The traditional Mongolian script,[note 1] also known as the Khudam Mongol bichig,[note 2] was the first writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language, and was the most widespread until the introduction of Cyrillic in 1946. It is traditionally written in vertical lines Top-Down, right across the page. Derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, it is a true alphabet, with separate letters for consonants and vowels. It has been adapted for such languages as Oirat and Manchu. Alphabets based on this classical vertical script continue to be used in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia to write Mongolian, Xibe and, experimentally, Evenki.
Computer operating systems have been slow to adopt support for the Mongolian script; almost all have incomplete support or other text rendering difficulties.
History
The Mongolian vertical script developed as an adaptation of the Old Uyghur alphabet for the Mongolian language.[2]: 545 Tata-tonga, a 13th-century Uyghur scribe captured by Genghis Khan, was responsible for bringing the Old Uyghur alphabet to the Mongolian Plateau and adapting it to the form of the Mongolian script.[3]
From the seventh and eighth to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Mongolian language separated into southern, eastern and western dialects. The principal documents from the period of the Middle Mongol language are: in the eastern dialect, the famous text The Secret History of the Mongols, monuments in the Square script, materials of the Chinese–Mongolian glossary of the fourteenth century and materials of the Mongolian language of the middle period in Chinese transcription, etc.; in the western dialect, materials of the Arab–Mongolian and Persian–Mongolian dictionaries, Mongolian texts in Arabic transcription, etc.[4]: 1–2 The main features of the period are that the vowels ï and i had lost their phonemic significance, creating the iphoneme (in the Chakhar dialect, the Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, these vowels are still distinct); inter-vocal consonants γ/g, b/w had disappeared and the preliminary process of the formation of Mongolian long vowels had begun; the initial h was preserved in many words; grammatical categories were partially absent, etc. The development over this period explains why the Mongolian script looks like a vertical Arabic script (in particular the presence of the dot system).[4]: 1–2
Eventually, minor concessions were made to the differences between the Uyghur and Mongol languages: In the 17th and 18th centuries, smoother and more angular versions of the letter tsadi became associated with [dʒ] and [tʃ] respectively, and in the 19th century, the Manchu hooked yodh was adopted for initial [j]. Zain was dropped as it was redundant for [s]. Various schools of orthography, some using diacritics, were developed to avoid ambiguity.[2]: 545
Traditional Mongolian words are written vertically from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right. The Old Uyghur script and its descendants, of which traditional Mongolian is one among Oirat Clear, Manchu, and Buryat are the only known vertical scripts written from left to right. This developed because the Uyghurs rotated their Sogdian-derived script, originally written right to left, 90 degrees counterclockwise to emulate Chinese writing, but without changing the relative orientation of the letters.[5][1]: 36
The reed pen was the writing instrument of choice until the 18th century, when the brush took its place under Chinese influence.[6]: 422 Pens were also historically made of wood, bamboo, bone, bronze, or iron. Ink used was black or cinnabar red, and written with on birch bark, paper, cloths made of silk or cotton, and wooden or silver plates.[7]: 80–81
Mongols learned their script as a syllabary, dividing the syllables into twelve different classes, based on the final phonemes of the syllables, all of which ended in vowels.[8]
