Impulsado por el Movimiento de Pakistán , que buscaba una patria para los musulmanes de la India británica , y las victorias electorales en 1946 de la Liga Musulmana de toda la India , Pakistán obtuvo la independencia en 1947 después de la Partición del Imperio Indio Británico , que otorgó la condición de estado separado a sus regiones de mayoría musulmana y estuvo acompañada por una migración masiva y pérdida de vidas sin precedentes. [14] [15] Inicialmente un Dominio de la Mancomunidad Británica , Pakistán redactó oficialmente su constitución en 1956 y emergió como una república islámica declarada . En 1971, el enclave de Pakistán Oriental se separó como el nuevo país de Bangladesh después de una guerra civil de nueve meses . En las siguientes cuatro décadas, Pakistán ha sido gobernado por gobiernos cuyas descripciones, aunque complejas, comúnmente alternaban entre civiles y militares, democráticos y autoritarios, relativamente seculares e islamistas. [16]
El nombre Pakistán fue acuñado por Choudhry Rahmat Ali , un activista del Movimiento de Pakistán , quien en enero de 1933 lo publicó por primera vez (originalmente como "Pakstan") en un panfleto Now or Never , usándolo como acrónimo . [24] [25] [26] Rahmat Ali explicó: "Está compuesto de letras tomadas de los nombres de todas nuestras patrias, indias y asiáticas, Panjab, Afganistán , Cachemira , Sindh y Baluchistán " . Añadió : " Pakistán es una palabra persa y urdu ... Significa la tierra de los paks, los espiritualmente puros y limpios". [ 27 ] Los etimólogos señalan que پاک pāk , es 'puro' en persa y pastún y el sufijo persa ـستان -stan significa 'tierra' o 'lugar de'. [25]
El concepto de Pakistán de Rahmat Ali sólo se refería a la zona noroeste del subcontinente indio . También propuso el nombre de "Banglastan" para las zonas musulmanas de Bengala y "Osmanistan" para el estado de Hyderabad , así como una federación política entre los tres. [28]
Algunas de las primeras civilizaciones humanas antiguas del sur de Asia se originaron en áreas que abarcan el actual Pakistán. [30] Los primeros habitantes conocidos en la región fueron los soanos durante el Paleolítico Inferior , de los cuales se han encontrado artefactos en el valle de Soan en Punjab . [31] La región del Indo , que cubre la mayor parte del actual Pakistán, fue el sitio de varias culturas antiguas sucesivas, incluido el sitio neolítico (7000-4300 a. C. ) de Mehrgarh , [32] [33] [34] y los 5000 años de historia de la vida urbana en el sur de Asia hasta los diversos sitios de la civilización del valle del Indo , incluidos Mohenjo-daro y Harappa . [35] [36]
Tras el declive de la civilización del valle del Indo, las tribus indoarias se trasladaron al Punjab desde Asia central en varias oleadas de migración en el período védico (1500-500 a. C.), [38] trayendo consigo sus tradiciones y prácticas religiosas distintivas que se fusionaron con la cultura local. [39] Las creencias y prácticas religiosas indoarias de la cultura Bactria-Margiana y las creencias nativas del Indo Harappa de la antigua civilización del valle del Indo finalmente dieron lugar a la cultura y las tribus védicas. [39] La más notable entre ellas fue la civilización de Gandhara , que floreció en la encrucijada de la India, Asia central y Oriente Medio, conectando rutas comerciales y absorbiendo influencias culturales de diversas civilizaciones. [40] La cultura védica temprana inicial era una sociedad tribal y pastoral centrada en el valle del Indo, de lo que hoy es Pakistán. [41] Durante este período, se compusieron los Vedas , las escrituras más antiguas del hinduismo . [42] [i]
Las regiones occidentales de Pakistán pasaron a formar parte del Imperio aqueménida alrededor del año 517 a. C. [44] En el año 326 a. C., Alejandro Magno conquistó la región al derrotar a varios gobernantes locales, en particular al rey Porus , en Jhelum . [45] Le siguió el Imperio Maurya , fundado por Chandragupta Maurya y ampliado por Asoka el Grande , hasta el año 185 a. C. [46] [47] [48] El reino indogriego fundado por Demetrio de Bactriana (180-165 a. C.) incluía Gandhara y Punjab y alcanzó su máxima extensión bajo Menandro (165-150 a. C.), lo que hizo prosperar la cultura grecobudista en la región. [49] [50] [51] Taxila tenía una de las primeras universidades y centros de educación superior del mundo, que se estableció a finales del periodo védico en el siglo VI a. C. [52] La antigua universidad fue documentada por las fuerzas invasoras de Alejandro Magno y también fue registrada por peregrinos chinos en el siglo IV o V d.C. [53] [54] [55] En su apogeo, la dinastía Rai (489-632 d.C.) gobernó Sindh y los territorios circundantes. [56]
Conquista islámica
El conquistador árabe Muhammad ibn Qasim conquistó Sindh y algunas regiones de Punjab en el año 711 d. C. [46] [57] La cronología oficial del gobierno de Pakistán afirma que este fue el momento en que se sentaron las bases de Pakistán. [58] El período medieval temprano (642-1219 d. C.) fue testigo de la expansión del Islam en la región. [59] Antes de la llegada del Islam a partir del siglo VIII, la región de Pakistán albergaba una gran variedad de religiones, incluido el hinduismo , el budismo , el jainismo y el zoroastrismo . [60] [61] Durante este período, los misioneros sufíes desempeñaron un papel fundamental en la conversión de la mayoría de la población regional al Islam. [62] Tras la derrota de las dinastías turca e hindú Shahi que gobernaron el valle de Kabul , Gandhara (actual Khyber Pakhtunkwa) y el Punjab occidental entre los siglos VII y XI d. C., varios imperios musulmanes sucesivos gobernaron la región, incluido el Imperio Ghaznavid (975-1187 d. C.), el Reino Ghorid y el Sultanato de Delhi (1206-1526 d. C.). [63] La dinastía Lodi , la última del Sultanato de Delhi, fue reemplazada por el Imperio Mogol (1526-1857 d. C.). [64]
Los mogoles introdujeron la literatura persa y la alta cultura, estableciendo las raíces de la cultura indopersa en la región. [65] En la región del actual Pakistán, las ciudades clave durante el período mogol fueron Multan , Lahore , Peshawar y Thatta , [66] que fueron elegidas como el sitio de impresionantes edificios mogoles . [67] A principios del siglo XVI, la región permaneció bajo el Imperio mogol . [68] En el siglo XVIII, la lenta desintegración del Imperio mogol se aceleró con el surgimiento de las potencias rivales de la Confederación Maratha y más tarde el Imperio Sikh , así como las invasiones de Nader Shah desde Irán en 1739 y el Imperio Durrani de Afganistán en 1759. [9] [69] El creciente poder político de los británicos en Bengala aún no había llegado a los territorios del Pakistán moderno. [70]
En marzo de 1929, en respuesta al Informe Nehru , Muhammad Ali Jinnah , el fundador de Pakistán, emitió sus catorce puntos , que incluían propuestas para salvaguardar los intereses de la minoría musulmana en una India unida. Estas propuestas fueron rechazadas. [88] [89] [90] En su discurso del 29 de diciembre de 1930, Allama Iqbal abogó por la fusión de los estados de mayoría musulmana en el noroeste de la India, incluidos Punjab , la Provincia de la Frontera Noroeste , Sind y Baluchistán . [90] [91] La percepción de que los gobiernos provinciales británicos liderados por el Congreso descuidaron a la Liga Musulmana de 1937 a 1939 motivó a Jinnah y otros líderes de la Liga Musulmana a adoptar la teoría de las dos naciones. [92] [93] Esto llevó a la adopción de la Resolución de Lahore de 1940, presentada por Sher-e-Bangla A.K. Fazlul Haque , también conocida como la Resolución de Pakistán. [94]
En 1942, Gran Bretaña se enfrentó a una tensión considerable durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial , con la India directamente amenazada por las fuerzas japonesas. Gran Bretaña había prometido la independencia voluntaria de la India a cambio de apoyo durante la guerra. Sin embargo, esta promesa incluía una cláusula que establecía que ninguna parte de la India británica sería obligada a unirse al dominio resultante, lo que podría interpretarse como un apoyo a una nación musulmana independiente. El Congreso, bajo el liderazgo de Mahatma Gandhi , lanzó el Movimiento Quit India , exigiendo el fin inmediato del dominio británico. En contraste, la Liga Musulmana optó por apoyar los esfuerzos bélicos del Reino Unido , alimentando así la posibilidad de establecer una nación musulmana. [95] [96]
Independencia
La partición de la India : las regiones verdes eran todas parte de Pakistán en 1948, y las naranjas, parte de la India. Las regiones sombreadas más oscuras representan las provincias de Punjab y Bengala divididas por la Línea Radcliffe. Las áreas grises representan algunos de los estados principescos clave que finalmente se integraron a la India o Pakistán.
En las elecciones de 1946, la Liga Musulmana obtuvo el 90 por ciento de los escaños musulmanes, con el apoyo de los terratenientes de Sindh y Punjab. Esto obligó al Congreso Nacional Indio, inicialmente escéptico respecto de la representación de los musulmanes indios por parte de la Liga, a reconocer su importancia. [97] El surgimiento de Jinnah como la voz de los musulmanes indios, [58] obligó a los británicos a considerar su postura, a pesar de su renuencia a dividir la India . En un último intento por evitar la división, propusieron el Plan de Misión del Gabinete . [98]
Como la misión del gabinete fracasó, los británicos anunciaron su intención de poner fin al gobierno en junio de 1948. [99] [100] Después de rigurosas discusiones en las que participaron el virrey de la India , Lord Mountbatten de Birmania , Muhammad Ali Jinnah de la Liga Musulmana de toda la India y Jawaharlal Nehru del Congreso, la declaración formal de dividir la India británica en dos dominios independientes, a saber, Pakistán e India, fue emitida por Mountbatten en la tarde del 3 de junio de 1947. En la oficina oval de Mountbatten, los primeros ministros de alrededor de una docena de importantes estados principescos se reunieron para recibir sus copias del plan antes de su transmisión mundial. A las 7:00 p. m., All India Radio transmitió el anuncio público, comenzando con el discurso del virrey, seguido de discursos individuales de Nehru y Jinnah. El fundador de Pakistán, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, concluyó su discurso con el lema Pakistan Zindabad (Viva Pakistán). [101]
En los disturbios que acompañaron la partición en la provincia de Punjab, entre 200.000 y 2.000.000 de personas fueron asesinadas en lo que algunos han descrito como un genocidio retributivo entre las religiones. [105] Alrededor de 50.000 mujeres musulmanas fueron secuestradas y violadas por hombres hindúes y sikhs, mientras que 33.000 mujeres hindúes y sikhs experimentaron el mismo destino a manos de musulmanes. [106] Alrededor de 6,5 millones de musulmanes se mudaron de la India a Pakistán Occidental y 4,7 millones de hindúes y sikhs se mudaron de Pakistán Occidental a la India. [107] Fue la migración masiva más grande en la historia de la humanidad. [108] Una disputa posterior sobre el estado principesco de Jammu y Cachemira finalmente desencadenó la Guerra Indo-Pakistaní de 1947-1948 . [109]
Después de la Independencia
Liaquat Ali Khan fue elegido primer primer ministro de Pakistán. [110] [111]
La creación de Pakistán nunca fue completamente aceptada por muchos líderes británicos, incluido Lord Mountbatten . [114] Mountbatten expresó su falta de apoyo y fe en la idea de Pakistán de la Liga Musulmana. [115] Jinnah rechazó la oferta de Mountbatten de servir como Gobernador General de Pakistán. [116] Cuando Collins y Lapierre le preguntaron a Mountbatten si habría saboteado Pakistán si hubiera sabido que Jinnah se estaba muriendo de tuberculosis, respondió "lo más probable". [117]
La película estadounidense de la CIA sobre Pakistán, realizada en 1950, examina la historia y la geografía de Pakistán.
