El barroco ( en inglés : / bəˈrɒk / bə- ROK ; en inglés: / -ˈr oʊk / -ROHK ; en francés : [ baʁɔk] ) es un estilo occidental de arquitectura , música , danza , pintura , escultura , poesía y otras artes que florecieron desde principios del siglo XVII hasta la década de 1750. [1] Siguió al arte renacentista y al manierismo y precedió al rococó (en el pasado a menudo denominado "barroco tardío") y al neoclásico . Fue alentado por la Iglesia católica como un medio para contrarrestar la simplicidad y austeridad de la arquitectura, el arte y la música protestantes , aunque el arte barroco luterano también se desarrolló en partes de Europa. [2]
El estilo barroco utilizó el contraste, el movimiento, los detalles exuberantes, el color profundo, la grandeza y la sorpresa para lograr una sensación de asombro. El estilo comenzó a principios del siglo XVII en Roma, luego se extendió rápidamente al resto de Italia, Francia, España y Portugal, luego a Austria, el sur de Alemania y Polonia. En la década de 1730, había evolucionado hacia un estilo aún más extravagante, llamado rocalla o rococó , que apareció en Francia y Europa central hasta mediados y fines del siglo XVIII. En los territorios de los imperios español y portugués, incluida la península Ibérica, continuó, junto con nuevos estilos, hasta la primera década del siglo XIX.
En las artes decorativas , el estilo emplea una ornamentación abundante e intrincada. La salida del clasicismo renacentista tiene sus propias formas en cada país. Pero una característica general es que en todas partes el punto de partida son los elementos ornamentales introducidos por el Renacimiento . El repertorio clásico es abarrotado, denso, superpuesto, cargado, con el fin de provocar efectos de choque. Los motivos nuevos introducidos por el Barroco son: la cartela , los trofeos y armas, las cestas de frutas o flores, y otros, realizados en marquetería , estuco o tallados. [3]
La palabra inglesa barroco proviene directamente del francés . Algunos estudiosos afirman que la palabra francesa se originó a partir del término portugués barroco 'una perla defectuosa', lo que apunta al latín verruca 'verruga', [4] o a una palabra con el sufijo romance -ǒccu (común en la Iberia prerromana ). [5] [6] Otras fuentes sugieren un término latino medieval utilizado en lógica, baroco , como la fuente más probable. [7]
En el siglo XVI, la palabra latina medieval baroco dejó de lado la lógica escolástica y empezó a usarse para caracterizar todo aquello que pareciera absurdamente complejo. El filósofo francés Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) contribuyó a dar al término baroco (que él deletreó Barroco ) el significado de «extraño, inútilmente complicado». [8] Otras fuentes tempranas asocian el término baroco con la magia, la complejidad, la confusión y el exceso. [7]
La palabra barroco también se asociaba con perlas irregulares antes del siglo XVIII. El francés baroque y el portugués barroco eran términos que a menudo se asociaban con la joyería. Un ejemplo de 1531 usa el término para describir perlas en un inventario de los tesoros de Carlos V de Francia . [9] Más tarde, la palabra aparece en una edición de 1694 de Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française , que describe barroco como "solo usado para perlas que son imperfectamente redondas". [10] Un diccionario portugués de 1728 describe de manera similar barroco como relacionado con una "perla gruesa y desigual". [11]
Una derivación alternativa de la palabra barroco apunta al nombre del pintor italiano Federico Barocci (1528-1612). [12]
En el siglo XVIII, el término empezó a utilizarse para describir la música, y no de forma halagadora. En una reseña satírica anónima del estreno de Hippolyte et Aricie de Jean-Philippe Rameau en octubre de 1733, que se publicó en el Mercure de France en mayo de 1734, el crítico escribió que la novedad de esta ópera era " du barocque ", quejándose de que la música carecía de una melodía coherente, no escatimaba disonancias, cambiaba constantemente de tonalidad y métrica y pasaba rápidamente por todos los recursos compositivos. [13]
En 1762 Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française registró que el término podía describir figurativamente algo "irregular, extraño o desigual". [14]
Jean-Jacques Rousseau , músico y compositor además de filósofo, escribió en la Encyclopédie en 1768: «La música barroca es aquella en la que la armonía es confusa y está cargada de modulaciones y disonancias. El canto es áspero y antinatural, la entonación difícil y el movimiento limitado. Parece que el término proviene de la palabra «baroco» utilizada por los lógicos». [8] [15]
En 1788 Quatremère de Quincy definió el término en la Encyclopédie Méthodique como "un estilo arquitectónico muy adornado y atormentado". [16]
Los términos franceses style baroque y musique baroque aparecieron en Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française en 1835. [17] A mediados del siglo XIX, los críticos de arte e historiadores habían adoptado el término barroco como una forma de ridiculizar el arte posrenacentista. Este era el sentido de la palabra tal como lo utilizó en 1855 el destacado historiador de arte Jacob Burckhardt , quien escribió que los artistas barrocos "despreciaban y abusaban del detalle" porque carecían de "respeto por la tradición". [18]
En 1888, el historiador de arte Heinrich Wölfflin publicó el primer trabajo académico serio sobre el estilo, Renaissance und Barrock , que describía las diferencias entre la pintura, la escultura y la arquitectura del Renacimiento y el Barroco. [19]
El estilo arquitectónico barroco fue el resultado de las doctrinas adoptadas por la Iglesia católica en el Concilio de Trento en 1545-1563, en respuesta a la Reforma protestante . La primera fase de la Contrarreforma había impuesto un estilo académico severo en la arquitectura religiosa, que había atraído a los intelectuales pero no a la masa de feligreses. El Concilio de Trento decidió en cambio atraer a un público más popular y declaró que las artes debían comunicar temas religiosos con una implicación directa y emocional. [21] [22] De manera similar, el arte barroco luterano se desarrolló como un marcador confesional de identidad, en respuesta a la Gran Iconoclasia de los calvinistas . [23]
Las iglesias barrocas se diseñaron con un gran espacio central, donde los fieles podían estar cerca del altar, con una cúpula alta en lo alto, que permitía que la luz iluminara la iglesia de abajo. La cúpula era una de las características simbólicas centrales de la arquitectura barroca, que ilustraba la unión entre los cielos y la tierra. El interior de la cúpula estaba profusamente decorado con pinturas de ángeles y santos, y con estatuillas de ángeles en estuco, dando la impresión a los que estaban abajo de estar mirando al cielo. [24] Otra característica de las iglesias barrocas son las quadraturas ; pinturas trampantojo en el techo en marcos de estuco, ya sean reales o pintadas, abarrotadas de pinturas de santos y ángeles y conectadas por detalles arquitectónicos con las balaustradas y las consolas. Las pinturas quadratura de Atlantes debajo de las cornisas parecen sostener el techo de la iglesia. A diferencia de los techos pintados de Miguel Ángel en la Capilla Sixtina , que combinaban diferentes escenas, cada una con su propia perspectiva, para ser vistas una a la vez, las pinturas del techo barroco fueron creadas cuidadosamente para que el espectador en el piso de la iglesia pudiera ver todo el techo en la perspectiva correcta, como si las figuras fueran reales.