The script remained in continuous use by Mongolian speakers in Inner Mongolia in the People's Republic of China. In the Mongolian People's Republic, it was largely replaced by the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet, although the vertical script remained in limited use. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to increase the use of the traditional Mongolian script and to use both Cyrillic and Mongolian script in official documents by 2025.[9][10][11] However, due to the particularity of the traditional Mongolian script, a large part (40%[12]) of the SinicizedMongols in China are unable to read or write this script, and in many cases the script is only used symbolically on plaques in many cities.[13][14]
Names
The script is known by a wide variety of names. As it was derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, the Mongol script is known as the Uighur(-)Mongol script.[note 3] From 1941 onwards, it became known as the Old Script,[note 4] in contrast to the New Script,[note 5] referring to Cyrillic. The Mongolian script is also known as the Hudum or 'not exact' script,[note 6] in comparison with the Todo 'clear, exact' script,[note 7] and also as 'vertical script'.[note 8][15]: 308 [1]: 30–32, 38–39 [16]: 640 [17]: 7 [18][19]: 206 [20]: 27 [21]
Overview
The traditional or classical Mongolian alphabet, sometimes called Hudum 'traditional' in Oirat in contrast to the Clear script (Todo 'exact'), is the original form of the Mongolian script used to write the Mongolian language. It does not distinguish several vowels (o/u, ö/ü, final a/e) and consonants (syllable-initial t/d and k/g, sometimes ǰ/y) that were not required for Uyghur, which was the source of the Mongol (or Uyghur-Mongol) script.[5] The result is somewhat comparable to the situation of English, which must represent ten or more vowels with only five letters and uses the digraphth for two distinct sounds. Ambiguity is sometimes prevented by context, as the requirements of vowel harmony and syllable sequence usually indicate the correct sound. Moreover, as there are few words with an exactly identical spelling, actual ambiguities are rare for a reader who knows the orthography.
Letters have different forms depending on their position in a word: initial, medial, or final. In some cases, additional graphic variants are selected for visual harmony with the subsequent character.
The rules for writing below apply specifically for the Mongolian language, unless stated otherwise.
Vowel harmony
Mongolian vowel harmony separates the vowels of words into three groups – two mutually exclusive and one neutral:
The back, male, masculine,[22]hard, or yang[23] vowels a, o, and u.
The front, female, feminine,[22]soft, or yin[23] vowels e, ö, and ü.
The neutral vowel i, able to appear in all words.
Any Mongolian word can contain the neutral vowel i, but only vowels from either of the other two groups. The vowel qualities of visually separated vowels and suffixes must likewise harmonize with those of the preceding word stem. Such suffixes are written with front or neutral vowels when preceded by a word stem containing only neutral vowels. Any of these rules might not apply for foreign words however.[4]: 11, 35, 39 [24]: 10 [25]: 4 [26]
Separated final vowels
A separated final form of vowels a or e is common, and can appear at the end of a word stem, or suffix. This form requires a final-shaped preceding letter, and an inter-word gap in between. This gap can be transliterated with a hyphen.[note 9][4]: 30, 77 [27]: 42 [1]: 38–39 [25]: 27 [28]: 534–535
The presence or lack of a separated a or e can also indicate differences in meaning between different words (compare ᠬᠠᠷᠠ⟨?⟩qar‑a 'black' with ᠬᠠᠷᠠqara 'to look').[29]: 3 [28]: 535
Its form could be confused with that of the identically shaped traditional dative-locative suffix ‑a/‑e exemplified further down. That form however, is more commonly found in older texts, and more commonly takes the forms of ⟨ᠲ᠋ᠤᠷ⟩tur/tür or ⟨ᠳ᠋ᠤᠷ⟩dur/dür instead.[24]: 15 [30][1]: 46
Separated suffixes
All case suffixes, as well as any plural suffixes consisting of one or two syllables, are likewise separated by a preceding and hyphen-transliterated gap.[note 10] A maximum of two case suffixes can be added to a stem.[4]: 30, 73 [24]: 12 [30][31][25]: 28 [28]: 534