"Sois libres, sois libres de ir a vuestros templos, sois libres de ir a vuestras mezquitas o a cualquier otro lugar de culto en este Estado de Pakistán. Podéis pertenecer a cualquier religión, casta o credo; eso no tiene nada que ver con los asuntos del Estado".
Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani , un respetado erudito deobandi que ocupó el cargo de jeque al-Islam en Pakistán en 1949, y Maulana Mawdudi de Jamaat-i-Islami desempeñaron papeles clave en la defensa de una constitución islámica. Mawdudi insistió en que la Asamblea Constituyente declarara la "soberanía suprema de Dios" y la supremacía de la sharia en Pakistán. [119]
Los esfuerzos de Jamaat-i-Islami y los ulemas condujeron a la aprobación de la Resolución de Objetivos en marzo de 1949. Esta resolución, descrita por Liaquat Ali Khan como el segundo paso más significativo en la historia de Pakistán, afirmó que "la soberanía sobre todo el universo pertenece únicamente a Dios Todopoderoso y la autoridad que Él ha delegado al Estado de Pakistán a través de su pueblo para que se ejerza dentro de los límites prescritos por Él es un deber sagrado". Posteriormente se incluyó como preámbulo de las constituciones de 1956, 1962 y 1973. [120]
En 1970, Pakistán celebró sus primeras elecciones democráticas desde la independencia, con la intención de pasar del régimen militar a la democracia. Sin embargo, después de que la Liga Awami de Pakistán Oriental emergiera victoriosa sobre el Partido Popular de Pakistán (PPP), Yahya Khan y los militares se negaron a transferir el poder. [124] Esto condujo a la Operación Searchlight , una ofensiva militar, y finalmente desencadenó la guerra de liberación de las fuerzas bengalíes Mukti Bahini en Pakistán Oriental, [125] descrita en Pakistán Occidental como una guerra civil en lugar de una lucha de liberación. [126]
Los investigadores independientes estiman que entre 300.000 y 500.000 civiles murieron durante este período, mientras que el gobierno de Bangladesh sitúa el número de muertos en tres millones, [128] una cifra que ahora se considera casi universalmente como excesivamente inflada. [129] Algunos académicos como Rudolph Rummel y Rounaq Jahan dicen que ambos bandos cometieron genocidio; [130] otros como Richard Sisson y Leo E. Rose creen que no hubo genocidio. [131] En respuesta al apoyo de la India a la insurgencia en Pakistán Oriental, los ataques preventivos contra la India por parte de la fuerza aérea , la marina y los marines de Pakistán desencadenaron una guerra convencional en 1971 que resultó en una victoria india y Pakistán Oriental obtuvo la independencia como Bangladesh . [132]
La Asamblea Nacional completó históricamente su primer mandato completo de cinco años el 15 de noviembre de 2007. [160] Después del asesinato de Benazir Bhutto en 2007, el PPP obtuvo la mayoría de los votos en las elecciones de 2008, nombrando al miembro del partido Yusuf Raza Gilani como Primer Ministro. [161] Amenazado con un juicio político , el presidente Musharraf dimitió el 18 de agosto de 2008 y fue sucedido por Asif Ali Zardari . [162] Los enfrentamientos con la judicatura provocaron la descalificación de Gilani del Parlamento y como Primer Ministro en junio de 2012. [163] Las elecciones generales celebradas en 2013 vieron al PML (N) conseguir la victoria, [164] tras lo cual Nawaz Sharif fue elegido Primer Ministro por tercera vez. [165] En 2018, el PTI ganó las elecciones generales e Imran Khan se convirtió en el 22º Primer Ministro. [166] En abril de 2022, Shehbaz Sharif fue elegido primer ministro, después de que Imran Khan perdiera un voto de censura. [167] Durante las elecciones generales de 2024 , los independientes respaldados por el PTI se convirtieron en el bloque más grande, [168] pero Shehbaz Sharif fue elegido primer ministro para un segundo mandato, como resultado de una coalición entre PML (N) y PPPP. [169]
La diversa geografía y clima de Pakistán alberga una amplia variedad de vida silvestre . [170] Con una superficie de 881.913 km² ( 340.509 millas cuadradas), [171] el tamaño de Pakistán es comparable al de Francia y el Reino Unido juntos. [172] Se ubica como la 33.ª nación más grande por área total , [173] pero esto varía según el estatus disputado de Cachemira. Pakistán cuenta con una costa de 1.046 km (650 millas) a lo largo del Mar Arábigo y el Golfo de Omán, [174] [175] y comparte fronteras terrestres por un total de 6.774 km (4.209 millas), incluidos 2.430 km (1.510 millas) con Afganistán, 523 km (325 millas) con China, 2.912 km (1.809 millas) con India y 909 km (565 millas) con Irán. [176] Tiene una frontera marítima con Omán, [177] y comparte una frontera con Tayikistán a través del Corredor Wakhan . [178] Situado en la encrucijada del sur de Asia, Oriente Medio y Asia central, [179] la ubicación de Pakistán es geopolíticamente significativa. [180] Geológicamente, Pakistán se extiende a lo largo de la zona de sutura del Indo-Tsangpo y la placa tectónica india en Sindh y Punjab, mientras que Baluchistán y la mayor parte de Khyber Pakhtunkhwa se asientan en la placa euroasiática , principalmente en la meseta iraní . Gilgit-Baltistán y Azad Cachemira, a lo largo del borde de la placa india, son susceptibles a poderosos terremotos . [181]
Una imagen satelital que muestra la topografía de Pakistán. [182]
Los paisajes de Pakistán varían desde llanuras costeras hasta montañas glaciares, ofreciendo desiertos, bosques, colinas y mesetas. [183] Pakistán se divide en tres áreas geográficas principales: las tierras altas del norte, la llanura del río Indo y la meseta de Baluchistán. [184] Las tierras altas del norte presentan las cordilleras del Karakoram , Hindu Kush y Pamir , que albergan algunos de los picos más altos del mundo, incluidos cinco de los catorce ochomiles (picos de montaña de más de 8000 metros o 26 250 pies), en particular el K2 (8611 m o 28 251 pies) y el Nanga Parbat (8126 m o 26 660 pies). [185] [186] La meseta de Baluchistán se encuentra en el oeste y el desierto de Thar en el este. [2] El río Indo, de 1.609 km (1.000 mi) de longitud, y sus afluentes atraviesan el país desde Cachemira hasta el mar Arábigo, sustentando llanuras aluviales a lo largo de las regiones de Punjab y Sindh. [187]
El clima varía de tropical a templado, con condiciones áridas en la costa sur. Hay una temporada de monzones con inundaciones frecuentes debido a fuertes lluvias, y una temporada seca con significativamente menos lluvia o ninguna en absoluto. [188] Pakistán experimenta cuatro estaciones distintas: un invierno fresco y seco de diciembre a febrero; una primavera cálida y seca de marzo a mayo; la temporada de lluvias de verano, o período de monzón del suroeste, de junio a septiembre; y el período de monzón en retirada de octubre y noviembre. [189] Las precipitaciones varían mucho de un año a otro, con patrones de inundaciones alternas y sequías comunes. [190]
Flora y fauna
El paisaje y el clima diversos de Pakistán sustentan una amplia gama de árboles y plantas. [191] Desde coníferas alpinas y subalpinas como el abeto , el pino y el cedro deodar en las montañas del norte hasta árboles caducifolios como el shisham en las montañas Sulaiman , [188] y palmeras como el cocotero y el dátil en las regiones del sur. [192] [193] Las colinas occidentales cuentan con enebros , tamariscos , pastos gruesos y plantas de matorrales. [194] Los bosques de manglares dominan los humedales costeros del sur. [195] Los bosques de coníferas abarcan altitudes de 1000 a 4000 metros (3300 a 13 100 pies) en la mayoría de las tierras altas del norte y noroeste. [196] En las regiones xéricas de Baluchistán, prevalecen las palmeras datileras y la efedra . [192] [197] En las llanuras del Indo de Punjab y Sindh, prosperan los bosques tropicales y subtropicales secos y húmedos de hoja ancha, así como los matorrales tropicales y xerófilos. [198] Aproximadamente el 4,8% o 36.845,6 kilómetros cuadrados (3.684.560 ha) de Pakistán estaban forestados en 2021. [199] [j]
El markhor es el animal nacional de Pakistán. [200]
La falta de cobertura vegetal, el clima severo y el impacto del pastoreo en los desiertos han puesto en peligro a los animales salvajes. [216] El chinkara es el único animal que se encuentra en cantidades significativas en Cholistán , [217] con unos pocos nilgó a lo largo de la frontera entre Pakistán e India y en algunas partes de Cholistán. [218] Los animales raros incluyen el leopardo de las nieves y el delfín ciego del río Indo , [188] de los cuales se cree que quedan alrededor de 1.816, protegidos en la Reserva de Delfines del Indo en Sindh. [219] En total, se han registrado 174 especies de mamíferos, 177 especies de reptiles, 22 especies de anfibios, 198 especies de peces de agua dulce, 668 especies de aves, más de 5.000 especies de insectos y más de 5.700 especies de plantas en Pakistán. [201] Pakistán se enfrenta a la deforestación, la caza y la contaminación, con un puntaje promedio en el Índice de Integridad del Paisaje Forestal de 2019 de 7,42/10, ubicándose en el puesto 41 a nivel mundial entre 172 países. [220]
Pakistán opera como una república federal parlamentaria democrática , con el Islam designado como la religión del estado . [221] [222] Inicialmente adoptó una constitución en 1956 , Pakistán la vio suspendida por Ayub Khan en 1958, reemplazada por una segunda constitución en 1962. [223] Una constitución integral surgió en 1973, suspendida por Zia-ul-Haq en 1977 pero reinstaurada en 1985, dando forma a la gobernanza del país. [176] La influencia de los militares en la política dominante ha sido significativa a lo largo de la historia de Pakistán. [224] Las eras de 1958-1971, 1977-1988 y 1999-2008 fueron testigos de golpes militares , que llevaron a la ley marcial y a líderes militares que gobernaban de facto como presidentes. [225] En la actualidad, Pakistán opera un sistema parlamentario multipartidista , [226] con distintos controles y equilibrios entre las ramas gubernamentales. [227] La primera transición democrática exitosa ocurrió en mayo de 2013. [228] La política paquistaní gira en torno a una mezcla de socialismo , conservadurismo y la tercera vía , [229] siendo los tres partidos políticos principales el conservador PML (N), el socialista PPP y el centrista PTI. [230] Las enmiendas constitucionales de 2010 restringieron los poderes presidenciales, mejorando el papel del primer ministro. [231]
Jefe de Estado : El jefe ceremonial del Estado y comandante civil en jefe de las Fuerzas Armadas de Pakistán es el Presidente , elegido por un Colegio Electoral . [230] El Primer Ministro asesora al Presidente sobre nombramientos clave, incluidos los puestos militares y judiciales, y el Presidente está constitucionalmente obligado a actuar según este consejo. [232] [233] El Presidente también tiene poderes para indultar y conceder clemencia. [234]
Ejecutivo: El Primer Ministro, normalmente el líder del partido o coalición que gobierna la mayoría en la Asamblea Nacional (la cámara baja), [236] actúa como jefe ejecutivo y jefe de gobierno del país. Sus responsabilidades incluyen la formación de un gabinete , [237] la toma de decisiones ejecutivas [232] y el nombramiento de altos funcionarios públicos, sujetos a la confirmación ejecutiva. [238]
Gobiernos provinciales : Cada una de las cuatro provincias sigue un sistema de gobierno similar, con una Asamblea Provincial elegida directamente que elige al Ministro Principal , generalmente del partido o coalición más grande. Los Ministros Principales lideran el gabinete provincial y supervisan el gobierno provincial. [239] [240] El Secretario Principal , designado por el Primer Ministro, encabeza la burocracia provincial. [241] Las asambleas provinciales legislan y aprueban el presupuesto provincial, generalmente presentado por el ministro de finanzas provincial anualmente. [240] [242] Los jefes ceremoniales de las provincias, los Gobernadores Provinciales, son designados por el Presidente basándose en el asesoramiento vinculante del Primer Ministro. [239] [243]
Poder judicial : El poder judicial en Pakistán tiene dos clases: el poder judicial superior y el poder judicial subordinado. El poder judicial superior incluye la Corte Suprema de Pakistán , [244] el Tribunal Sharia Federal y cinco tribunales superiores , [245] con la Corte Suprema a la cabeza. Es responsable de salvaguardar la constitución. [244] Azad Cachemira y Gilgit-Baltistán tienen sus propios sistemas judiciales. [246] [247]
El papel del Islam