Los interiores de las iglesias barrocas se volvieron cada vez más ornamentados en el Alto Barroco, y se centraron en el altar, generalmente colocado bajo la cúpula. Las obras decorativas barrocas más famosas del Alto Barroco son la Cátedra de San Pedro (1647-1653) y el Baldaquino de San Pedro (1623-1634), ambos de Gian Lorenzo Bernini , en la Basílica de San Pedro en Roma. El Baldaquino de San Pedro es un ejemplo del equilibrio de opuestos en el arte barroco; las proporciones gigantescas de la pieza, con la aparente ligereza del baldaquino; y el contraste entre las sólidas columnas retorcidas, el bronce, el oro y el mármol de la pieza con los drapeados fluidos de los ángeles en el baldaquino. [25] La Frauenkirche de Dresde es un ejemplo destacado del arte barroco luterano; se completó en 1743 por encargo del ayuntamiento luterano de Dresde y fue "comparada por los observadores del siglo XVIII con la Basílica de San Pedro en Roma". [2]
La columna retorcida en el interior de las iglesias es uno de los rasgos distintivos del barroco. Da una sensación de movimiento y también una forma dramática y novedosa de reflejar la luz.
Otro elemento característico de la decoración barroca fueron las cartelas , unas placas de gran tamaño talladas en mármol o piedra, generalmente ovaladas y de superficie redondeada, que portaban imágenes o textos en letras doradas y que se colocaban como decoración interior o sobre las puertas de los edificios, para transmitir mensajes a los que estaban abajo. Demostraban una gran variedad de inventivas y se encontraban en todo tipo de edificios, desde catedrales y palacios hasta pequeñas capillas. [26]
Los arquitectos barrocos a veces utilizaban la perspectiva forzada para crear ilusiones. Para el Palazzo Spada de Roma, Francesco Borromini utilizó columnas de tamaño decreciente, un piso que se estrechaba y una estatua en miniatura en el jardín de al lado para crear la ilusión de que un pasadizo tenía treinta metros de largo, cuando en realidad solo tenía siete metros. Una estatua al final del pasadizo parece ser de tamaño natural, aunque solo mide sesenta centímetros de alto. Borromini diseñó la ilusión con la ayuda de un matemático.
El primer edificio de Roma que tuvo una fachada barroca fue la iglesia del Gesù en 1584; era sencilla en comparación con los estándares del barroco posterior, pero marcaba una ruptura con las fachadas renacentistas tradicionales que la precedieron. El interior de esta iglesia se mantuvo muy austero hasta el barroco álgido, cuando fue profusamente ornamentado.
En Roma, en 1605, Pablo V se convirtió en el primero de una serie de papas que encargaron basílicas y edificios eclesiásticos diseñados para inspirar emoción y asombro mediante una proliferación de formas, una riqueza de colores y efectos dramáticos. [31] Entre los monumentos más influyentes del Barroco temprano se encuentran la fachada de la Basílica de San Pedro (1606-1619) y la nueva nave y logia que conectaban la fachada con la cúpula de Miguel Ángel en la iglesia anterior. El nuevo diseño creó un contraste dramático entre la elevada cúpula y la fachada desproporcionadamente ancha, y el contraste en la propia fachada entre las columnas dóricas y la gran masa del pórtico. [32]
Entre mediados y finales del siglo XVII, el estilo alcanzó su máximo apogeo, denominado más tarde Alto Barroco. Los papas Urbano VIII y Alejandro VII encargaron numerosas obras monumentales . El escultor y arquitecto Gian Lorenzo Bernini diseñó una nueva columnata cuádruple alrededor de la plaza de San Pedro (1656-1667). Las tres galerías de columnas en una elipse gigante equilibran la cúpula de gran tamaño y dan a la iglesia y a la plaza una unidad y la sensación de un teatro gigante. [33]
Otro gran innovador del alto barroco italiano fue Francesco Borromini , cuya obra principal fue la iglesia de San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane o San Carlos de las Cuatro Fuentes (1634-1646). La sensación de movimiento no la da la decoración, sino los propios muros, que ondulan, y los elementos cóncavos y convexos, incluida una torre ovalada y un balcón insertados en un travesaño cóncavo. El interior fue igualmente revolucionario; el espacio principal de la iglesia era ovalado, bajo una cúpula ovalada. [33]
Los techos pintados, repletos de ángeles y santos y con efectos arquitectónicos de trampantojo, fueron una característica importante del Alto Barroco italiano. Entre las obras más importantes se encuentran La entrada de San Ignacio en el paraíso de Andrea Pozzo (1685-1695) en la iglesia de San Ignacio, Roma , y El triunfo del nombre de Jesús de Giovanni Battista Gaulli en la iglesia del Gesù en Roma (1669-1683), que presentaba figuras que salían del marco de la imagen y una dramática iluminación oblicua y contrastes de luz y oscuridad. [34]
El estilo se extendió rápidamente desde Roma a otras regiones de Italia: apareció en Venecia en la iglesia de Santa Maria della Salute (1631-1687) de Baldassare Longhena , una forma octogonal muy original coronada con una enorme cúpula . Apareció también en Turín , en particular en la Capilla del Santo Sudario (1668-1694) de Guarino Guarini . El estilo también comenzó a usarse en palacios; Guarini diseñó el Palazzo Carignano en Turín, mientras que Longhena diseñó el Ca' Rezzonico en el Gran Canal (1657), terminado por Giorgio Massari y decorado con pinturas de Giovanni Battista Tiepolo . [35] Una serie de terremotos masivos en Sicilia requirió la reconstrucción de la mayoría de ellos y varios fueron construidos en el exuberante estilo barroco tardío o rococó .