Such single-letter vowel suffixes appear with the final-shaped forms of a/e, i, or u/ü,[4]: 30 as in ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷ ᠠ⟨?⟩γaǰar‑a 'to the country' and ᠡᠳᠦᠷ ᠡ⟨?⟩edür‑e 'on the day',[4]: 39 or ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ᠢ⟨?⟩ulus‑i 'the state' etc.[4]: 23 Multi-letter suffixes most often start with an initial- (consonants), medial- (vowels), or variant-shaped form. Medial-shaped u in the two-letter suffix ᠤᠨ⟨?⟩‑un/‑ün is exemplified in the adjacent newspaper logo.[4]: 30 [28]: 27
Consonant clusters
Two medial consonants are the most that can come together in original Mongolian words. There are however, a few loanwords that can begin or end with two or more.[note 11]
Compound names
In the modern language, proper names (but not words) usually forms graphic compounds (such as those of ᠬᠠᠰᠡᠷᠳᠡᠨᠢQas'erdeni 'Jasper-jewel' or ᠬᠥᠬᠡᠬᠣᠲᠠKökeqota – the city of Hohhot or 'Blue-city'). These also allow components of different harmonic classes to be joined together, and where the vowels of an added suffix will harmonize with those of the latter part of the compound. Orthographic peculiarities are most often retained, as with the short and long teeth of an initial-shaped ⟨ᠥ→ᠥ᠌⟩ö in ᠮᠤᠤᠥ᠌ᠬᠢᠨMuu'ökin 'Bad Girl' (protective name). Medial t and d, in contrast, are not affected in this way.[4]: 30 [33]: 92 [1]: 44 [17]: 88
Isolate citation forms
Isolate citation forms for syllables containing o, u, ö, and ü may in dictionaries appear without a final tail as in ⟨ᠪᠣ⟩bo/bu or ⟨ᠮᠣ᠋⟩mo/mu, and with a vertical tail as in ⟨ᠪᠥ᠋⟩bö/bü or ⟨ᠮᠥ᠋⟩mö/mü (as well as in transcriptions of Chinese syllables).[26][1]: 39
Letters
Sort orders
Native Mongolian
Galik characters
In 1587, the translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh created the Galik alphabet (Али-галиAli-gali), inspired by the third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso. It primarily added extra characters for transcribing Tibetan and Sanskrit terms when translating religious texts, and later also from Chinese. Some of those characters are still in use today for writing foreign names (as listed below).[38]
In 1917, the politician and linguist Bayantömöriin Khaisan published the rime dictionaryMongolian-Han Bilingual Original Sounds of the Five Regions,[a] a bilingual edition of the earlier Original Sounds of the Five Regions,[b] to aid Mongolian speakers in learning Mandarin Chinese. To that end, he included transliterations of Mandarin using the Mongolian script, and repurposed three Galik letters to represent the Mandarin retroflex consonants. These letters remain in use in Inner Mongolia for the purpose of transcribing Chinese.[39]
When written between words, punctuation marks use space on both sides of them. They can also appear at the very end of a line, regardless of where the preceding word ends.[33]: 99 Red (cinnabar) ink is used in many manuscripts, to either symbolize emphasis or respect.[33]: 241 Modern punctuation incorporates Western marks: parentheses; quotation, question, and exclamation marks; including precomposed ⁈ and ⁉.[28]: 535–536
Numerals
Mongolian numerals are either written from left to right, or from top to bottom.[4]: 54 [36]: 9 For typographical reasons, they are rotated 90° in modern books to fit on the line.[24]: 56
Components and writing styles
Components
Listed in the table below are letter components (graphemes)[note 26] commonly used across the script. Some of these are used with several letters, and others to contrast between them. As their forms and usage may differ between writing styles, however, examples of these can be found under this section below.
Writing styles
As exemplified in this section, the shapes of glyphs may vary widely between different styles of writing and choice of medium with which to produce them. The development of written Mongolian can be divided into the three periods of pre-classical (beginning – 17th century), classical (16/17th century – 20th century), and modern (20th century onward):[32][4]: 2–3, 17, 23, 25–26 [24]: 58–59 [2]: 539–540, 545–546 [36]: 62–63 [47]: 111, 113–114 [27]: 40–42, 100–101, 117 [1]: 34–37 [53]: 8–11 [19]: 211–215
Rounded letterforms
Rounded letterforms tend to be more prevalent with handwritten styles (compare printed and handwritten arban 'ten').