Pakistán, el único país establecido en nombre del Islam, [248] tenía un apoyo abrumador entre los musulmanes, especialmente en provincias como las Provincias Unidas , donde los musulmanes eran una minoría. [249] Esta idea, articulada por la Liga Musulmana, el clero islámico y Jinnah, imaginaba un estado islámico . [250] Jinnah, estrechamente asociado con los ulemas , fue descrito tras su muerte por Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani como el musulmán más grande después de Aurangzeb , aspirando a unir a los musulmanes de todo el mundo bajo el Islam. [251]
La Resolución de Objetivos de marzo de 1949 marcó el paso inicial hacia esta meta, afirmando a Dios como el único soberano. [120] [252] El líder de la Liga Musulmana Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman afirmó que Pakistán sólo podría convertirse verdaderamente en un estado islámico después de reunir a todos los creyentes del Islam en una sola unidad política. [253] Keith Callard observó que los paquistaníes creían en la unidad esencial de propósito y perspectiva en el mundo musulmán, y esperaban puntos de vista similares sobre la religión y la nacionalidad de los musulmanes de todo el mundo. [254]
El deseo de Pakistán de un bloque islámico unido, llamado Islamistán, no fue apoyado por otros gobiernos musulmanes, [255] aunque figuras como el Gran Mufti de Palestina, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini , y líderes de la Hermandad Musulmana se sintieron atraídos al país. El deseo de Pakistán de una organización internacional de países musulmanes se cumplió en la década de 1970 cuando se formó la Organización de la Conferencia Islámica (OCI). [256] Los musulmanes bengalíes de Pakistán Oriental, opuestos a un estado islamista, chocaron con los paquistaníes occidentales que se inclinaban por la identidad islámica. [257] [258] El partido islamista Jamaat-e-Islami respaldó un estado islámico y se opuso al nacionalismo bengalí . [259]
Después de las elecciones generales de 1970, el Parlamento redactó la Constitución de 1973. [ 260] Declaró a Pakistán una República Islámica, con el Islam como religión del Estado, y ordenó que las leyes cumplieran con las enseñanzas islámicas establecidas en el Corán y la Sunnah y que no se podía promulgar ninguna ley que repugnara tales mandatos. [261] Además, estableció instituciones como el Tribunal Sharia y el Consejo de Ideología Islámica para interpretar y aplicar el Islam. [262]
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto se enfrentó a la oposición bajo el lema de Nizam-e-Mustafa ("Gobierno del Profeta "), [263] que abogaba por un estado islámico. Bhutto cedió a algunas demandas islamistas antes de ser derrocada en un golpe de Estado. [264]
El general Zia-ul-Haq, después de tomar el poder, se comprometió a establecer un estado islámico y hacer cumplir la ley sharia . [264] Instituyó tribunales judiciales sharia, [265] y tribunales, [266] [267] para juzgar utilizando la doctrina islámica. [268] Zia se alineó con las instituciones deobandi, [269] exacerbando las tensiones sectarias con políticas antichiítas. [270]
La mayoría de los paquistaníes, según una encuesta del Pew Research Center (PEW), están a favor de la ley Sharia como ley oficial, [271] y el 94 por ciento de ellos se identifican más con la religión que con la nacionalidad, en comparación con los musulmanes de otras naciones. [272]
Mapa clicable de las cuatro provincias y tres territorios federales de Pakistán.
Un mapa interactivo de Pakistán que muestra sus unidades administrativas.
Relaciones exteriores
Desde su independencia, Pakistán ha procurado mantener una política exterior independiente. [284] La política exterior y la geoestrategia de Pakistán se centran en la economía, la seguridad, la identidad nacional y la integridad territorial, así como en la construcción de vínculos estrechos con otras naciones musulmanas. [285] Según Hasan Askari Rizvi , un experto en política exterior, "Pakistán destaca la igualdad soberana de los estados, el bilateralismo, la mutualidad de intereses y la no interferencia en los asuntos internos de los demás como las características cardinales de su política exterior". [286]
El conflicto de Cachemira sigue siendo un tema importante entre Pakistán y la India, ya que tres de sus cuatro guerras se han librado por este motivo. [287] Debido en parte a las tensas relaciones con la India, Pakistán tiene estrechos vínculos con Turquía e Irán, ambos puntos focales de su política exterior. [288] Arabia Saudita también tiene importancia en las relaciones exteriores de Pakistán. [289]
Ubicado estratégicamente en las principales líneas de suministro marítimo de petróleo y corredores de comunicación de fibra óptica del mundo , Pakistán también disfruta de proximidad a los recursos naturales de los países de Asia Central. [295] Pakistán participa activamente en las Naciones Unidas con un Representante Permanente que representa sus posiciones en la política internacional. [296] Ha abogado por el concepto de " moderación ilustrada " en el mundo musulmán. [297] Pakistán es miembro de la Mancomunidad de Naciones, SAARC , ECO , [298] [299] y las naciones en desarrollo del G20 . [300]
El presidente de Pakistán, Ayub Khan, con el presidente estadounidense John F. Kennedy en 1961 [301]
Pakistán es designado como un "Hermano de Hierro" por China, enfatizando la importancia de su relación cercana y de apoyo . [302] En la década de 1950, Pakistán se opuso a la Unión Soviética por razones geopolíticas. Durante la Guerra Soviética-Afgana en la década de 1980, fue un aliado cercano de los Estados Unidos. [286] Las relaciones con Rusia han mejorado desde el final de la Guerra Fría , [303] pero la relación de Pakistán con los Estados Unidos ha sido "intermitente". [286] Inicialmente un aliado cercano durante la Guerra Fría, [304] las relaciones de Pakistán con los EE. UU. se deterioraron en la década de 1990 debido a las sanciones por su programa nuclear secreto. [305] Desde el 11 de septiembre , Pakistán ha sido un aliado de los EE. UU. en la lucha contra el terrorismo , pero su relación se ha tensado debido a intereses divergentes y desconfianza durante la guerra de 20 años y problemas de terrorismo. Aunque en 2004 Estados Unidos le concedió a Pakistán el estatus de importante aliado no perteneciente a la OTAN , [306] el país enfrentó acusaciones de apoyar a los insurgentes talibanes en Afganistán. [307]
Pakistán no tiene relaciones diplomáticas formales con Israel ; no obstante, en 2005 se produjo un intercambio entre ambos países, en el que Turquía actuó como intermediario. [308]
Relaciones con China
El Primer Ministro de Pakistán, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, con el Primer Ministro chino, Zhou Enlai, firmando el Tratado de Amistad entre China y Pakistán. [309] Pakistán alberga la embajada más grande de China. [310]
Pakistán fue una de las primeras naciones en establecer lazos diplomáticos formales con China, [311] forjando una fuerte relación desde el conflicto de 1962 de China con India, que culminó en un vínculo especial. [312] Durante la década de 1970, Pakistán jugó un papel crucial en el alcance global de China, [313] facilitando la histórica visita del presidente estadounidense Richard Nixon a China. [314] A pesar de los cambios en la gobernanza paquistaní y la dinámica regional/global, la influencia de China en Pakistán sigue siendo primordial. [313] En reciprocidad, China se erige como el mayor socio comercial de Pakistán, con una inversión sustancial en infraestructura paquistaní, en particular el puerto de Gwadar . [315] Solo en 2015, firmaron 51 acuerdos y Memorandos de Entendimiento (MoU) para esfuerzos de cooperación. [316] Ambas naciones firmaron un Tratado de Libre Comercio en 2006, [317] con China haciendo su mayor inversión en la historia de Pakistán a través del CPEC . [318] Pakistán actúa como enlace de China con el mundo musulmán, [319] y ambas naciones se apoyan mutuamente en cuestiones delicadas como Cachemira, Taiwán, Xinjiang y más. [320]
Relaciones con el mundo musulmán
Después de la independencia, Pakistán persiguió vigorosamente las relaciones bilaterales con otros países musulmanes. [321] Los hermanos Ali buscaron proyectar a Pakistán como el líder natural del mundo islámico, en parte debido a su importante mano de obra y fuerza militar. [322] Khaliquzzaman , un destacado líder de la Liga Musulmana , declaró la ambición de Pakistán de unir a todos los países musulmanes en Islamistán , una entidad panislámica. [323]
Estos avances, junto con la creación de Pakistán, no recibieron la aprobación de los Estados Unidos, y el primer ministro británico Clement Attlee expresó su esperanza de que India y Pakistán se reunificaran. [324] Sin embargo, debido a un despertar nacionalista en el mundo árabe en ese momento, hubo poco interés en las aspiraciones panislámicas de Pakistán. [325] Algunos países árabes percibieron el proyecto del "Islamistán" como un intento de Pakistán de dominar otros estados musulmanes. [326]
El fundador de Pakistán, Muhammad Ali Jinnah , abogó constantemente por la causa palestina y diseñó la política exterior de Pakistán para apoyar los derechos palestinos dentro del marco más amplio de la solidaridad musulmana. [327] Durante la guerra árabe-israelí de 1967 , Pakistán apoyó a los estados árabes y desempeñó un papel clave para asegurar el respaldo de Irán a la causa árabe tanto dentro de la ONU como fuera de ella. [328]
Las relaciones de Pakistán con Irán se han visto tensas por las tensiones sectarias, [329] con Irán y Arabia Saudita utilizando a Pakistán como campo de batalla para su guerra sectaria por poderes. [330] Desde los primeros días de la guerra Irán-Irak , el presidente Zia-ul-Haq jugó un importante papel mediador, con Pakistán participando activamente en los esfuerzos para poner fin al conflicto. [331] [332] Pakistán brindó apoyo a Arabia Saudita durante la Guerra del Golfo . [333] Pakistán optó por permanecer neutral durante la Operación Tormenta Decisiva , absteniéndose de enviar apoyo militar a Arabia Saudita en su ofensiva contra Yemen . En cambio, Pakistán apuntó a jugar un papel diplomático proactivo en la resolución de la crisis, [334] lo que llevó a tensiones entre los dos países. [333] En 2016, Pakistán medió entre Arabia Saudita e Irán tras la ejecución del clérigo chiíta Nimr al-Nimr , con visitas a ambos países del entonces primer ministro Nawaz Sharif y del jefe del Estado Mayor del Ejército, Raheel Sharif . [335]
Pakistán proporcionó refugio a millones de afganos desplazados tras la invasión soviética y apoyó a los muyahidines afganos en sus esfuerzos por expulsar a las fuerzas soviéticas de Afganistán. [336] Después de que los soviéticos se retiraron, estallaron luchas internas entre las facciones muyahidines por el control de Afganistán. Pakistán facilitó las conversaciones de paz para ayudar a poner fin al conflicto. [337] Después de cuatro años de conflicto sin resolver entre grupos muyahidines rivales, Pakistán ayudó a establecer a los talibanes como una fuerza estabilizadora. [338] El apoyo de Pakistán a los talibanes sunitas en Afganistán desafió al Irán liderado por los chiítas, que se oponía a un Afganistán controlado por los talibanes. [330]
Pakistán ha defendido enérgicamente la autodeterminación de los musulmanes en todo el mundo. Sus esfuerzos por apoyar los movimientos independentistas en países como Indonesia, Argelia, Túnez, Marruecos y Eritrea han fomentado lazos fuertes. [339] Debido a su apoyo a Azerbaiyán en el conflicto de Nagorno-Karabaj , Pakistán no ha establecido relaciones diplomáticas con Armenia . [340] [341]
Pakistán y Bangladesh han experimentado relaciones tensas, en particular bajo los gobiernos de la Liga Awami liderados por Sheikh Hasina , impulsados por su postura pro-India y sus agravios históricos. [342]
Pakistán, un miembro destacado de la Organización de Cooperación Islámica (OCI), prioriza en su política exterior el mantenimiento de relaciones culturales, políticas, sociales y económicas con los países árabes y otras naciones de mayoría musulmana. [343]
Conflicto de Cachemira
Las áreas que se muestran en verde son las áreas controladas por Pakistán. [344]
Cachemira , una región del Himalaya en el extremo norte del subcontinente indio , fue gobernada como el estado principesco autónomo de Jammu y Cachemira durante el Raj británico antes de la Partición de la India en agosto de 1947. Esto desató una importante disputa territorial entre India y Pakistán, que resultó en varios conflictos sobre la región. India controla alrededor del 45,1% de Cachemira, incluyendo Jammu y Cachemira y Ladakh , mientras que Pakistán controla aproximadamente el 38,2%, que comprende Azad Jammu y Cachemira y Gilgit-Baltistán . Además, alrededor del 20% de la región, conocida como Aksai Chin y el valle de Shaksgam , está bajo control chino. [345] India reclama toda la región de Cachemira basándose en el Instrumento de Adhesión firmado por el gobernante del estado principesco, Maharaja Hari Singh, [346] mientras que Pakistán defiende su población de mayoría musulmana, [347] y la proximidad geográfica a Pakistán. [348] Las Naciones Unidas participaron en la resolución del conflicto, lo que llevó a un alto el fuego en 1949 y al establecimiento de la Línea de Control (LdC) como frontera de facto . [349] La India, temiendo la secesión de Cachemira, no celebró el plebiscito prometido, ya que creía que los cachemires votarían para unirse a Pakistán. [350]
