy's economy relative to those of other Western European countries. (Full article...)
Image 15

Smallpox vaccine and equipment for administering it

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious or malignant disease. The safety and effectiveness of vaccines has been widely studied and verified. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and recognize further and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future.

Vaccines can be prophylactic (to prevent or alleviate the effects of a future infection by a natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (to fight a disease that has already occurred, such as cancer). Some vaccines offer full sterilizing immunity, in which infection is prevented completely. (Full article...)

Imágenes generales - cargar nuevo lote

Las siguientes son imágenes de varios artículos de Wikipedia relacionados con pandemias y epidemias.

Image 1Mosquito anofeles, vector de la malaria (de Epidemia )
Image 2Estructura del virón de la influenza. Las proteínas hemaglutinina (HA) y neuraminidasa (NA) se muestran en la superficie de la partícula. Los ARN virales que componen el genoma se muestran como espirales rojas dentro de la partícula y unidos a proteínas ribonucleares (RNP). (de la pandemia de influenza )
Image 3Cuerpos de refugiados ruandeses que murieron durante la epidemia de cólera, octubre de 1994 (de Historia del cólera )
Image 4Eliminación de cadáveres durante la epidemia de cólera en Palermo en 1835 (de Historia del cólera )
Image 5Al 12 de febrero de 2009, el número de casos de infección por cólera en el África subsahariana había llegado a 128.548 y el número de víctimas mortales a 4.053. (de Historia del cólera )
Image 6Brote de cólera en Hamburgo en 1892 , sala de hospital (de Historia del cólera )
Image 7Una corte para el rey cólera. Ilustración de Punch (1852). (de Epidemia )
Image 8Ejemplo de epidemia que muestra el número de nuevas infecciones a lo largo del tiempo. (de Epidemia )
Image 9Los distintos tipos de virus de la influenza en humanos. Los cuadrados sólidos muestran la aparición de una nueva cepa que provoca pandemias de gripe recurrentes. Las líneas discontinuas indican identificaciones de cepas inciertas. (de la pandemia de influenza )
Image 10Proyecto de ley de la Junta de Salud de la ciudad de Nueva York , 1832. El consejo de salud pública obsoleto demuestra la falta de comprensión de la enfermedad y sus factores causales reales. (de Historia del cólera )
Image 11Pacientes que padecían cólera en 1854 (de Historia del cólera )
Image 12Primera pandemia de cólera (de Historia del cólera )
Image 13Una bomba en memoria de John Snow por su estudio del agua contaminada como una probable fuente de cólera durante el brote de cólera de Broad Street de 1854 (de Historia del cólera )
Image 14Intervalos de influenza en el marco de intervalos pandémicos de los CDC (de la pandemia de influenza )
Image 15Sala de influenza del Hospital Walter Reed , en Washington, DC, durante la pandemia de gripe de 1918 . (de la pandemia de influenza )
Image 16Registro de pacientes del Hospital Naval de Gosport Agosto de 1832 casos de cólera (de Historia del cólera )
Image 17Posibilidades de transmisión de enfermedades zoonóticas (de la epidemia )
Image 18Ejemplos escalados de pandemias de influenza pasadas y temporadas de influenza pasadas. Se incluye un esquema de colores para representar las estimaciones correspondientes de muertes hipotéticas por influenza en la población estadounidense de 2010, con la misma escala de colores que la figura anterior. (del Marco de Evaluación de la Gravedad de la Pandemia )
Image 19La plaga de Atenas ( c. 1652-1654 ) de Michiel Sweerts , que ilustra la devastadora epidemia que azotó Atenas en el 430 a. C. , según la describe el historiador Tucídides (de Epidemia )
Image 20Estimaciones de muertes hipotéticas por influenza en la población de Estados Unidos en 2010 (308,745,538 personas) a través de valores variables de tasa de letalidad y la incidencia acumulada de infección en la población. Las cifras estimadas de muertes seleccionadas se indican con una línea negra, en cada combinación relevante de tasa de letalidad e incidencia acumulada. Además, el color de fondo cambia de azul a amarillo y a rojo a medida que aumenta el número absoluto estimado de muertes. La tasa de letalidad es un ejemplo de medida de gravedad clínica y la incidencia acumulada de infección es un ejemplo de medida de transmisibilidad en el Marco de Evaluación de la Gravedad de la Pandemia. (del Marco de Evaluación de la Gravedad de la Pandemia )
Image 21La diferencia entre las distribuciones por edad de la mortalidad por influenza de la epidemia de 1918 y las epidemias normales. Muertes por cada 100.000 personas en cada grupo de edad, Estados Unidos, durante los años interpandémicos 1911-1917 (línea discontinua) y el año pandémico 1918 (línea continua). (de la pandemia de influenza )

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^ Ritchie, Hannah ; Mathieu, Eduardo; Rodés-Guirao, Lucas; Appel, Cameron; Giattino, Charlie; Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban; Hasell, Joe; Macdonald, Bobbie; Beltekian, Diana; Dattani, Saloni; Roser, Max (2020-2022). "Pandemia de coronavirus (COVID-19)". Nuestro mundo en datos . Consultado el 25 de mayo de 2024 .