La Iglesia católica en España, y particularmente los jesuitas , fueron la fuerza impulsora de la arquitectura barroca española. La primera obra importante en este estilo fue la Capilla de San Isidro en Madrid , iniciada en 1643 por Pedro de la Torre . Contrastaba una extrema riqueza de ornamentación en el exterior con la simplicidad en el interior, dividido en múltiples espacios y utilizando efectos de luz para crear una sensación de misterio. [38] La Catedral de Santiago de Compostela fue modernizada con una serie de añadidos barrocos a partir de finales del siglo XVII, empezando por un campanario muy ornamentado (1680), luego flanqueado por dos torres aún más altas y ornamentadas, llamadas el Obradorio , añadidas entre 1738 y 1750 por Fernando de Casas Novoa . Otro hito del barroco español es la torre de la capilla del Palacio de San Telmo en Sevilla de Leonardo de Figueroa . [39]
Granada había sido conquistada a los moros recién en el siglo XV y tenía su propia variedad distintiva de barroco. El pintor, escultor y arquitecto Alonso Cano diseñó el interior barroco de la Catedral de Granada entre 1652 y su muerte en 1657. Presenta dramáticos contrastes entre las enormes columnas blancas y la decoración dorada.
La arquitectura más ornamental y profusamente decorada del barroco español se denomina estilo churrigueresco , en honor a los hermanos Churriguera , que trabajaron principalmente en Salamanca y Madrid. Entre sus obras se incluyen los edificios de la plaza principal de Salamanca, la Plaza Mayor (1729). [39] Este estilo barroco altamente ornamental influyó en muchas iglesias y catedrales construidas por los españoles en América.
Otros notables arquitectos barrocos españoles del Barroco tardío incluyen a Pedro de Ribera , alumno de Churriguera, que diseñó el Real Hospicio de San Fernando en Madrid, y Narciso Tomé , que diseñó el célebre retablo de El Transparente en la Catedral de Toledo (1729-1732) que da la ilusión, bajo cierta luz, de flotar hacia arriba. [39]
Los arquitectos del barroco español tuvieron una influencia que trascendió mucho más allá de España; su obra fue muy influyente en las iglesias construidas en las colonias españolas de América Latina y Filipinas. La iglesia construida por los jesuitas para el Colegio de San Francisco Javier en Tepotzotlán , con su ornamentada fachada y torre barrocas, es un buen ejemplo. [40]
Entre 1680 y 1750 se construyeron en Europa central, Austria, Bohemia y el suroeste de Polonia numerosas catedrales, abadías e iglesias de peregrinación muy ornamentadas. Algunas eran de estilo rococó , un estilo distintivo, más extravagante y asimétrico que surgió del barroco y lo reemplazó en Europa central en la primera mitad del siglo XVIII, hasta que a su vez fue reemplazado por el clasicismo. [47]
Los príncipes de los numerosos estados de esa región también eligieron el estilo barroco o rococó para sus palacios y residencias, y a menudo utilizaron arquitectos formados en Italia para construirlos. [48]
Un ejemplo notable es la iglesia de San Nicolás (Malá Strana) en Praga (1704-1755), construida por Christoph Dientzenhofer y su hijo Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer . La decoración cubre todas las paredes del interior de la iglesia. El altar está situado en la nave bajo la cúpula central y rodeado de capillas; la luz desciende desde la cúpula superior y desde las capillas circundantes. El altar está completamente rodeado de arcos, columnas, balaustradas curvas y pilastras de piedra coloreada, que están ricamente decoradas con estatuas, creando una confusión deliberada entre la arquitectura real y la decoración. La arquitectura se transforma en un teatro de luz, color y movimiento. [25]
En Polonia, el barroco polaco de inspiración italiana duró desde principios del siglo XVII hasta mediados del siglo XVIII y enfatizó la riqueza de los detalles y el color. El primer edificio barroco en la Polonia actual y probablemente uno de los más reconocibles es la Iglesia de los Santos Pedro y Pablo, Cracovia , diseñada por Giovanni Battista Trevano . La Columna de Segismundo en Varsovia , erigida en 1644, fue el primer monumento barroco secular del mundo construido en forma de columna. [49] El estilo de residencia palaciega fue ejemplificado por el Palacio de Wilanów , construido entre 1677 y 1696. [50] El arquitecto barroco más famoso activo en Polonia fue el holandés Tylman van Gameren y sus obras notables incluyen la Iglesia de San Casimiro de Varsovia y el Palacio Krasiński , la Iglesia de Santa Ana, Cracovia y el Palacio Branicki, Białystok . [51] Sin embargo, la obra más famosa del barroco polaco es la Iglesia de Fara en Poznań , con detalles de Pompeo Ferrari . Después de la Guerra de los Treinta Años, en virtud de los acuerdos de la Paz de Westfalia , se construyeron dos estructuras barrocas únicas en su tipo: la Iglesia de la Paz en Jawor y la Iglesia de la Santísima Trinidad de la Paz en Świdnica, el templo barroco de madera más grande de Europa.
Los numerosos estados dentro del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico en el territorio de la actual Alemania buscaron representarse a sí mismos con impresionantes edificios barrocos. [52] Entre los arquitectos notables se encuentran Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach , Lukas von Hildebrandt y Dominikus Zimmermann en Baviera , Balthasar Neumann en Bruhl y Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann en Dresde. En Prusia , Federico II de Prusia se inspiró en el Gran Trianón del Palacio de Versalles y lo utilizó como modelo para su residencia de verano, Sanssouci , en Potsdam , diseñada para él por Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff (1745-1747). Otra obra de arquitectura palaciega barroca es el Zwinger (Dresde) , la antigua orangerie del palacio de los electores de Sajonia en el siglo XVIII.
Uno de los mejores ejemplos de una iglesia rococó es la Basilika Vierzehnheiligen, o Basílica de los Catorce Santos Auxiliadores , una iglesia de peregrinación ubicada cerca de la ciudad de Bad Staffelstein cerca de Bamberg, en Baviera, al sur de Alemania. La basílica fue diseñada por Balthasar Neumann y se construyó entre 1743 y 1772, su planta es una serie de círculos entrelazados alrededor de un óvalo central con el altar colocado en el centro exacto de la iglesia. El interior de esta iglesia ilustra la cumbre de la decoración rococó. [53] Otro ejemplo notable del estilo es la Iglesia de Peregrinación de Wies ( ‹Ver Tfd› Alemán : Wieskirche ). Fue diseñada por los hermanos JB y Dominikus Zimmermann . Está ubicada en las estribaciones de los Alpes , en el municipio de Steingaden en el distrito de Weilheim-Schongau , Baviera, Alemania. La construcción se llevó a cabo entre 1745 y 1754 y el interior fue decorado con frescos y estucos siguiendo la tradición de la escuela de Wessobrunner . Actualmente es Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la UNESCO .