Pakistán sostiene que su posición es a favor del derecho del pueblo de Cachemira a determinar su futuro mediante elecciones imparciales, tal como lo disponen las Naciones Unidas, mientras que la India ha declarado que Cachemira es una " parte integral " de la India, haciendo referencia al Acuerdo de Simla de 1972 y al hecho de que se celebran elecciones regionales periódicamente. [352] Algunos grupos independentistas de Cachemira creen que Cachemira debería ser independiente tanto de la India como de Pakistán. [353]
El Presidente del Comité de Jefes de Estado Mayor Conjunto (CJCSC) es el oficial militar de más alto rango y asesora al gobierno civil. [357] Sin embargo, carecen de mando directo sobre las ramas y sirven como intermediarios, asegurando la comunicación entre el liderazgo militar y civil. [357] Supervisando el Cuartel General del Estado Mayor Conjunto , coordinan la cooperación entre servicios y las misiones militares conjuntas. [357] [358]
Estados Unidos, Turquía y China mantienen estrechas relaciones militares con las Fuerzas Armadas de Pakistán , exportando regularmente equipo militar y transferencia de tecnología . [359] Según SIPRI , Pakistán fue el quinto mayor receptor e importador de armas entre 2019 y 2023. [360]
Ocasionalmente se realizan ejercicios conjuntos y juegos de guerra con los ejércitos de China y Turquía. [356] [361]
A pesar del embargo de armas de la ONU a Bosnia , el ISI bajo el mando del general Javed Nasir envió por avión armas antitanque y misiles a los muyahidines bosnios, cambiando la situación a favor de los musulmanes bosnios. El ISI, bajo el liderazgo de Nasir, apoyó a los musulmanes chinos en Xinjiang , a los grupos rebeldes en Filipinas y a los grupos religiosos en Asia Central. [373] [374]
Unidades policiales de élite: cada fuerza policial provincial, como la Fuerza de Élite de Punjab, se centra en operaciones antiterroristas y situaciones de alto riesgo.
Las Fuerzas Armadas Civiles (FAC) apoyan a los organismos policiales regulares, ayudando en tareas como el control de disturbios, la contrainsurgencia y la seguridad fronteriza, mejorando las capacidades de aplicación de la ley de Pakistán. [378]
El Comité Nacional de Coordinación de Inteligencia supervisa las actividades de inteligencia a nivel federal y provincial, incluyendo el ISI , el MI , el IB , la FIA , la Policía y las Fuerzas Armadas Civiles . [379] La principal agencia de inteligencia de Pakistán, la Inteligencia Interservicios (ISI), se estableció dentro del año siguiente a la independencia de Pakistán en 1947. [380] [381]
Derechos humanos
En 2018, Pakistán ocupó el puesto 139 de 180 países en el Índice de Libertad de Prensa de Reporteros sin Fronteras , destacando las restricciones a la libertad de prensa . [382] Las estaciones de televisión y los periódicos enfrentan cierres por publicar informes críticos con el gobierno o el ejército. [383] La homosexualidad masculina es ilegal en Pakistán y se castiga con hasta cadena perpetua. [384]
Economía
La economía de Pakistán ocupa el puesto 24.º a nivel mundial en paridad de poder adquisitivo (PPA) y el 43.º en términos de PIB nominal . Históricamente, Pakistán fue parte de la región más rica en el primer milenio de nuestra era, pero perdió terreno frente a regiones como China y Europa occidental en el siglo XVIII. [392] Pakistán es un país en desarrollo , [393] y forma parte de los Next Eleven , que está a punto de convertirse en una de las economías más grandes del mundo en el siglo XXI, junto con los BRICS . [394]
En los últimos años, Pakistán ha enfrentado inestabilidad social y desequilibrios macroeconómicos , con deficiencias en servicios como el transporte ferroviario y la generación de energía eléctrica . [395] La economía semiindustrializada tiene centros de crecimiento a lo largo del río Indo. [396] [397] [398] Las economías diversificadas de los centros urbanos de Karachi y Punjab coexisten con áreas menos desarrolladas en otras partes del país, particularmente en Baluchistán. [397] Pakistán se ubica como la 67.ª economía exportadora más grande y la 106.ª economía más compleja a nivel mundial, con una balanza comercial negativa de US$23.96 mil millones en el año fiscal 2015-16. [399] [400]
A partir de 2022 , el PIB nominal[update] estimado de Pakistán es de US$376.493 mil millones. [401] El PIB por PPA es de US$1.512 billones. El PIB nominal per cápita estimado es de US$1.658, el PIB (PPA)/cápita es de US$6.662 ( dólares internacionales ), [385] Según el Banco Mundial , Pakistán tiene importantes dotaciones estratégicas y potencial de desarrollo. La creciente proporción de jóvenes de Pakistán proporciona al país tanto un dividendo demográfico potencial como un desafío para proporcionar servicios y empleo adecuados. [402] El 21,04% de la población vive por debajo de la línea internacional de pobreza de US$1,25 al día. La tasa de desempleo entre la población de 15 años o más es del 5,5%. [403] Pakistán tiene aproximadamente 40 millones de ciudadanos de clase media, y se proyecta que esa cifra aumentará a 100 millones para 2050. [404] Un informe de 2015 publicado por el Banco Mundial clasificó a la economía de Pakistán en el puesto 24.° [405] más grande del mundo por poder adquisitivo y en el puesto 41.° [406] más grande en términos absolutos. Es la segunda economía más grande del sur de Asia y representa aproximadamente el 15,0% del PIB regional. [407]
El crecimiento económico de Pakistán varió a lo largo del tiempo, con un progreso lento durante las transiciones democráticas pero una expansión robusta bajo la ley marcial , carente de bases sostenibles. [122] Las rápidas reformas a principios y mediados de la década de 2000, incluido el aumento del gasto en desarrollo, redujeron la pobreza en un 10% e impulsaron el PIB en un 3%. [377] [408] La economía se enfrió después de 2007, [377] con una inflación que alcanzó un máximo del 25,0% en 2008, [409] lo que hizo necesaria la intervención del FMI para evitar la quiebra. [410] El Banco Asiático de Desarrollo observó más tarde una disminución de la tensión económica en Pakistán. [411] La inflación para el año fiscal 2010-11 se situó en el 14,1%. [412] Desde 2013, la economía de Pakistán ha experimentado un crecimiento bajo un programa del FMI. Goldman Sachs predijo que la economía de Pakistán podría crecer 15 veces para 2050, [413] y Ruchir Sharma en su libro de 2016 anticipó una transformación a un país de ingresos medios para 2020. [414]
La vasta producción de materias primas naturales de Pakistán y su décimo mercado laboral más grande , junto con una contribución de 19.900 millones de dólares de su diáspora de 7 millones de personas en 2015-16, [415] [416] [417] lo posicionan significativamente. Sin embargo, la participación de Pakistán en las exportaciones globales está disminuyendo, representando solo el 0,13% en 2007 según la Organización Mundial del Comercio . [418]
La economía pakistaní ha pasado de la agricultura a los servicios, y la agricultura contribuyó solo con el 20,9% del PIB en 2015. [420] A pesar de esto, la producción de trigo de Pakistán en 2005 superó a la de África y casi igualó a la de América del Sur, lo que resalta su importancia agrícola. [421] El sector emplea al 43,5% de la fuerza laboral y es una fuente importante de divisas. [420] [422]
Las exportaciones de manufacturas, que dependen en gran medida de materias primas agrícolas como el algodón y las pieles, enfrentan presiones inflacionarias debido a la escasez de suministro y las perturbaciones del mercado. Pakistán ocupa el quinto lugar en producción de algodón, es autosuficiente en caña de azúcar y es el cuarto mayor productor de leche a nivel mundial. Aunque los recursos de tierra y agua no han aumentado proporcionalmente, las ganancias de productividad, especialmente a partir de la Revolución Verde a fines de los años 1960 y 1970, impulsaron significativamente los rendimientos de trigo y arroz. Los pozos entubados privados y las variedades de alto rendimiento (HYV) aumentaron aún más los rendimientos de los cultivos. [423] La industria de la carne representa el 1,4 por ciento del PIB general. [424]
Industria
Fábrica de montaje de televisores en Lahore . El sector industrial de Pakistán representa alrededor del 20,3% del PIB y está dominado por pequeñas y medianas empresas . [425]
La industria, que constituye el 19,74% del PIB y el 24% del empleo total, es el segundo sector más grande. La manufactura a gran escala (LSM) domina, representando el 12,2% del PIB, con una producción de cemento próspera debido a la demanda de Afganistán y el sector inmobiliario nacional. [426] En 2013, Pakistán exportó 7.708.557 toneladas métricas de cemento, con una capacidad instalada de 44.768.250 toneladas métricas. [427] La industria textil , un actor clave en la manufactura de Pakistán, contribuye con el 9,5% del PIB y emplea a alrededor de 15 millones de personas. Pakistán ocupa el cuarto lugar a nivel mundial en producción de algodón, con una capacidad de hilado sustancial, lo que lo convierte en un importante exportador de productos textiles en Asia. [428] China es un comprador significativo de textiles paquistaníes, importando US$1.527 millones en textiles el año fiscal pasado. [429]
Servicios
El horizonte de Karachi se está elevando , con varios rascacielos en construcción
En 2014-15, el sector de servicios aporta el 58,8% del PIB, [420] siendo el principal motor del crecimiento económico en Pakistán, [430] con una sociedad orientada al consumo. La tasa de crecimiento del sector supera a la de la agricultura y la industria, representando el 54% del PIB y más de un tercio del empleo total. Tiene fuertes vínculos con otros sectores, proporcionando insumos esenciales a la agricultura y la manufactura. [431] El sector de TI de Pakistán es uno de los de más rápido crecimiento, clasificado en el puesto 110 en desarrollo de TIC por el Foro Económico Mundial . [432] Con alrededor de 82 millones de usuarios de Internet en mayo de 2020, Pakistán ocupa el noveno lugar a nivel mundial, [433] [434] y se proyecta que su industria de TIC superará los $10 mil millones para 2020. [435] Con 12.000 empleados, Pakistán se encuentra entre las cinco principales naciones con trabajo independiente, [436] y su desempeño exportador en telecomunicaciones, computadoras y servicios de información ha mejorado notablemente. [437]
Con sus diversas culturas, paisajes y atracciones, Pakistán atrajo a alrededor de 6,6 millones de turistas extranjeros en 2018. [438] Sin embargo, esto fue un descenso desde el pico del turismo en la década de 1970 impulsado por la popular ruta hippie . [439] Pakistán cuenta con atracciones que van desde manglares en el sur hasta estaciones de montaña del Himalaya en el noreste, incluidas las antiguas ruinas budistas de Takht-i-Bahi y Taxila , los sitios de la civilización del valle del Indo de 5.000 años de antigüedad como Mohenjo-daro y Harappa , [440] y numerosos picos montañosos de más de 7.000 metros (23.000 pies). [441] La parte norte de Pakistán cuenta con numerosas fortalezas antiguas, que muestran una arquitectura antigua. Abarca los valles de Hunza y Chitral, donde reside la pequeña comunidad preislámica Kalasha , que afirma descender de Alejandro Magno. [442] Lahore, la capital cultural de Pakistán, exhibe numerosos ejemplos de arquitectura mogol , incluyendo la mezquita Badshahi , los jardines Shalimar , la tumba de Jahangir y el fuerte de Lahore . Tras el terremoto de Cachemira de 2005 , The Guardian destacó "Los cinco principales sitios turísticos de Pakistán" para impulsar el turismo, presentando destinos como Taxila , Lahore , la carretera Karakoram , Karimabad y el lago Saiful Muluk . [443] Los festivales y las iniciativas gubernamentales tienen como objetivo promover el patrimonio cultural de Pakistán. [444] En 2015, el Foro Económico Mundial clasificó a Pakistán en el puesto 125 de 141 países en su Informe de competitividad de viajes y turismo. [445]
Infraestructura
Pakistán fue elogiado como la nación líder en desarrollo de infraestructura en el sur de Asia durante las reuniones anuales de 2016 del FMI y el Banco Mundial. [446]
Poder y energía
La presa de Tarbela , la presa rellena de tierra más grande del mundo, fue construida en 1968.