Tail
Final letterforms with a right-pointing tail (such as those of a, e, n, q, γ, m, l, s, š, and d) may have the notch preceding it in printed form, written in a span between two extremes: from as a more or less tapered point, to a fully rounded curve in handwriting.
The long final tails of a, e, n, and d in the texts of pre-classical Mongolian can become elongated vertically to fill up the remainder of a line. Such tails are used consistently for these letters in the earliest 13th to 15th century Uyghur Mongolian style of texts.
Examples of lengthened letterforms d and n in ‑daγan (left), and their regular equivalents (right)
Yodh
A hooked form of yodh was borrowed from the Manchu alphabet in the 19th century to distinguish initial y from ǰ. The handwritten form of final-shaped yodh (i, ǰ, y), can be greatly shortened in comparison with its initial and medial forms.
Diacritics
The definite status or function of diacritics was not established prior to classical Mongolian. As such, the dotted letters n, γ, and š, can be found sporadically dotted or altogether lacking them. Additionally, both q and γ could be (double-)dotted to identify them regardless of their sound values. Final dotted n is also found in modern Mongolian words. Any diacritical dots of γ and n can be offset downward from their respective letters (as in ᠭᠣᠣᠯγool and ᠭᠦᠨ ᠢ⟨?⟩ gün‑i).
Bow
When a bow-shaped consonant is followed by a vowel in Uyghur style text, said bow can be found to notably overlap it (see bi). A final b has, in its final pre-modern form, a bow-less final form as opposed to the common modern one:[1]: 39
Gimel-heth and kaph
As in kü, köke, ǰüg and separated a/e, two teeth can also make up the top-left part of a kaph (k/g) or aleph (a/e) in pre-classical texts. In back-vocalic words of Uyghur Mongolian, qi was used in place of ki, and can therefore be used to identify this stage of the written language. An example of this appears in the suffix ‑taqi/‑daqi.[27]: 100, 117
Ligatures
In pre-modern Mongolian, medial ml (ᠮᠯ) forms a ligature: .
Short tail
A pre-modern variant form for final s appears in the shape of a short final n⟨ᠰ᠋⟩, derived from Old Uyghur zayin (𐽴). It tended to be replaced by the mouth-shaped form and is no longer used. An early example of it is found in the name of Gengis Khan on the Stele of Yisüngge: ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ᠋Činggis. A zayin-shaped final can also appear as part of final m and γ.
Taw and lamedh
Initial taw (t/d) can, akin to final mem (m), be found written quite explicitly loopy (as in nom 'book' and toli 'mirror'). The lamedh (t or d) may appear simply as an oval loop or looped shin, or as more angular, with an either closed or open counter (as in ‑daki/‑deki or ‑dur/‑dür). As in metü, a Uyghur style word-medial t can sometimes be written with the pre-consonantal form otherwise used for d. Taw was applied to both initial t and d from the outset of the script's adoption. This was done in imitation of Old Uyghur which, however, had lacked the phoneme d in this position.
Tsade
Following the late classical Mongolian orthography of the 17th and 18th centuries, a smooth and angular tsade (ᠵ and ᠴ) has come to represent ǰ and č respectively. The tsade before this was used for both these phonemes, regardless of graphical variants, as no ǰ had existed in Old Uyghur:
Resh
As in sara and ‑dur/‑dür, a resh (of r, and sometimes of l) can appear as two teeth or crossed shins; adjacent, angled, attached to a shin and/or overlapping.
The Mongolian script was added to the Unicode standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. However, several design issues have been pointed out.[54]
The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode codes are duplicated and not searchable.
The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode model has multiple layers of FVS (free variation selectors), MVS, ZWJ, NNBSP, and those variation selections conflict with each other, which create incorrect results.[55] Furthermore, different vendors understood the definition of each FVS differently, and developed multiple applications in different standards.[56]
^In digital typesetting, this shaping is achieved by inserting a U+180EMONGOLIAN VOWEL SEPARATOR (MVS) between the separated letters.