El barroco en Francia se desarrolló de manera bastante diferente a las versiones locales adornadas y dramáticas del barroco de Italia, España y el resto de Europa. Parece severo, más distante y sobrio en comparación, adelantando al neoclasicismo y la arquitectura de la Ilustración . A diferencia de los edificios italianos, los edificios barrocos franceses no tienen frontones rotos ni fachadas curvilíneas. Incluso los edificios religiosos evitaron el intenso drama espacial que se encuentra en la obra de Borromini . El estilo está estrechamente asociado con las obras construidas para Luis XIV (reinado 1643-1715), y debido a esto, también se lo conoce como el estilo Luis XIV . Luis XIV invitó al maestro del barroco, Bernini, a presentar un diseño para la nueva ala este del Louvre , pero lo rechazó a favor de un diseño más clásico de Claude Perrault y Louis Le Vau . [65] [66]
Entre los principales arquitectos de este estilo se encuentran François Mansart (1598-1666), Pierre Le Muet (Iglesia de Val-de-Grâce , 1645-1665) y Louis Le Vau ( Vaux-le-Vicomte , 1657-1661). Mansart fue el primer arquitecto en introducir el estilo barroco, principalmente el uso frecuente de un orden aplicado y una almohadillación pesada , en el vocabulario arquitectónico francés. El techo abuhardillado no fue inventado por Mansart, pero se ha asociado con él, ya que lo utilizó con frecuencia. [67]
El principal proyecto real de la época fue la ampliación del Palacio de Versalles , iniciada en 1661 por Le Vau con decoración del pintor Charles Le Brun . Los jardines fueron diseñados por André Le Nôtre específicamente para complementar y amplificar la arquitectura. La Galerie des Glaces ( Galería de los Espejos ), la pieza central del castillo, con pinturas de Le Brun, se construyó entre 1678 y 1686. Mansart completó el Gran Trianón en 1687. La capilla, diseñada por Robert de Cotte , se terminó en 1710. Tras la muerte de Luis XIV, Luis XV añadió el más íntimo Petit Trianon y el teatro muy ornamentado. Las fuentes de los jardines fueron diseñadas para ser vistas desde el interior y para añadir un efecto dramático. El palacio fue admirado y copiado por otros monarcas de Europa, particularmente Pedro el Grande de Rusia, quien visitó Versalles a principios del reinado de Luis XV y construyó su propia versión en el Palacio Peterhof , cerca de San Petersburgo, entre 1705 y 1725. [68]
![Biblioteca Universitaria, Universidad de Coímbra, Coímbra, Portugal, por Gaspar Ferreira, 1716–1728[69]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Biblioteca_Joanina_Universidade_de_Coimbra_IMG_0664.JPG/1280px-Biblioteca_Joanina_Universidade_de_Coimbra_IMG_0664.JPG)
La arquitectura barroca en Portugal duró cerca de dos siglos (finales del siglo XVII y siglo XVIII). Los reinados de Juan V y José I aumentaron las importaciones de oro y diamantes, en un período llamado absolutismo real, que permitió el florecimiento del barroco portugués.
La arquitectura barroca en Portugal goza de una situación especial y una cronología diferente al resto de Europa.
Está condicionada por diversos factores políticos, artísticos y económicos, que originan varias fases y diferentes tipos de influencias externas, dando como resultado una mezcla única, [73] a menudo mal entendida por aquellos que buscan arte italiano, que encuentran en cambio formas y caracteres específicos que le dan una variedad únicamente portuguesa. Otro factor clave es la existencia de la arquitectura jesuítica, también llamada "estilo llano" (Estilo Chão o Estilo Plano) [74] que, como su nombre evoca, es más simple y parece algo austera.
Los edificios son basilicales de una sola estancia, capilla mayor profunda, capillas laterales (con pequeñas puertas de comunicación), sin decoración interior ni exterior, portal y ventanas sencillas. Es un edificio práctico, lo que permitió construirlo en todo el imperio con pequeños ajustes, y prepararlo para ser decorado posteriormente o cuando se dispusiera de recursos económicos.
De hecho, el primer barroco portugués no carece de edificación, ya que el "estilo sobrio" es fácil de transformar, mediante la decoración (pintura, alicatado, etc.), convirtiendo espacios vacíos en pomposos y elaborados escenarios barrocos. Lo mismo se puede aplicar al exterior. Posteriormente, es fácil adaptar el edificio al gusto de la época y del lugar, y añadirle nuevos elementos y detalles. Práctico y económico.
Con más habitantes y mejores recursos económicos, el norte, especialmente las zonas de Porto y Braga , [75] [76] [77] conoció una renovación arquitectónica, visible en la gran lista de iglesias, conventos y palacios construidos por la aristocracia.
Oporto es la ciudad barroca de Portugal. Su centro histórico forma parte de la Lista del Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO . [78]
Muchas de las obras barrocas en el área histórica de la ciudad y más allá, pertenecen a Nicolau Nasoni , un arquitecto italiano residente en Portugal, que diseñó edificios originales con emplazamiento escenográfico como la iglesia y la torre de los Clérigos , [79] la logia de la Catedral de Oporto , la iglesia de la Misericordia, el Palacio de São João Novo , [80] el Palacio de Freixo , [81] el Palacio Episcopal ( en portugués : Paço Episcopal do Porto ) [82] junto con muchos otros.
El debut del barroco ruso, o barroco petrino , se produjo tras una larga visita de Pedro el Grande a Europa occidental en 1697-1698, donde visitó los castillos de Fontainebleau y Versalles , así como otros monumentos arquitectónicos. A su regreso a Rusia, decidió construir monumentos similares en San Petersburgo , que se convirtió en la nueva capital de Rusia en 1712. Entre los primeros monumentos importantes del barroco petrino se encuentran la catedral de Pedro y Pablo y el palacio Ménshikov .
Durante el reinado de Ana e Isabel , la arquitectura rusa estuvo dominada por el lujoso estilo barroco del italiano Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli , que se convirtió en el barroco isabelino . Los edificios emblemáticos de Rastrelli incluyen el Palacio de Invierno , el Palacio de Catalina y la Catedral Smolny . Otros monumentos distintivos del barroco isabelino son el campanario de la Laura de la Trinidad y la Puerta Roja . [86]
En Moscú , el barroco de Naryshkin se generalizó, especialmente en la arquitectura de las iglesias ortodoxas orientales a finales del siglo XVII. Era una combinación del barroco de Europa occidental con estilos populares rusos tradicionales .
Due to the colonization of the Americas by European countries, the Baroque naturally moved to the New World, finding especially favorable ground in the regions dominated by Spain and Portugal, both countries being centralized and irreducibly Catholic monarchies, by extension subject to Rome and adherents of the Baroque Counter-Reformation. European artists migrated to America and made school, and along with the widespread penetration of Catholic missionaries, many of whom were skilled artists, created a multiform Baroque often influenced by popular taste. The Criollo and indigenous crafters did much to give this Baroque unique features. The main centres of American Baroque cultivation, that are still standing, are (in this order) Mexico, Peru, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Colombia, Bolivia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico and Panama.