En mayo de 2021, Pakistán opera seis plantas de energía nuclear comerciales autorizadas . [447] La Comisión de Energía Atómica de Pakistán (PAEC) supervisa estas plantas, mientras que la Autoridad Reguladora Nuclear de Pakistán garantiza su funcionamiento seguro. [448] Estas plantas contribuyen aproximadamente con el 5,8% al suministro de electricidad de Pakistán, mientras que los combustibles fósiles (petróleo crudo y gas natural) proporcionan el 64,2%, la energía hidroeléctrica proporciona el 29,9% y el carbón contribuye con el 0,1%. [449] [450] La KANUPP-I , la primera planta de energía nuclear comercial de Pakistán, fue suministrada por Canadá en 1971. La cooperación nuclear chino-paquistaní comenzó en la década de 1980, lo que condujo al establecimiento de CHASNUPP-I. En 2005, ambos países propusieron un plan conjunto de seguridad energética, con el objetivo de lograr una capacidad de generación superior a 160.000 MWe para 2030. La Visión de Energía Nuclear 2050 de Pakistán apunta a una capacidad de 40.000 MWe, [451] con 8.900 MWe esperados para 2030. [452]
Pakistan boasts 2567 km of motorways and approximately 263,942 km of highways, which handle 92% of passengers and 96% of freight traffic. Despite constituting only 4.6% of the total road length, these north-south links manage 85% of the nation's traffic. They connect southern seaports such as Karachi port and Port Qasim in Sindh, along with Gwadar Port and Port of Pasni in Balochistan, to populous provinces like Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa domestically, and neighboring countries like Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China through the China Pakistan Economic Corridor.[457][458][459][460] According to the WEF's Global Competitiveness Report, Pakistan's port infrastructure quality ratings rose from 3.7 to 4.1 between 2007 and 2016.[461] The railway's share of inland traffic is reduced to below 8% for passengers and 4% for freight.[420] This shift led to a decrease in total rail track from 8,775 kilometres (5,453 miles) in 1990–91 to 7,791 kilometres (4,841 miles) in 2011.[458][457]
Karakoram Highway, connecting Pakistan to China, is one of the highest paved roads in the world.
The transport landscape of Pakistan features various modern transit systems. The Orange Line Metro Train in Lahore, inaugurated in 2020,[462] spans 27.1 km (16.8 mi),[463] and includes both elevated and underground sections, accommodating over 250,000 passengers daily.[464] Lahore also boasts the Lahore Metrobus, the first of its kind in Pakistan, operational since February 2013.[465] The Rawalpindi-Islamabad Metrobus, stretching 48.1 km, commenced its first phase in June 2015, with subsequent extensions, and employs e-ticketing and an Intelligent Transportation System.[466][467]Multan Metrobus, inaugurated in January 2017, serves Multan with its rapid transit services.[468][469]Peshawar's Bus Rapid Transit, inaugurated in August 2020, marks the fourth BRT system in Pakistan. Karachi's Green Line Metrobus, operational since December 2021, is part of a larger metrobus project financed by the Government of Pakistan and initiated in February 2016.[470][471][472] Meanwhile, Faisalabad awaits its proposed rapid transit project, the Faisalabad Metrobus.[473]Karachi Circular Railway, partially revived in November 2020, offers public transit services in the Karachi metropolitan area.[474][475] Additionally, plans are underway to resurrect Karachi's tramway service, which ceased operations in 1975, in collaboration with Austrian experts.[476][477]
As of 2013, Pakistan boasts approximately 151 airports and airfields, encompassing both military and civilian installations.[478] Despite Jinnah International Airport serving as the primary international gateway, significant international traffic also flows through Lahore, Islamabad, Peshawar, Quetta, Faisalabad, Sialkot, and Multan airports. The civil aviation industry, deregulated in 1993, operates with a blend of public and private entities while state-ownedPakistan International Airlines (PIA) dominates, carrying 73% of domestic passengers and all domestic freight.
In 2010, Pakistan ranked 43rd globally in published scientific papers.[490] The influential Pakistan Academy of Sciences guides the government on science policies.[491] Pakistan climbed from 107th to 88th in the Global Innovation Index by 2023.[492][493][494]
The 1960s marked the rise of Pakistan's space program, led by SUPARCO, yielding advancements in rocketry, electronics, and aeronomy. Notably, Pakistan launched its first rocket into space, pioneering South Asia's space exploration.[495] In 1990, it successfully launched its first satellite, becoming the first Muslim nation and second in South Asia to achieve this milestone.[496]
Pakistan witnessed a fourfold increase in its scientific productivity in the past decade surging from approximately 2,000 articles per year in 2006 to more than 9,000 articles in 2015. Making Pakistan's cited article's higher than the BRIC countries put together.
—Thomson Reuters's Another BRIC in the Wall 2016 report[497]
Pakistan is the sole Muslim nation active in Antarctica research, maintaining its Jinnah Antarctic Research Station since 1992.[500] By May 2020, Pakistan had 82 million internet users, ranking ninth globally.[433][434] The government invests heavily in information technology projects, focusing on e-government and infrastructure.[501]
Demographics
Pakistan had a population of 241,495,112 according to the final results of the 2023 Census.[502][503][504] This figure includes Pakistan's four provinces e.g. Punjab, Sindh, KPK, Balochistan and Islamabad Capital Territory. AJK and Gilgit-Baltistan's census data is yet to be approved by CCI Council of Pakistan. Pakistan is the world's fifth most populous country.[505]
Between 1951 and 2017, Pakistan's population expanded over sixfold, going from 33.7 million to 207.7 million. The country has a relatively high, although declining, growth rate supported by high birth rates and low death rates. Between 1998 and 2017, the average annual population growth rate stood at +2.40%.
Dramatic social changes have led to urbanization and the emergence of two megacities: Karachi and Lahore. The country's urban population more than tripled between 1981 and 2017 (from 23.8 million to 75.7 million), as Pakistan's urbanisation rate rose from 28.2% to 36.4%. Even with this, the nation's urbanisation rate remains one of the lowest in the world, and in 2017, over 130 million Pakistanis (making up nearly 65% of the population) lived in rural areas.
Due to a high fertility rate, which was estimated at 3.5 in 2022, Pakistan has one of the world's youngest populations. The 2017 census recorded that 40.3% of the country's population was under the age of 15, while only 3.7% of Pakistanis were aged 65 or more.[506] The median age of the country was 19,[506] while its sex ratio was recorded to be 105 males per 100 females.[502]
The demographic history of Pakistan from the ancient Indus Valley civilization to the modern era includes the arrival and settlement of many cultures and ethnic groups in the modern region of Pakistan from Eurasia and the nearby Middle East. Because of this, Pakistan has a multicultural, multilinguistic, and multiethnic society. Despite Urdu being Pakistan's lingua franca, estimates on how many languages are spoken in the country range from 75 to 85,[507][508] and in 2023, the country's three largest ethnolinguistic groups were the Punjabis (making up 36.98% of the total population), the Pashtuns (18.15%), and the Sindhis (14.31%).[509] Pakistan is also thought to have the world's fourth-largest refugee population, estimated at 1.4 million in mid-2021 by the UNHCR.[510]
Urbanisation
Since independence due to the partition of India, urbanisation has surged for various reasons. In the south, Karachi stands as the most populous commercial hub along the Indus River.[511] In the east, west, and north, a dense population arc spans cities like Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Sargodha, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan, and Peshawar. By 1990–2008, city dwellers constituted 36% of Pakistan's population, making it South Asia's most urbanized nation, with over 50% living in towns of 5,000+ inhabitants.[512]Immigration, both domestic and international, significantly fuels urban growth. Migration from India, especially to Karachi, the largest metropolis, and from nearby countries, accelerates urbanization, posing new political and socio-economic challenges. Economic shifts like the green revolution and political developments also play crucial roles.[513]
Afghan children near Islamabad fetching water from water pump. (Pakistan hosts the second largest refugee population globally after Turkey.[524])
Even post-1947 partition, Indian Muslims kept migrating to Pakistan, especially Karachi and Sindh province.[525] Wars in neighboring Afghanistan in the 1980s and 1990s pushed millions of Afghan refugees into Pakistan, mainly in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and tribal areas, with some in Karachi and Quetta. Pakistan hosts one of the world's largest refugee populations.[526] Additionally, around 2 million Bangladeshis and half a million undocumented individuals, purportedly from Myanmar, Iran, Iraq, and Africa, reside in Pakistan.[527] In October 2023, Pakistan ordered the expulsion of Afghans from Pakistan.[528]
Migration of Bengalis and Rohingya to Pakistan started in the 1980s and continued till 1998. Karachi hosts a significant number of Bengali settlements, and large Rohingya migration made it one of their largest populations outside Myanmar.[529] Karachi's Burmese community resides in various slums across the city.[530]
Thousands of Uyghur Muslims sought refuge in Gilgit-Baltistan, fleeing persecution in Xinjiang, China.[531] Since 1989, thousands of Kashmiri Muslim refugees fled to Pakistan, alleging rape and forced displacement by Indian soldiers.[532]
Diaspora
Nergis Mavalvala is a Pakistani American Professor of Physics at MIT who is known for her role in the first observation of gravitational waves.
According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Pakistan has the sixth-largest diaspora globally.[523] Approximately 7 million Pakistanis reside abroad, mainly in the Middle East, Europe, and North America.[533] Pakistan ranks 10th globally for remittances sent home.[416][534] Saudi Arabia is the largest source of remittances, contributing $5.9 billion as of 2016[update].[535] The term Overseas Pakistani is officially recognized by the Government of Pakistan, with the Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development addressing their needs, welfare, and issues. Overseas Pakistanis constitute the second-largest source of foreign exchange remittances to Pakistan, with remittances increasing by over 100% from US$8.9 billion in 2009–10 to US$19.9 billion in 2015–16.[415][534]
Religion
Islam is the state religion,[222] with freedom of religion guaranteed by the constitution.[537][538] The majority are Muslims (96.47%), followed by Hindus (2.14%) and Christians (1.27%). Minorities include Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Zoroastrians (Parsi), and the unique Kalash people who practice animism.[539] Additionally, a small percentage profess no faith, as seen in the 1998 census.