^In digital typesetting, this shaping is achieved by inserting a U+202FNARROW NO-BREAK SPACE (NNBSP) between the separated letters.
^Examples of such include: (dotless š) gšan 'moment' (), gkir 'dirt' (), or bodisdv 'Bodhisattva' ().[4]: 15, 32 [24]: 9 [32]: 385
^Transliterations have been normalized according to this article's letter tables. Loan consonants are shown in parentheses.
^ a bScholarly/Scientific transliteration.[35]
^Used in Inner Mongolia, and always followed by i. Only used to transcribe the Mandarin Chinese retroflex r, as in 日; rì: ᠿᠢ.
^Lee & Zee (2003) harvp error: no target: CITEREFLeeZee2003 (help) and Lin (2007) harvp error: no target: CITEREFLin2007 (help) transcribe these as approximants, while Duanmu (2007) harvp error: no target: CITEREFDuanmu2007 (help) transcribes these as voiced fricatives. The actual pronunciation has been acoustically measured to be more approximant-like.[37][41]
^Only used in Tibetan loanwords to represent ལྷ syllables, as in ᡀᠠᠰᠠLhasa or ᠳᠠᡀᠠdalha 'enemy gods'.[42]: 31, 427, 432 [18]: 121 Treated as a separate letter due to representing an independent phoneme, but can be analysed as a digraph of ᠯ (l) and ᠾ (h) (noting the latter is in medial position).
^Used in Inner Mongolia, and always followed by i. Only used to transcribe the Mandarin Chinese retroflex zh, as in 之; zhī: ᡁᠢ. Takes the form of medial h, but used in initial position.
^Used in Inner Mongolia, and always followed by i. Only used to transcribe the Mandarin Chinese retroflex ch, as in 蚩; chī: ᡂᠢ.
^ a b c d e f g h i jJanhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7.
^ a b c d e fDaniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.
^Christian, David (1998). A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia: Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Wiley. p. 398. ISBN 978-0-631-20814-3.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p qPoppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2.
^ a bGyörgy Kara, "Aramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages", in Daniels & Bright The World's Writing Systems, 1994.
^Shepherd, Margaret (2013-07-03). Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan Calligraphy, and Beyond. Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed. ISBN 978-0-8230-8230-8.
^Berkwitz, Stephen C.; Schober, Juliane; Brown, Claudia (2009-01-13). Buddhist Manuscript Cultures: Knowledge, Ritual, and Art. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-00242-9.
^Chinggeltei. (1963) A Grammar of the Mongol Language. New York, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. p. 15.
^"Mongolia to promote usage of traditional script". China.org.cn (March 19, 2020).
^Official documents to be recorded in both scripts from 2025, Montsame, 18 March 2020.
^Mongolian Language Law is effective from July 1st, Gogo, 1 July 2015. "Misinterpretation 1:Use of cyrillic is to be terminated and only Mongolian script to be used. There is no provision in the law that states the termination of use of cyrillic. It clearly states that Mongolian script is to be added to the current use of cyrillic. Mongolian script will be introduced in stages and state and local government is to conduct their correspondence in both cyrillic and Mongolian script. This provision is to be effective starting January 1st of 2025. ID, birth certificate, marriage certificate and education certificates are to be both in Mongolian cyrillic and Mongolian script and currently Mongolian script is being used in official letters of President, Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament."
^藍美華. "近期內蒙古漢語教材抗爭事件觀察". ws.mac.gov.tw. Mainland Affairs Council. Archived from the original on 2021-03-12. Retrieved 2023-01-19.
^Caodaobateer (2004). "The Use and Development of Mongol and its Writing Systems in China". Language Policy in the People's Republic of China. Language Policy. 4. Dordrecht: 289–302. doi:10.1007/1-4020-8039-5_16. ISBN 1-4020-8038-7.