Of particular note is the so-called "Missionary Baroque", developed in the framework of the Spanish reductions in areas extending from Mexico and southwestern portions of current-day United States to as far south as Argentina and Chile, indigenous settlements organized by Spanish Catholic missionaries in order to convert them to the Christian faith and acculturate them in the Western life, forming a hybrid Baroque influenced by Native culture, where flourished Criollos and many indigenous artisans and musicians, even literate, some of great ability and talent of their own. Missionaries' accounts often repeat that Western art, especially music, had a hypnotic impact on foresters, and the images of saints were viewed as having great powers. Many natives were converted, and a new form of devotion was created, of passionate intensity, laden with mysticism, superstition, and theatricality, which delighted in festive masses, sacred concerts, and mysteries.[94][95]
The Colonial Baroque architecture in the Spanish America is characterized by a profuse decoration (portal of La Profesa Church, Mexico City; façades covered with Puebla-style azulejos, as in the Church of San Francisco Acatepec in San Andrés Cholula and Convent Church of San Francisco, Puebla), which will be exacerbated in the so-called Churrigueresque style (Façade of the Tabernacle of the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral, by Lorenzo Rodríguez; Church of San Francisco Javier, Tepotzotlán; Church of Santa Prisca de Taxco). In Peru, the constructions mostly developed in the cities of Lima, Cusco, Arequipa and Trujillo, since 1650 show original characteristics that are advanced even to the European Baroque, as in the use of cushioned walls and solomonic columns (Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús, Cusco; Basilica and Convent of San Francisco, Lima).[96] Other countries include: the Metropolitan Cathedral of Sucre in Bolivia; Cathedral Basilica of Esquipulas in Guatemala; Tegucigalpa Cathedral in Honduras; León Cathedral in Nicaragua; the Church of la Compañía de Jesús, Quito, Ecuador; the Church of San Ignacio, Bogotá, Colombia; the Caracas Cathedral in Venezuela; the Cabildo of Buenos Aires in Argentina; the Church of Santo Domingo in Santiago, Chile; and Havana Cathedral in Cuba. It is also worth remembering the quality of the churches of the Spanish Jesuit Missions in Bolivia, Spanish Jesuit missions in Paraguay, the Spanish missions in Mexico and the Spanish Franciscan missions in California.[97]
In Brazil, as in the metropolis, Portugal, the architecture has a certain Italian influence, usually of a Borrominesque type, as can be seen in the Co-Cathedral of Recife (1784) and Church of Nossa Senhora da Glória do Outeiro in Rio de Janeiro (1739). In the region of Minas Gerais, highlighted the work of Aleijadinho, author of a group of churches that stand out for their curved planimetry, façades with concave-convex dynamic effects and a plastic treatment of all architectural elements (Church of São Francisco de Assis, Ouro Preto, 1765–1788).
In the Portuguese colonies of India (Goa, Daman and Diu) an architectural style of Baroque forms mixed with Hindu elements flourished, such as the Se Cathedral and the Basilica of Bom Jesus of Goa, which houses the tomb of St. Francis Xavier. The set of churches and convents of Goa was declared a World Heritage Site in 1986.
In the Philippines, which was a Spanish colony for over three centuries, a large number of Baroque constructions are preserved. Four of these as well as the Baroque and Neoclassical city of Vigan are both UNESCO World Heritage Sites; and although they lack formal classification, The Walled City of Manila along with the city of Tayabas both contain a significant extent of Spanish-Baroque-era architecture.
![Twisting columns and railings of the Mogoșoaia Palace, Mogoșoaia, unknown architect, early 18th century[101]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Mogosoaia_Museum_(128813769).jpeg/1280px-Mogosoaia_Museum_(128813769).jpeg)
As we saw, the Baroque is a Western style, born in Italy. Through the commercial and cultural relationships of Italians with countries of the Balkan Peninsula, including Moldavia and Wallachia, Baroque influences arrive to Eastern Europe. These influences were not very strong, since they usually take place in architecture and stone-sculpted ornaments, and are also mixed intensely with details taken from Byzantine and Islamic art.
Before and after the fall of the Byzantine Empire, all the art of Wallachia and Moldavia was primarily influenced by that of Constantinople. Until the end of the 16th century, with little modifications, the plans of churches and monasteries, the murals, and the ornaments carved in stone remain the same as before. From a period starting with the reigns of Matei Basarab (1632–1654) and Vasile Lupu (1634–1653), which coincided with the popularization of Italian Baroque, new ornaments were added, and the style of religious furniture changed. This was not random at all. Decorative elements and principles were brought from Italy, through Venice, or through the Dalmatian regions, and they were adopted by architects and craftsmen from the east. The window and door frames, the pisanie with dedication, the tombstones, the columns and railings, and a part of the bronze, silver or wooden furniture, received a more important role than the one they had before. They existed before too, inspired by the Byzantine tradition, but they gained a more realist look, showing delicate floral motifs. The relief that existed before too, became more accentuated, having volume and consistency. Before this period, reliefs from Wallachia and Moldavia, like the ones from the East, had only two levels, at a small distance one from the other, one at the surface and the other in depth. Big flowers, maybe roses, peonies or thistles, thick leaves, of acanthus or another similar plant, were twisting on columns, or surround door and windows. A place where the Baroque had a strong influence was columns and the railings. Capitals were more decorated than before with foliage. Columns have often twisting shafts, a local reinterpretation of the Solomonic column. Maximalist railings are placed between these columns, decorated with rinceaux. Some of the ones from the Mogoșoaia Palace are also decorated with dolphins. Cartouches are also used sometimes, mostly on tombstones, like on the one of Constantin Brâncoveanu. This movement, is known as the Brâncovenesc style, after Constantin Brâncoveanu, a ruler of Wallachia whose reign (1654–1714) is highly associated with this kind of architecture and design. The style is also present during the 18th century, and in a part of the 19th. Many of the churches and residences erected by boyards and voivodes of these periods are Brâncovenesc. Although Baroque influences can be clearly seen, the Brâncovenesc style takes much more inspiration from the local tradition.