Islam dominates in Pakistan, with about 96.5% of the population being Muslim.[540] Pakistan ranks second globally in Muslim population,[541] and is home to 10.5% of the world's Muslims.[542] Karachi is the largest Muslim city in the world.[543]
The majority follow Sunni Islam, with a significant presence of Sufism, while Shia Muslims constitute a minority.[544][545] Shias represent between 5–25%.[544][377][546] The Shia population in Pakistan was estimated at 42 million in 2019.[547] As of 2012[update], 12% of Pakistani Muslims self-identify as non-denominational Muslims.[548]
The Ahmadis are a minority, officially considered non-Muslims.[549][550] Ahmadis face persecution, banned from calling themselves Muslims since 1974.[551]
Hinduism
Hindu proportion of each Pakistani District in 2017 according to the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics
Hinduism is the second-largest religion, followed by 2.14% of the population according to 2017 census.[552][553] Pakistan had the fifth-largest Hindu population globally in 2010.[554] In 2017, Hindus numbered 4,444,437.[555] They reside across Pakistan but are concentrated in Sindh, where they make up 8.73% of the population.[552]Umerkot district is the only Hindu majority area. Tharparkar district hosts the largest Hindu population. Four districts – Umerkot, Tharparkar, Mirpurkhas, and Sanghar – have over half of Pakistan's Hindus.[556]
At Pakistan's inception, the 'hostage theory' suggested fair treatment of Hindus to safeguard Muslims in India.[557][558] However, some Pakistani Hindus felt marginalized, leading to emigration to India.[559] They faced violence post the Babri Masjid demolition,[560] enduring forced conversions and abductions.[561]
Christianity and other religions
Christian proportion of each Pakistani District in 2017 according to the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics
Christians are the next largest religious minority after Hindus, constituting 1.27% of the population.[518] They are concentrated in Lahore District (5%) and Islamabad Capital Territory (over 4%). Karachi hosts a historic Roman Catholic community established by Goan and Tamil migrants during British colonial rule.[556]
Following Christianity, the Bahá'í Faith had 30,000 followers in 2008, followed by Sikhism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism, each with around 20,000 adherents in 2008,[562] alongside a small Jain community.
In 2005, 1% of the population identified as atheist. By 2012, this figure had risen to 2.0% according to Gallup.[563]
Education
NUST in Islamabad is a top ranked Engineering University.
Initiatives since 2007 made English medium education mandatory nationwide. Following a 2012 attack on activist Malala Yousafzai by the Taliban, she became the youngest Nobel laureate for her education advocacy.[571] Reforms in 2013 mandated Chinese language courses in Sindh, reflecting China's growing influence. As of 2018, Pakistan's literacy rate stands at 62.3%, with significant regional and gender disparities.[572] Government initiatives, including computer literacy since 1995, aim to eradicate illiteracy, targeting 100% enrollment among primary school-age children and an ~86% literacy rate by 2015.[573] Pakistan allocates 2.3% of its GDP to education,[574] among the lowest in South Asia.[575]
Culture
Artwork by Sadequain on the ceiling of Frere Hall. Having painted around 15,000 paintings, Sadequain is considered one of the finest painters and calligraphers Pakistan has ever produced.
Civil society in Pakistan is hierarchical, emphasizing local cultural etiquette and traditional Islamic values. The primary family unit is the extended family, but there's a rising trend towards nuclear families due to socio-economic factors.[576][577] Both men and women typically wear Shalwar Kameez; men also favor trousers, jeans, and shirts.[578] The middle class has grown to about 35 million, with another 17 million in the upper and upper-middle classes, leading to a shift in power from rural landowners to urban elites.[579] Festivals like Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Azha, Ramadan, Christmas, Easter, Holi, and Diwali are primarily religious.[576] Pakistan ranks 56th on the A.T. Kearney/FP Globalization Index due to increasing globalization.[580]
The advent of Islam in present-day Pakistan marked the cessation of Buddhist architecture, ushering in Islamic architecture. The notable Indo-Islamic structure, the tomb of Shah Rukn-i-Alam in Multan, remains significant. During the Mughal era, Persian-Islamic design merged with Hindustani art, seen in Lahore's architectural gems like the Badshahi Mosque and the Lahore Fort with the iconic Alamgiri Gate. Lahore also boasts the vibrant Wazir Khan Mosque,[585] and the lush Shalimar Gardens. In the British colonial period, Indo-European buildings emerged, blending European and Indian-Islamic styles. Post-colonial identity shines through modern landmarks like the Faisal Mosque, Minar-e-Pakistan, and Mazar-e-Quaid. British architectural influence persists in structures across Lahore, Peshawar, and Karachi.[586]
Clothing, arts, and fashion
A depiction of traditional clothing of women from Sindh
The Shalwar Kameez is Pakistan's national dress, worn in all provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Azad Kashmir. Each province has its own style. Pakistanis wear a variety of fabrics like silk, chiffon, and cotton. In addition to the national dress, men often wear domestically tailored suits and neckties, especially in offices, schools, and social gatherings.[587]
Pakistan's fashion industry has thrived, blending traditional and modern styles to create a unique cultural identity. Regional and traditional dress remain significant symbols of native tradition, evolving into both modern and purer forms. Organizations like the Pakistan Fashion Design Council in Lahore and the Fashion Pakistan Council in Karachi host events like PFDC Fashion Week and Fashion Pakistan Week. Pakistan's inaugural fashion week took place in November 2009.[588]
Literature and philosophy
Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistan's national poet who conceived the idea of Pakistan
Pakistan boasts literature in various languages including Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi, Pashto, Baluchi, Persian, English, and more.[589] The Pakistan Academy of Letters actively promotes literature and poetry both domestically and internationally.[590]National Library contributes to literary dissemination. Historically, Pakistani literature consisted mainly of lyric, religious, and folkloric works, later diversifying under colonial influence into prose fiction, now widely embraced.[591][592]
The national poet of Pakistan, Muhammad Iqbal, wrote influential poetry in Urdu and Persian, advocating for Islamic civilizational revival.[593] Notable figures in contemporary Urdu literature include Josh Malihabadi, Faiz Ahmed Faiz, and Saadat Hasan Manto.[592] Popular Sufi poets like Shah Abdul Latif and Bulleh Shah are revered.[594]Mirza Kalich Beg is hailed as the father of modern Sindhi prose.[595] Pakistani philosophy has been shaped by influences from British and American philosophy, with notable figures like M. M. Sharif contributing to its development.[596] Post-1971, Marxist thought gained prominence in Pakistani philosophy through figures like Jalaludin Abdur Rahim.[597]
Media and entertainment
The private print media, state-owned Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV), and Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation (PBC) dominated media until the 21st century. Pakistan now boasts a vast network of domestic, privately owned 24-hour news media and television channels.[598] A 2021 report by the Reporters Without Borders ranked Pakistan 157th among 180 nations on the Press Freedom Index, citing pressures faced by Pakistani reporters, particularly when reporting against the army or government.[599] The BBC describes Pakistani media as "among the most outspoken in South Asia".[600] Pakistani media has been instrumental in exposing corruption.[601]
The Lollywood, Punjabi, and Pashto film industry is centered in Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar. Although Bollywood films were banned from public cinemas from 1965 to 2008, they remained influential in Pakistani popular culture.[602] However, in 2019, the screening of Bollywood movies faced an indefinite ban.[603] Despite challenges faced by the Pakistani film industry, Urdu televised dramas and theatrical performances remain popular, frequently broadcast by many entertainment media outlets.[604] Urdu dramas dominate the television entertainment industry, renowned for their quality since the 1990s.[605] Pakistani music encompasses diverse forms, from provincial folk music and traditional styles like Qawwali and Ghazal Gayaki to modern fusions of traditional and western music.[606] Pakistan boasts numerous renowned folk singers, and the arrival of Afghan refugees in western provinces has sparked interest in Pashto music, despite occasional intolerance.[607]
Cuisine
Chapatis served with various side dishes are considered a staple food in Pakistan
Pakistani cuisine, rooted in the royal kitchens of 16th-century Mughal emperors, blends influences from British, Indian, Central Asian, and Middle Eastern culinary traditions.[608] Unlike Middle Eastern fare, Pakistani dishes are heavily spiced with garlic, ginger, turmeric, chili, and garam masala. Roti, a wheat-based flatbread, accompanies most meals, alongside curry, meat, vegetables, and lentils. Rice is also common, served plain, spiced, or in sweet dishes.[179][609]Lassi, a traditional drink from the Punjab region, and black tea with milk and sugar are popular beverages enjoyed nationwide.[578][610]Sohan halwa, a beloved sweet dish from southern Punjab, is savored across Pakistan.[611]
Sports
Cricket is the most popular sport in Pakistan, followed by football. Field hockey is the national sport. Other sports like squash, polo, and traditional games are also enjoyed.
In football, Pakistan established the Pakistan Football Federation soon after its creation, and it is known for producing FIFA World Cup balls.[614][615]
In field hockey, Pakistan boasts four Hockey World Cup wins, eight Asian Games gold medals, and three Olympic gold medals. Squash player Jahangir Khan holds the record for the longest winning streak in professional sport history, winning 555 consecutive matches.[616][617] Pakistan has hosted various international events, including Cricket and Hockey World Cups and Asian Games.[618]
^"Includes data for Pakistani territories of Kashmir; Azad Kashmir (13,297 km2 or 5,134 sq mi) and Gilgit–Baltistan (72,520 km2 or 28,000 sq mi).[5] Excluding these territories would produce an area figure of 796,095 km2 (307,374 sq mi)."
^"This figure does not include data for Pakistan-administered areas of Kashmir; Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan."
^"This figure does not include data for Pakistan-administered areas of Kashmir; Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan."
^In the framework of their regional security complex theory (RSCT), Barry Buzan and Ole Waever differentiate between superpowers and great powers which act and influence the global level (or system level) and regional powers whose influence may be large in their regions but have less effect at the global level. This category of regional powers includes Brazil, Egypt, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, South Africa and Turkey.
^The precise time span of the period is uncertain. Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period. Oberlies gives an estimate of 1200–1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book ten. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Other 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100.
^The World Bank data lists the total area of Pakistan as 770,880 km², excluding Gilgit-Baltistan, Azad Kashmir, and water areas.
References
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^ a bKopka 2011.
^Ayres 2009.
^Eberhard, Simons & Fennig 2022.
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^Bhandari 2022.
^ a b c dIMF 2024.
^ a bIMF 2023.
^ a bHaleem 2013.
^Wright (2009) "The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."
^Badian 1987.
^Wynbrandt 2009.
^Spuler 1969.
^Copland (2001) "However, the real turning point for the new Muslim League came with the general election of December 1945 and January 1946. Despite facing a rejuvenated Congress, the League won four-fifths of all the Muslim-reserved seats ... The result left no one, not least the British, in doubt about where the locus of power within the Muslim community now lay ... In most respects, therefore, the League's success in the elections of 1945–46 can be interpreted as a clear Muslim mandate for Pakistan. (p 72)"
^Metcalf & Metcalf (2006) "The loss of life was immense, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand up to a million. But, even for those who survived, fear generated a widespread perception that one could be safe only among members of one's own community; and this in turn helped consolidate loyalties towards the state, whether India or Pakistan, in which one might find a secure haven. This was especially important for Pakistan, where the succour it offered to Muslims gave that state for the first time a visible territorial reality. Fear too drove forward a mass migration unparalleled in the history of South Asia. ... Overall, partition uprooted some 12.5 million of undivided India's people."
^Talbot 2016.
^Middle power: multiple sources:
Buzan (2004)
Solomon (1997)
Rajagopalan (2011)
Buzan & Waever (2003)
Paul (2012, p. 11) "The regional powers such as Israel or Pakistan are not simple bystanders of great power politics in their regions; they attempt to asymmetrically influence the major power system often in their own distinct ways."