^Hsiao-ting Lin. "Ethnopolitics in modern China: the Nationalists, Muslims, and Mongols in wartime Alashaa Banner (1937–1945)". Stanford, CA, US: Hoover Institution, Stanford University.
^Hersch, Roger; Andre, Jacques; Brown, Heather (1998-03-18). EP '98. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-64298-5.
^Sanders, Alan J. K. (2010-05-20). Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7452-7.
^ a bJanhunen, Juha A. (2012). Mongolian. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-3820-7.
^ a bBawden, Charles (2013-10-28). Mongolian English Dictionary. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-15588-8.
^ a b c dBat-Ireedui, Jantsangiyn; Sanders, Alan J. K. (2015-08-14). Colloquial Mongolian: The Complete Course for Beginners. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-30598-9.
^Marzluf, Phillip P. (2017-11-22). Language, Literacy, and Social Change in Mongolia: Traditionalist, Socialist, and Post-Socialist Identities. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1-4985-3486-4.
^ a b c"Mongolian State Dictionary". mongoltoli.mn (in Mongolian). Retrieved 2017-12-14.
^ a b c d e fGrønbech, Kaare; Krueger, John Richard (1993). An Introduction to Classical (literary) Mongolian: Introduction, Grammar, Reader, Glossary. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-03298-8.
^ a b c"A Study of Traditional Mongolian Script Encodings and Rendering: Use of Unicode in OpenType fonts" (PDF). w.colips.org. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
^ a b c"Mongolian Traditional Script". cjvlang.com. Retrieved 2017-12-07.
^ a b c dSvantesson, Jan-Olof; Tsendina, Anna; Karlsson, Anastasia; Franzen, Vivan (2005-02-10). The Phonology of Mongolian. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-151461-6.
^ a b c d e f"The Unicode® Standard Version 10.0 – Core Specification: South and Central Asia-II" (PDF). Unicode.org. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
^ a bViklund, Andreas. "Lingua Mongolia – Mongolian Grammar". www.linguamongolia.com. Archived from the original on 2017-12-22. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
^"PROPOSAL Encode Mongolian Suffix Connector (U+180F) To Replace Narrow Non-Breaking Space (U+202F)" (PDF). Unicode.org. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
^ a b c dLessing, Ferdinand (1960). Mongolian-English Dictionary (PDF). University of California Press. Note that this dictionary uses the transliterations c, ø, x, y, z, ai, and ei; instead of č, ö, q, ü, ǰ, ayi, and eyi;: xii as well as problematically and incorrectly treats all rounded vowels (o/u/ö/ü) after the initial syllable as u or ü.[45]
^ a b c d eKara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3.
^ a b cJugder, Luvsandorj (2008). Vacek, Jaroslav; Oberfalzerová, Alena (eds.). "Diacritic marks in the Mongolian script and the 'darkness of confusion of letters'" (PDF). Mongolo-Tibetica Pragensia '08. 1 (1). Prague: Stanislav Juhaňák – TRITON: 45–98. ISSN 1803-5647. Retrieved 2024-08-29 – via Institute of Asian Studies, Charles University.
^ a b c d eSkorodumova, L. G. (2000). Vvedenie v staropismenny mongolskiy yazyk Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык (PDF) (in Russian). Muravey-Gayd. ISBN 5-8463-0015-4.
^ a b"Writing | Study Mongolian". www.studymongolian.net. August 2013. Retrieved 2017-12-14.
^Chuluunbaatar, Otgonbayar (2008). Einführung in die mongolischen Schriften (in German). Buske. ISBN 978-3-87548-500-4.
^Wu, Jiaye (2022). "Teaching Mandarin Pronunciation to Mongolian Learners in Early Republican Period China: The Case of the Mongolian Han Original Sounds of the Five Regions". In Nicola McLelland and Hui Zhao (ed.). Language Standardization and Language Variation in Multilingual Contexts. Multilingual Matters. ISBN 978-1-80041-155-5.