As the 18th century passed, with the Phanariot (members of prominent Greek families in Phanar, Istanbul) reigns in Wallachia and Moldavia, Baroque influences come from Istanbul too. They came before too, during the 17th century, but with the Phanariots, more Western Baroque motifs that arrived to the Ottoman Empire had their final destination in present-day Romania. In Moldavia, Baroque elements come from Russia too, where the influence of Italian art was strong.[102]
![The Triumph of Bacchus; by Michaelina Wautier; before 1659; oil on canvas; 270 x 354 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum[110]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Michaelina_wautier-triunfo_de_baco.JPG/1280px-Michaelina_wautier-triunfo_de_baco.JPG)
Baroque painters worked deliberately to set themselves apart from the painters of the Renaissance and the Mannerism period after it. In their palette, they used intense and warm colours, and particularly made use of the primary colours red, blue and yellow, frequently putting all three in close proximity.[112] They avoided the even lighting of Renaissance painting and used strong contrasts of light and darkness on certain parts of the picture to direct attention to the central actions or figures. In their composition, they avoided the tranquil scenes of Renaissance paintings, and chose the moments of the greatest movement and drama. Unlike the tranquil faces of Renaissance paintings, the faces in Baroque paintings clearly expressed their emotions. They often used asymmetry, with action occurring away from the centre of the picture, and created axes that were neither vertical nor horizontal, but slanting to the left or right, giving a sense of instability and movement. They enhanced this impression of movement by having the costumes of the personages blown by the wind, or moved by their own gestures. The overall impressions were movement, emotion and drama.[113] Another essential element of baroque painting was allegory; every painting told a story and had a message, often encrypted in symbols and allegorical characters, which an educated viewer was expected to know and read.[114]
Early evidence of Italian Baroque ideas in painting occurred in Bologna, where Annibale Carracci, Agostino Carracci and Ludovico Carracci sought to return the visual arts to the ordered Classicism of the Renaissance. Their art, however, also incorporated ideas central the Counter-Reformation; these included intense emotion and religious imagery that appealed more to the heart than to the intellect.[115]
Another influential painter of the Baroque era was Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio. His realistic approach to the human figure, painted directly from life and dramatically spotlit against a dark background, shocked his contemporaries and opened a new chapter in the history of painting. Other major painters associated closely with the Baroque style include Artemisia Gentileschi, Elisabetta Sirani, Giovanna Garzoni, Guido Reni, Domenichino, Andrea Pozzo, and Paolo de Matteis in Italy; Francisco de Zurbarán, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo and Diego Velázquez in Spain; Adam Elsheimer in Germany; and Nicolas Poussin and Georges de La Tour in France (though Poussin spent most of his working life in Italy). Poussin and de La Tour adopted a "classical" Baroque style with less focus on emotion and greater attention to the line of the figures in the painting than to colour.
Peter Paul Rubens was the most important painter of the Flemish Baroque style. Rubens' highly charged compositions reference erudite aspects of classical and Christian history. His unique and immensely popular Baroque style emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality, which followed the immediate, dramatic artistic style promoted in the Counter-Reformation. Rubens specialized in making altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects.
One important domain of Baroque painting was Quadratura, or paintings in trompe-l'œil, which literally "fooled the eye". These were usually painted on the stucco of ceilings or upper walls and balustrades, and gave the impression to those on the ground looking up were that they were seeing the heavens populated with crowds of angels, saints and other heavenly figures, set against painted skies and imaginary architecture.[47]
In Italy, artists often collaborated with architects on interior decoration; Pietro da Cortona was one of the painters of the 17th century who employed this illusionist way of painting. Among his most important commissions were the frescoes he painted for the Palazzo Barberini (1633–39), to glorify the reign of Pope Urban VIII. Pietro da Cortona's compositions were the largest decorative frescoes executed in Rome since the work of Michelangelo at the Sistine Chapel.[116]
François Boucher was an important figure in the more delicate French Rococo style, which appeared during the late Baroque period. He designed tapestries, carpets and theatre decoration as well as painting. His work was extremely popular with Madame de Pompadour, the Mistress of King Louis XV. His paintings featured mythological romantic, and mildly erotic themes.[117]
In the Hispanic Americas, the first influences were from Sevillan Tenebrism, mainly from Zurbarán —some of whose works are still preserved in Mexico and Peru— as can be seen in the work of the Mexicans José Juárez and Sebastián López de Arteaga, and the Bolivian Melchor Pérez de Holguín. The Cusco School of painting arose after the arrival of the Italian painter Bernardo Bitti in 1583, who introduced Mannerism in the Americas. It highlighted the work of Luis de Riaño, disciple of the Italian Angelino Medoro, author of the murals of the Church of San Pedro, Andahuaylillas. It also highlighted the Indian (Quechua) painters Diego Quispe Tito and Basilio Santa Cruz Pumacallao, as well as Marcos Zapata, author of the fifty large canvases that cover the high arches of Cusco Cathedral. In Ecuador, the Quito School was formed, mainly represented by the mestizo Miguel de Santiago and the criollo Nicolás Javier de Goríbar.
In the 18th century sculptural altarpieces began to be replaced by paintings, developing notably the Baroque painting in the Americas. Similarly, the demand for civil works, mainly portraits of the aristocratic classes and the ecclesiastical hierarchy, grew. The main influence was the Murillesque, and in some cases – as in the criollo Cristóbal de Villalpando – that of Juan de Valdés Leal. The painting of this era has a more sentimental tone, with sweet and softer shapes. Its proponents incluse Gregorio Vasquez de Arce y Ceballos in Colombia, and Juan Rodríguez Juárez and Miguel Cabrera in Mexico.
The dominant figure in baroque sculpture was Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Under the patronage of Pope Urban VIII, he made a remarkable series of monumental statues of saints and figures whose faces and gestures vividly expressed their emotions, as well as portrait busts of exceptional realism, and highly decorative works for the Vatican such as the imposing Chair of St. Peter beneath the dome in St. Peter's Basilica. In addition, he designed fountains with monumental groups of sculpture to decorate the major squares of Rome.[120]
Baroque sculpture was inspired by ancient Roman statuary, particularly by the famous first century CE statue of Laocoön and His Sons, which was unearthed in 1506 and put on display in the gallery of the Vatican. When he visited Paris in 1665, Bernini addressed the students at the academy of painting and sculpture. He advised the students to work from classical models, rather than from nature. He told the students, "When I had trouble with my first statue, I consulted the Antinous like an oracle."[121] That Antinous statue is known today as the Hermes of the Museo Pio-Clementino.
Notable late French baroque sculptors included Étienne Maurice Falconet and Jean Baptiste Pigalle. Pigalle was commissioned by Frederick the Great to make statues for Frederick's own version of Versailles at Sanssouci in Potsdam, Germany. Falconet also received an important foreign commission, creating the famous Bronze Horseman statue of Peter the Great found in St. Petersburg.
In Spain, the sculptor Francisco Salzillo worked exclusively on religious themes, using polychromed wood. Some of the finest baroque sculptural craftsmanship was found in the gilded stucco altars of churches of the Spanish colonies of the New World, made by local craftsmen; examples include the Chapel del Rosario, Puebla, (Mexico), 1724–1731.