Vandamme (2014, p. 14) "Countries like Saudi Arabia and Pakistan have enough influence to not be considered small, but not enough to be major powers. Within the limits of their regions, they play a significant political role. Thus instinctively, they would qualify as middle powers. While it is not the objective here to question the characteristics of Jordan's definition of middle powers, we argue that Pakistan is in fact a middle power despite its being nuclear-armed. When looking at the numbers, for instance, it appears that Saudi Arabia and Pakistan can be classified as middle powers."
^Zia & Burton 2023.
^Rais 2017.
^Cornwall & Edwards 2014.
^Joseph 2016.
^Baqir 2018.
^SATP 2024.
^Aziz 1987.
^ a bSaqib & Malik 2018.
^Lahiri 2023.
^Tummala 1996.
^Anand 1991.
^Parker 2017.
^Allchin & Petraglia 2007.
^Ahmed 2014.
^Coningham & Young (2015) "Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different from other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of Nausharo (c. 2800—2000 BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984)."
^Fisher (2018) "The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well."
^Dyson (2018) "The subcontinent's people were hunter-gatherers for many millennia. There were very few of them. Indeed, 10,000 years ago there may only have been a couple of hundred thousand people, living in small, often isolated groups, the descendants of various 'modern' human incomers. Then, perhaps linked to events in Mesopotamia, about 8,500 years ago agriculture emerged in Baluchistan."
^Allchin & Allchin (1982) "During the second half of the fourth and early part of the third millennium B.C., a new development begins to become apparent in the greater Indus system, which we can now see to be a formative stage underlying the Mature Indus of the middle and late third millennium. This development seems to have involved the whole Indus system, and to a lesser extent the Indo-Iranian borderlands to its west, but largely left untouched the subcontinent east of the Indus system."
^Dales, Kenoyer & Alcock 1986.
^Burrison 2017.
^Oursel 2015.
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Ninan (2018)
Parmar (2018)
Consiglio (2015)
Carmichael (2022)
^Behrendt 2007.
^Rahmaan 2017.
^Oberlies 2023.
^Stonard 2017.
^Dandamaev 2023.
^Sadasivan 2011.
^ a bJames 1980.
^Khan 2022, p. 114.
^Cooke 2017.
^Pollitt 1986.
^Quintanilla 2007.
^Kubica 2023.
^Westmoreland 2019.
^Needham (1994) "When the men of Alexander the Great came to Taxila in India in the fourth century BCE they found a university there the like of which had not been seen in Greece, a university which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments and was still existing when the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien went there about CE 400."
^Kulke & Rothermund (2016) "In the early centuries the centre of Buddhist scholarship was the University of Taxila."
^Mookerji 1989.
^Banerjee 2022.
^Mufti 2013.
^ a bHoodbhoy 2023.
^Cavendish 2006, p. 318.
^Stubbs & Thomson (2016) "Perhaps best known as home to Asia's earliest cities, the Harappan sites of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, Pakistan's rich history includes contributions from prominent Buddhist, Hindu, Hellenistic, Jain and Zoroastrian civilizations, as well as those connected to its Islamic heritage."
^Malik 2006, p. 47.
^Lapidus 2014.
^Samad 2011.
^Faroqhi 2019.
^Canfield 2002.
^Chandra 2005.
^Malik 2006, p. 79.
^Metcalf & Metcalf 2006.
^MacDonald 2017.
^Simpson 2007.
^ a bWolpert (1984, p. 17) "Barrister Jinnah of Bombay remained as remote from such feelings, as out of tune with such reasoning, as he had been in London in 1893, when Sir Sayyid first spoke of Hindus and Muslims as "different nationalities.""
^ a bSengupta (2023) "Syed Ahmad Khan, the founder of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (which later became Aligarh Muslim University), had declared in a speech in Meerut what would become famous as the "two nation theory.""......"Is it possible that under these circumstances two nations — the Mahomedans and the Hindus — could sit on the same throne and remain equal in power? Most certainly not."
^ a b cHolt & Curta 2016.
^Wolpert 1984.
^Rustomji 1952.
^Walbridge 2012.
^Gayer 2014.
^Sharma, D'Angelo & Giri 2020.
^Pirbhai 2009.
^Harjani 2018.
^Cook 1975.
^Khan 2022, p. 119.
^Cavendish 2006, p. 365.
^Law 1999.
^Hussain 2015.
^Malleson 2016.
^Hali & Akhtar 1993.
^Hardy (1972) "Much has been made' of the failure of Congress and the Muslim parties to agree over the Nehru Report and of the rejection of Jinnah's 'Fourteen Points' as a significant milestone along the way to the partition of India. A great opportunity was lost, it is thought, for the abandonment of separate electorates by voluntary Muslim agreement."
^Wuthnow (2013) "To satisfy Muslims' determination to have guaranteed rights in the future political system of India and to maintain territorial unity of the Indian state, by 1929 Jinnah produced the formula known as the Fourteen Points of Mr. Jinnah.
The Fourteen Points included separate electorates for Muslims in the provinces of India, parity of electoral representation in the Punjab and Bengal, and electoral considerations for Muslims in those provinces in which they were a minority, although they would retain clear majority in the Northwest Frontier Province, Baluchistan, and Sind."
^ a bSingh & Shani (2021) "Jinnah's famous 'fourteen points' as a condition for support for India's unity, with strong provinces within a weak Indian federation, marked the parting of ways between the Congress and the Muslim national leadership (Jalal 1994, 10–11). At the 1930 session of the All-Indian Muslim Conference, Sir Mohammed Iqbal proposed a Muslim homeland that would serve 'as a symbolic cultural expression of the common striving of Muslim fulfilment – a political manifestation of a common mission' (Gilmartin 1988, 167). The idea of self-determination for India's Muslims was constructed mainly in fear of the majoritarian 'secular' (Hindu) nationalism of the Congress."
^Iqbal (two-nation theory): multiple sources:
N. Khan (2012)
Basu & Miroshnik (2023) "Mohammed Iqbal was credited with coming up with the two-nation theory in his speech at Allahabad in 1930 to the Muslim League in a very formal way by saying: "I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind, and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within the British Empire or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Moslem State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Moslems, at least of NorthWest India" (Zaidi, 1993; Ahmed, 1970)."
Hussain (2018) "After repeated demands for stronger constitutional safeguards to protect the rights of minorities, Iqbal eventually opted for a separate Islamic Republic instead. As opposed to putting the free and rational individual at the centre of his democratic theory, Iqbal’s republic primarily required Muslims endowed with a specific character and smelted together by a peculiar vision of individuality. Like a number of his contemporaries, Iqbal warmed up to the two nation-theory. Unlike the mainstream view, however, which read an eternal struggle of Hindus and Muslims back into Indian history, Iqbal’s concept of the Muslim nation was something to be striven towards, not something to be replanted from the past. Iqbal believed that the best way to actualize this national sentiment in the present, was through individual political action."
^Pandeya 2003.
^Basu & Miroshnik 2017.
^M. H. Khan 2016.
^Tucker (2020) "Gandhi's decision played directly into the hands of Jinnah. Jinnah's Muslim League strongly supported the Allied war effort and thereby greatly advanced the possibility of the creation of a separate Muslim state in the Indian subcontinent after the war."
^Chandra 2008.
^Mohiuddin (2007, p. 70) "In the elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 90 percent of the legislative seats reserved for Muslims. It was the power of the big zamindars in Punjab and Sindh behind the Muslim League candidates that led to this massive landslide victory (Alavi 2002, 14). Even Congress, which had always denied the League's claim to be the only true representative of Indian Muslims had to concede the truth of that claim. The 1946 election was, in effect, a plebiscite among Muslims on Pakistan."
^Mohiuddin (2007, p. 71) "Despite the League's victory in the elections, the British did not want the partition of British India. As a last attempt to avoid it, Britain put forward the Cabinet Mission Plan, according to which India would become a federation of three large, self-governing provinces and the central government would be limited to power over foreign policy and defense, implying a weak center."
^Wolpert 1984, p. 309.
^Markovits 2012.
^ a bWolpert 1984, pp. 328–329.
^Hasanie 2013.
^Akbarzadeh 2020.
^Cohen 2004, p. 6.
^Casualties/Genocide: multiple sources:
Sikand (2004)
Butalia (2000)
Isaacs (1975) "2,000,000 killed in the Hindu-Muslim holocaust during the partition of British-India and the creation of India and Pakistan"
Basrur (2008) "An estimated 12–15 million people were displaced, and some 2 million died. The legacy of Partition (never without a capital P) remains strong today ..."
D'Costa (2011) "Estimates of the dead vary from 200,000 (the contemporary British figure) to 2 million (a subsequent Indian speculation). Today, however, it is widely accepted that nearly a million people died during Partition (Butalia, 1997)."
Brass (2003) "In the event, largely but not exclusively as a consequence of their efforts, the entire Muslim population of the eastern Punjab districts migrated to West Punjab and the entire Sikh and Hindu populations moved to East Punjab in the midst of widespread intimidation, terror, violence, abduction, rape, and murder."
^Rape figures: multiple sources:
Visweswaran (2011)
Daiya (2011) "The official estimate of the number of abducted women during Partition was placed at 33,000 non-Muslim (Hindu or Sikh predominantly) women in Pakistan, and 50,000 Muslim women in India."
Abraham (2002) "In addition thousands of women on both sides of the newly formed borders (estimated range from 29,000 to 50,000 Muslim women and 15,000 to 35,000 Hindu and Sikh women) were abducted, raped, forced to convert, forced into marriage, forced back into what the two States defined as 'their proper homes', torn apart from their families once during partition by those who abducted them, and again, after partition, by the State which tried to 'recover' and 'rehabilitate' them."
Singh, Iyer & Gairola (2016) "The horrific statistics that surround women refugees-between 75,000–100,000 Hindu, Muslim and Sikh women who were abducted by men of the other communities, subjected to multiple rapes, mutilations, and, for some, forced marriages and conversions-is matched by the treatment of the abducted women in the hands of the nation-state. In the Constituent Assembly in 1949 it was recorded that of the 50,000 Muslim women abducted in India, 8,000 of then were recovered, and of the 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women abducted, 12,000 were recovered."
^Hasan & Raza (2009) "When the British Indian Empire was partitioned in 1947, 4.7 million Sikhs and Hindus left what is today Pakistan for India, and 6.5 million Muslims migrated from India to Pakistan."
^Riggs 2024.
^Bhaumik 1996.
^ a bKazmi 2003.
^ a b cTucker 2017.
^Akbar 2018.
^Kumarasingham (2013) "Few today, including those who work on the subcontinent, recollect that India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka did not become republics the day British rule ended. Even distinguished scholars of Empire like Perry Anderson and A. G. Hopkins have made the common assumption that India naturally became a republic upon independence on 15 August 1947. Instead, all three of these South Asian states began their independent life as Realms within the British Commonwealth and mirrored the style and institutions of the Dominions of Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. Though their sovereignty was in no way impaired by this seemingly ambiguous position they all held the British sovereign as their head of state who was represented in each capital by a governor- general appointed on the advice of the local prime minister. India, Pakistan and Ceylon were Realms from 1947 to 1950, 1947 to 1956 and 1948 to 1972 respectively."
^McGrath (1996) "Undivided India, their magnificent imperial trophy, was besmirched by the creation of Pakistan, and the division of India was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, Mountbatten among them."
^Ahmed (1997) "Mountbatten's partiality was apparent in his own statements. He tilted openly and heavily towards Congress. While doing so he clearly expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League and its Pakistan idea."
^Wolpert (2009) "Mountbatten tried to convince Jinnah of the value of accepting him, Mountbatten, as Pakistan's first governor-general, but Jinnah refused to be moved from his determination to take that job himself."
^Lapierre & Collins (2015) "Not only was I not aware, but nobody was aware. Nobody had a clue. I'm glad I didn't because I just don't know what I would have done if I'd known that.
You see, Jinnah was so much of a one-man band. If somebody had told me he's going to be dead in x months would I then
-I am asking myself this question now-would I have said, Let's hold India together and not divide it? Would I have put back the clock, and held the position? Most probably. I have a feeling Jinnah may not have known himself he had tuberculosis. He was a very severe, cold and repressed person. Nothing would have surprised me about him. He was an extraordinary creature."