^"BabelStone: Mongolian and Manchu Resources". BabelStone (in Chinese). Retrieved 2024-07-11.
^Lee-Kim, Sang-Im (2014), "Revisiting Mandarin 'apical vowels': An articulatory and acoustic study", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 44 (3): 261–282, doi:10.1017/s0025100314000267, S2CID 16432272
^Even, Marie-Dominique (1992). Chants de chamanes mongols (in French). SEMS.
^ a bShagdarsürüng, Tseveliin (2001). "Study of Mongolian Scripts (Graphic Study or Grammatology). Enl". Bibliotheca Mongolica: Monograph 1.
^"Coins". Bank of Mongolia. 2006-03-09. Archived from the original on 2006-03-09. Retrieved 2022-08-31.
^"Exploring Mongolian Manuscript Collections in Russia and Beyond" (PDF). www.manuscript-cultures.uni-hamburg.de. Retrieved 2019-07-17.
^Liang, Hai (23 Sep 2017). "Current problems in the Mongolian encoding" (PDF). Unicode. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 June 2019. Retrieved 4 June 2019.
^Anderson, Debbie (22 Sep 2018). "Mongolian Ad Hoc meeting summary" (PDF). Unicode.
^Moore, Lisa (27 Mar 2019). "Summary of MWG2 Outcomes and Goals for MWG3 Meeting" (PDF). Unicode.Org.
^jowilco (22 June 2023). "Windows keyboard layouts - Globalization". Windows keyboard layouts. Retrieved 2023-09-02.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mongolian script.
Keyboards Mongolian script layout online
Lexilogos
Typingbaba
Branah.com
Summaries
University of Vienna: Grammar of Written Mongolian by Nicholas POPPE Index
CJVlang: Making Sense of the Traditional Mongolian Script
StudyMongolian: Written forms with audio pronunciation
The Silver Horde: Mongol Scripts
Lingua Mongolia: Uighur-script Mongolian Resources Archived 2022-03-19 at the Wayback Machine
Omniglot: Mongolian Alphabet (note: contains several table inaccuracies regarding glyphs and transliterations)
Studies
(fr) Rémusat, Abel Récherches sur les langues tartares, Paris, 1820
Grammars
(ru) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, Грамматика монгольскaго языка (Grammatika mongolʹskago i︠a︡zyka), Saint-Petersburg, 1832
(ru) Bobrovnikov, Aleksieĭ Aleksandrovich Грамматика монгольско-калмыцкого языка (Grammatika mongolʹsko-kalmyt͡skago i͡azyka), Kazan, 1849
(de) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, Grammatik der mongolischen Sprache, St. Petersburg, 1831
(fr) Soulié, Charles Georges, Éléments de grammaire mongole (dialecte ordoss), Paris, 1903
(it) Puini, Carlo, Elementi della grammatica mongolica, Firenze, 1878
Mongol toli dictionary: state dictionary of Mongolia
Transliteration
University of Virginia: Transliteration Schemes For Mongolian Vertical Script
Online tool for Mongolian script transliteration
Automatic converter for Traditional Mongolian and Cyrillic Mongolian by the Computer College of Inner Mongolia University
Manuscripts
Mongolian Manuscripts from Olon Süme – Yokohama Museum of EurAsian Cultures
Digitised Mongolian manuscripts – The Royal Library, National Library of Denmark
Mongolian texts – Digitales Turfan-Archiv, the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities
Preservation of unique and historic newspapers printed in traditional Mongolian script between 1936–1945 – Endangered Archives Programme, British Library
Other
Official Mongolian script version of the People's Daily Online
Office of the President of Mongolia website in Mongolian script
Tang, Didi (20 March 2020). "Mongolia abandons Soviet past by restoring alphabet". The Times. Retrieved 21 March 2020.