![Cabinet with caryatids; c.1675; ebony, kingwood, marquetry of hard stones, gilt bronze, pewter, glass, tinted mirror and horn; unknown dimensions; Musée des Arts décoratifs, Strasbourg, France[123]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Antichambre_du_prince-%C3%A9v%C3%AAque_(Palais_Rohan,_Strasbourg)_cabinet.JPG/1280px-Antichambre_du_prince-%C3%A9v%C3%AAque_(Palais_Rohan,_Strasbourg)_cabinet.JPG)
The main motifs used are: horns of plenty, festoons, baby angels, lion heads holding a metal ring in their mouths, female faces surrounded by garlands, oval cartouches, acanthus leaves, classical columns, caryatids, pediments, and other elements of Classical architecture sculpted on some parts of pieces of furniture,[128] baskets with fruits or flowers, shells, armour and trophies, heads of Apollo or Bacchus, and C-shaped volutes.[129]
During the first period of the reign of Louis XIV, furniture followed the previous Louis XIII style, and was massive, and profusely decorated with sculpture and gilding. After 1680, thanks in large part to the furniture designer André-Charles Boulle, a more original and delicate style appeared, sometimes known as Boulle work. It was based on the inlay of ebony and other rare woods, a technique first used in Florence in the 15th century, which was refined and developed by Boulle and others working for Louis XIV. Furniture was inlaid with plaques of ebony, copper, and exotic woods of different colors.[130]
New and often enduring types of furniture appeared; the commode, with two to four drawers, replaced the old coffre, or chest. The canapé, or sofa, appeared, in the form of a combination of two or three armchairs. New kinds of armchairs appeared, including the fauteuil en confessionale or "Confessional armchair", which had padded cushions ions on either side of the back of the chair. The console table also made its first appearance; it was designed to be placed against a wall. Another new type of furniture was the table à gibier, a marble-topped table for holding dishes. Early varieties of the desk appeared; the Mazarin desk had a central section set back, placed between two columns of drawers, with four feet on each column.[130]
The term Baroque is also used to designate the style of music composed during a period that overlaps with that of Baroque art. The first uses of the term 'baroque' for music were criticisms. In an anonymous, satirical review of the première in October 1733 of Jean-Philippe Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie, printed in the Mercure de France in May 1734, the critic implied that the novelty of this opera was "du barocque," complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was filled with unremitting dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.[131] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and noted composer as well as philosopher, made a very similar observation in 1768 in the famous Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot: "Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused, and loaded with modulations and dissonances. The singing is harsh and unnatural, the intonation difficult, and the movement limited. It appears that term comes from the word 'baroco' used by logicians."[15]
Common use of the term for the music of the period began only in 1919, by Curt Sachs,[132] and it was not until 1940 that it was first used in English in an article published by Manfred Bukofzer.[131]
The baroque was a period of musical experimentation and innovation which explains the amount of ornaments and improvisation performed by the musicians. New forms were invented, including the concerto and sinfonia. Opera was born in Italy at the end of the 16th century (with Jacopo Peri's mostly lost Dafne, produced in Florence in 1598) and soon spread through the rest of Europe: Louis XIV created the first Royal Academy of Music. In 1669, the poet Pierre Perrin opened an academy of opera in Paris, the first opera theatre in France open to the public, and premiered Pomone, the first grand opera in French, with music by Robert Cambert, with five acts, elaborate stage machinery, and a ballet.[133] Heinrich Schütz in Germany, Jean-Baptiste Lully in France, and Henry Purcell in England all helped to establish their national traditions in the 17th century.
Several new instruments, including the piano, were introduced during this period. The invention of the piano is credited to Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1731) of Padua, Italy, who was employed by Ferdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany, as the Keeper of the Instruments.[134][135] Cristofori named the instrument un cimbalo di cipresso di piano e forte ("a keyboard of cypress with soft and loud"), abbreviated over time as pianoforte, fortepiano, and later, simply, piano.[136]
The classical ballet also originated in the Baroque era. The style of court dance was brought to France by Marie de' Medici, and in the beginning the members of the court themselves were the dancers. Louis XIV himself performed in public in several ballets. In March 1662, the Académie Royale de Danse, was founded by the King. It was the first professional dance school and company, and set the standards and vocabulary for ballet throughout Europe during the period.[133]
Heinrich Wölfflin was the first to transfer the term Baroque to literature.[137] The key concepts of Baroque literary theory, such as "conceit" (concetto), "wit" (acutezza, ingegno), and "wonder" (meraviglia), were not fully developed in literary theory until the publication of Emanuele Tesauro's Il Cannocchiale aristotelico (The Aristotelian Telescope) in 1654. This seminal treatise - inspired by Giambattista Marino's epic Adone and the work of the Spanish Jesuit philosopher Baltasar Gracián - developed a theory of metaphor as a universal language of images and as a supreme intellectual act, at once an artifice and an epistemologically privileged mode of access to truth.[138]
The Baroque period was a golden age for theatre in France and Spain; playwrights included Corneille, Racine and Molière in France; and Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderón de la Barca in Spain.