^Wilson 2009.
^Hussain (2008) "Mawlānā Shabbīr Ahmad Usmānī, a respected Deobandī ʿālim (scholar) who was appointed to the prestigious position of Shaykh al-Islām of Pakistan in 1949, was the first to demand that Pakistan become an Islamic state. But Mawdūdī and his Jamāʿat-i Islāmī played the central part in the demand for an Islamic constitution. Mawdūdī demanded that the Constituent Assembly make an unequivocal declaration affirming the "supreme sovereignty of God" and the supremacy of the sharīʿah as the basic law of Pakistan."
^ a bHussain (2008) "The first important result of the combined efforts of the Jamāʿat-i Islāmī and the ʿulamāʿ was the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949, whose formulation reflected compromise between traditionalists and modernists. The resolution embodied "the main principles on which the constitution of Pakistan is to be based". It declared that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust", that "the principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam shall be fully observed", and that "the Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accord with the teaching and requirements of Islam as set out in the Holy Qurʿan and Sunna". The Objectives Resolution has been reproduced as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973."
^Wynbrandt 2009, p. 190–197.
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^Westad 2005.
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^Tucker 2015.
^Chapman 2018.
^Husain 2010.
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^ a bKhan 2012.
^Ahmad 2023.
^Mazari 2003.
^Chakma 2014.
^Yarbakhsh 2019.
^Khoja-Moolji 2021.
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^Zulfiqar 2011.
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^Martini, Ford & Jackson 2020.
^Mansbach, Pirro & Taylor 2017.
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^Kapoor 2009.
^Waseem 2022.
^Dede & Sadioglu 2016.
^Ruhland 2019.
^Burnett 2020.
^Central Intelligence Agency 2023.
^Afzal 2024.
^Tariq & Stenson 2024.
^Cheng et al. 2022.
^Agarwal & Ahmad 2021.
^Malik 2015.
^Mordi & Adisa 2022.
^Haque 2002.
^Britannica (Gulf of Oman) 2024.
^ a bFactbook 2024.
^Karaman 2012.
^Banerjee 2019.
^ a bMohiuddin 2007, p. 3, 317, 323–324.
^Kreft 2007.
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Alisibramulisi et al. (2022)
Britannica (Azad Kashmir) (2024)
^Descloitres 2002.
^Cavendish 2006, p. 297.
^Blood 1996, p. 82.
^Jiwani 2021.
^Bright 2017.
^Samuel 2016.
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^Blood 1996, p. 87.
^Lane, Norton & Ryan 2017.
^El-Esawi 2019.
^ a bAbul-Soad 2011.
^Descals et al. 2023.
^Spate & Learmonth 2017.
^Sandhu 2010.
^UNEP-WCMC 2024.
^Akhtar & Mirza 2006.
^PEPA 2016.
^World Bank 2024.
^Fatima 2020.
^ a bFaridah-Hanum et al. 2015.
^Grimmett & Inskipp 2021.
^Hunter 2018.
^San et al. 2021.
^Flux & Chapman 1990.
^ a bSrinivasulu & Srinivasulu 2012.
^Waseem et al. 2020.
^Sunquist & Sunquist 2014.
^Sunquist & Sunquist 2017.
^Stoneman 2021.
^Tisdell 2013.
^Srinivasulu 2018.
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^Somerville 2021.
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^CBD Report 2009.
^Mallon & Kingswood 2001.
^Woods, Mufti & Hasan 1997.
^WWF 2024.
^Grantham et al. 2020.
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^ a bMunir 1975.
^Cohen 2004, p. 65.
^Cohen 2004.
^Tertrais & Sokolski 2013.
^He, Breen & Allison-Reumann 2023.
^Bloor 2023.
^B. Chakma 2014.
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^F. Hussain 2015.
^Mahmood 1965.
^Yap & Abeyratne 2023, p. 272.
^Dowding & Dumont 2014.
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^ a bIFES 2013.
^Establishment Division 2021.
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^Dhulipala (2015, p. 496) "The idea of Pakistan may have had its share of ambiguities, but its dismissal as a vague emotive symbol hardly illuminates the reasons as to why it received such overwhelmingly popular support among Indian Muslims, especially those in the 'minority provinces' of British India such as U.P."
^Dhulipala (2015, p. 497) "As the book has demonstrated, local ML functionaries, (U.P.) ML leadership, Muslim modernists at Aligarh, the ulama and even Jinnah at times articulated their vision of Pakistan in terms of an Islamic state."
^Dhulipala (2015, p. 489) "But what is undeniable is the close association he developed with the ulama, for when he died a little over a year after Pakistan was born, Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, in his funeral oration, described Jinnah as the greatest Muslim after the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb."……"Similarly, Usmani asked Pakistanis to remember the Qaid's ceaseless message of Unity, Faith and Discipline and work to fulfil his dream to create a solid bloc of all Muslim states from Karachi to Ankara, from Pakistan to Morocco. He [Jinnah] wanted to see the Muslims of the world united under the banner of Islam as an effective check against the aggressive designs of their enemies."
^Haqqani (2010, p. 16) "The first formal step toward transforming Pakistan into an Islamic ideological state was taken in March 1949 when the country's first prime minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, presented the Objectives Resolution in the constituent assembly."
^Dhulipala (2015, p. 491) "Khaliq drew a sharp distinction between this Islamic state and a Muslim state. He claimed that as of now Pakistan was only a Muslim state in view of the majority of its population being Muslim, and indeed could never be an Islamic state by itself. It could certainly fulfill its promise and destiny by bringing together all the believers of Islam into one political unit and it is only then that an Islamic state would be achieved."
^Haqqani (2010, p. 18) "One of the earliest Western scholars of Pakistani politics, Keith Callard, observed that Pakistanis seemed to believe in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world: Pakistan was founded to advance the cause of Muslims. Other Muslims might have been expected to be sympathetic, even enthusiastic. But this assumed that other Muslim states would take the same view of the relation between religion and nationality."
^Haqqani (2010, p. 18) "Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, however, were neither shared nor supported by the Muslim governments of the time. Nationalism in other parts of the Muslim world was based on ethnicity, language, or territory."
^Haqqani (2010, p. 19) "Although Muslim governments were initially unsympathetic to Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, Islamists from the world over were drawn to Pakistan. Controversial figures such as the pro-Nazi former grand mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini, and leaders of Islamist political movements like the Arab Muslim Brotherhood became frequent visitors to the country."
^Haqqani 2010, p. 19.
^Cochrane (2009) "The social scientist, Nasim Ahmad Jawed has conducted a survey of nationalism in pre-divided Pakistan and identifies the links between religion, politics and nationalism in both wings of Pakistan. His findings are fascinating and go some way to explain the differing attitudes of West and East Pakistan to the relationship between Islam and Pakistani nationalism and how this affected the views of people in both wings, especially the views of the peoples of both wings towards each other. In 1969, Jawed conducted a survey on the type of national identity that was used by educated professional people. He found that just over 60% in the East wing professed to have a secular national identity. However, in the West wing, the same figure professed an Islamic and not a secular identity. Furthermore, the same figure in the East wing described their identity in terms of their ethnicity and not in terms of Islam. He found that the opposite was the case in the West wing where Islam was stated to be more important than ethnicity."
^Lintner 2002.
^Diamantides & Gearey (2011, p. 196) "The Constitution of 1973 was created by a parliament that was elected in the 1970 elections. In this first ever general elections ..."
^Iqbal 2009.
^Diamantides & Gearey (2011, p. 198) "The 1973 constitution also created certain institutions to channel the application and interpretation of Islam: the Council of Islamic Ideology and the Shariat Court."
^Nasr 1996.
^ a bKepel 2006.
^Diamantides & Gearey (2011, p. 198) "The Shariat judicial courts were not present in the original Constitution of 1973 and were later inserted in 1979 by General Zia-ul Haq ..."
^Haqqani 2010, p. 400.
^Asia Watch Committee (U.S.) 1992.
^Wynbrandt (2009, p. 216–217) "Zia, however, tried to bolster the influence of Islamic parties and the ulama on government and society."
^Syed et al. (2016, p. 379) "... the military dictator Zia ul Haq (1977–1988) forged a strong alliance between the military and Deobani institutions and movements (e.g. the TJ)."
^Syed et al. (2016, p. 346) "The grave impact of that legacy was compunded by the Iranian Revolution, and Zia-ul Haq's anti-Shia policies, which added the violence and regimentation of the organization."
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^Pasha (2005, p. 226) "Following Khaliquzzaman, the Ali brothers had sought to project Pakistan, with its comparatively larger manpower and military strength, as the natural leader of the Islamic world."
^Dhulipala (2015, p. 18) "As a top ranking ML leader Khaliquzzaman declared, 'Pakistan would bring all Muslim countries together into Islamistan – a pan-Islamic entity'."
^Haqqani (2013, pp. 20–21) "Within a few years the president of the Muslim League, Chaudhry Khaliq-uz-Zaman, announced that Pakistan would bring all Muslim countries together into Islamistan – a pan-Islamic entity. None of these developments within the new country elicited approval among Americans for the idea of India's partition ... British Prime Minister Clement Attlee voiced the international consensus at the time when he told the House of Commons of his hope that 'this severance may not endure.' He hoped that the proposed dominions of India and Pakistan would in course of time, come together to form one great Member State of the British Commonwealth of Nations."
^Haqqani (2013, p. 22) "During this time most of the Arab world was going through a nationalist awakening. Pan-Islamic dreams involving the unification of Muslim countries, possibly under Pakistani leadership, had little attraction."
^Roberts (2003) "The following year, Choudhry Khaliquzzaman toured the Middle East, pleading for the formation of an alliance or confederation of Muslim states. The Arab states, often citing Pakistan's inability to solve its problems with Muslim neighbor Afghanistan, showed little enthusiasm ... Some saw the effort to form 'Islamistan' as a Pakistani attempt to dominate other Muslim states."
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^Hunter (2010) "Since then, Pakistan's sectarian tensions have been a major irritant in Iranian-Pakistan relations."
^ a bPande (2011, p. 159) "Both Saudi Arabia and Iran used Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy war for the 'hearts and minds' of Pakistani Sunnis and Shias with the resultant rise in sectarian tensions in Pakistan. The rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan in the 1990s further strained Pakistan-Iran relations. Pakistan's support of the Sunni Pashtun organization created problems for Shia Iran for whom a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan was a nightmare."
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over 2 million: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (4 December 2008). "Pakistan: The situation of Ahmadis, including legal status and political, education and employment rights; societal attitudes toward Ahmadis (2006 – Nov. 2008)". Retrieved 28 June 2012.
3 million: International Federation for Human Rights: International Fact-Finding Mission. Freedoms of Expression, of Association and of Assembly in Pakistan. Ausgabe 408/2, January 2005, S. 61 (PDF)
3–4 million: Commission on International Religious Freedom: Annual Report of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. 2005, S. 130
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Zreik, Mohamad, ed. (2024). Soft Power and Diplomatic Strategies in Asia and the Middle East. IGI Global. p. 209. ISBN 979-8-3693-2445-5. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
Further reading
Allchin, F. Raymond (1993). "The Urban Position of Taxila and Its Place in Northwest India-Pakistan". Studies in the History of Art. 31: 69–81. JSTOR 42620473.
Lieven, Anatol (2012). Pakistan: A Hard Country. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-61039-145-0.
Malik, Hafeez (2006). The Encyclopedia of Pakistan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-597735-6.
Malik, Iftikhar (2005). Culture and Customs of Pakistan (Culture and Customs of Asia). Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-33126-8.
McCartney, Matthew (2011). Pakistan: The Political Economy of Growth, Stagnation and the State, 1951–2009. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-57747-2.
Raja, Masood Ashraf (2010). Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-547811-2.
Stimson, Robert; Haynes, Kingsley E. (1 January 2012). Studies in Applied Geography and Spatial Analysis: Addressing Real World Issues. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78100-796-9.
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