During the Baroque period, the art and style of the theatre evolved rapidly, alongside the development of opera and of ballet. The design of newer and larger theatres, the invention the use of more elaborate machinery, the wider use of the proscenium arch, which framed the stage and hid the machinery from the audience, encouraged more scenic effects and spectacle.[139]
The Baroque had a Catholic and conservative character in Spain, following an Italian literary model during the Renaissance.[140] The Hispanic Baroque theatre aimed for a public content with an ideal reality that manifested fundamental three sentiments: Catholic religion, monarchist and national pride and honour originating from the chivalric, knightly world.[141]
Two periods are known in the Baroque Spanish theatre, with the division occurring in 1630. The first period is represented chiefly by Lope de Vega, but also by Tirso de Molina, Gaspar Aguilar, Guillén de Castro, Antonio Mira de Amescua, Luis Vélez de Guevara, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Diego Jiménez de Enciso, Luis Belmonte Bermúdez, Felipe Godínez, Luis Quiñones de Benavente or Juan Pérez de Montalbán. The second period is represented by Pedro Calderón de la Barca and fellow dramatists Antonio Hurtado de Mendoza, Álvaro Cubillo de Aragón, Jerónimo de Cáncer, Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Juan de Matos Fragoso, Antonio Coello y Ochoa, Agustín Moreto, and Francisco Bances Candamo.[142] These classifications are loose because each author had his own way and could occasionally adhere himself to the formula established by Lope. It may even be that Lope's "manner" was more liberal and structured than Calderón's.[143]
Lope de Vega introduced through his Arte nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo (1609) the new comedy. He established a new dramatic formula that broke the three Aristotle unities of the Italian school of poetry (action, time, and place) and a fourth unity of Aristotle which is about style, mixing of tragic and comic elements showing different types of verses and stanzas upon what is represented.[144] Although Lope has a great knowledge of the plastic arts, he did not use it during the major part of his career nor in theatre or scenography. The Lope's comedy granted a second role to the visual aspects of the theatrical representation.[145]
Tirso de Molina, Lope de Vega, and Calderón were the most important play writers in Golden Era Spain. Their works, known for their subtle intelligence and profound comprehension of a person's humanity, could be considered a bridge between Lope's primitive comedy and the more elaborate comedy of Calderón. Tirso de Molina is best known for two works, The Convicted Suspicions and The Trickster of Seville, one of the first versions of the Don Juan myth.[146]
Upon his arrival to Madrid, Cosimo Lotti brought to the Spanish court the most advanced theatrical techniques of Europe. His techniques and mechanic knowledge were applied in palace exhibitions called "Fiestas" and in lavish exhibitions of rivers or artificial fountains called "Naumaquias". He was in charge of styling the Gardens of Buen Retiro, of Zarzuela, and of Aranjuez and the construction of the theatrical building of Coliseo del Buen Retiro.[147] Lope's formulas begin with a verse that it unbefitting of the palace theatre foundation and the birth of new concepts that begun the careers of some play writers like Calderón de la Barca. Marking the principal innovations of the New Lopesian Comedy, Calderón's style marked many differences, with a great deal of constructive care and attention to his internal structure. Calderón's work is in formal perfection and a very lyric and symbolic language. Liberty, vitality and openness of Lope gave a step to Calderón's intellectual reflection and formal precision. In his comedy it reflected his ideological and doctrine intentions in above the passion and the action, the work of Autos sacramentales achieved high ranks.[148] The genre of Comedia is political, multi-artistic and in a sense hybrid. The poetic text interweaved with Medias and resources originating from architecture, music and painting freeing the deception that is in the Lopesian comedy was made up from the lack of scenery and engaging the dialogue of action.[149]
The best known German playwright was Andreas Gryphius, who used the Jesuit model of the Dutch Joost van den Vondel and Pierre Corneille. There was also Johannes Velten who combined the traditions of the English comedians and the commedia dell'arte with the classic theatre of Corneille and Molière. His touring company was perhaps the most significant and important of the 17th century.
The foremost Italian baroque tragedian was Federico Della Valle. His literary activity is summed up by the four plays that he wrote for the courtly theater: the tragicomedy Adelonda di Frigia (1595) and especially his three tragedies, Judith (1627), Esther (1627) and La reina di Scotia (1628). Della Valle had many imitators and followers who combined in their works Baroque taste and the didactic aims of the Jesuits (Francesco Sforza Pallavicino, Girolamo Graziani, etc.)
In the Tsardom of Russia, the development of the Russian version of Baroque took shape only in the second half of the 17th century, primarily due to the initiative of tsar Alexis of Russia, who wanted to open a court theatre in 1672. Its director and dramatist was Johann Gottfried Gregorii, a German-Russian Lutheran pastor, who wrote, in particular, a 10-hour play The Action of Artaxerxes. The dramaturgy of Symeon of Polotsk and Demetrius of Rostov became key contribution to the Russian Baroque.[150]
Following the evolution marked from Spain, at the end of the 16th century, the companies of comedians, essentially transhumant, began to professionalize. With professionalization came regulation and censorship: as in Europe, the theatre oscillated between tolerance and even government protection and rejection (with exceptions) or persecution by the Church. The theatre was useful to the authorities as an instrument to disseminate the desired behavior and models, respect for the social order and the monarchy, school of religious dogma.[151]
The corrales were administered for the benefit of hospitals that shared the benefits of the representations. The itinerant companies (or "of the league"), who carried the theatre in improvised open-air stages by the regions that did not have fixed locals, required a viceregal license to work, whose price or pinción was destined to alms and works pious.[151] For companies that worked stably in the capitals and major cities, one of their main sources of income was participation in the festivities of the Corpus Christi, which provided them with not only economic benefits, but also recognition and social prestige. The representations in the viceregal palace and the mansions of the aristocracy, where they represented both the comedies of their repertoire and special productions with great lighting effects, scenery, and stage, were also an important source of well-paid and prestigious work.[151]
Born in the Viceroyalty of New Spain[152] but later settled in Spain, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón is the most prominent figure in the Baroque theatre of New Spain. Despite his accommodation to Lope de Vega's new comedy, his "marked secularism", his discretion and restraint, and a keen capacity for "psychological penetration" as distinctive features of Alarcón against his Spanish contemporaries have been noted. Noteworthy among his works La verdad sospechosa, a comedy of characters that reflected his constant moralizing purpose.[151] The dramatic production of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz places her as the second figure of the Spanish-American Baroque theatre. It is worth mentioning among her works the auto sacramental El divino Narciso and the comedy Los empeños de una casa.
![Gardens of the Het Loo Palace, Netherlands, unknown architect, 1689[155]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Het_Loo_Hauptachse.JPG/1280px-Het_Loo_Hauptachse.JPG)
The Baroque garden, also known as the jardin à la française or French formal garden, first appeared in Rome in the 16th century, and then most famously in France in the 17th century in the gardens of Vaux le Vicomte and the Palace of Versailles. Baroque gardens were built by Kings and princes in Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, Spain, Poland, Italy and Russia until the mid-18th century, when they began to be remade into by the more natural English landscape garden.
The purpose of the baroque garden was to illustrate the power of man over nature, and the glory of its builder, Baroque gardens were laid out in geometric patterns, like the rooms of a house. They were usually best seen from the outside and looking down, either from a château or terrace. The elements of a baroque garden included parterres of flower beds or low hedges trimmed into ornate Baroque designs, and straight lanes and alleys of gravel which divided and crisscrossed the garden. Terraces, ramps, staircases and cascades were placed where there were differences of elevation, and provided viewing points. Circular or rectangular ponds or basins of water were the settings for fountains and statues. Bosquets or carefully trimmed groves or lines of identical trees, gave the appearance of walls of greenery and were backdrops for statues. On the edges, the gardens usually had pavilions, orangeries and other structures where visitors could take shelter from the sun or rain.[157]
Baroque gardens required enormous numbers of gardeners, continual trimming, and abundant water. In the later part of the Baroque period, the formal elements began to be replaced with more natural features, including winding paths, groves of varied trees left to grow untrimmed; rustic architecture and picturesque structures, such as Roman temples or Chinese pagodas, as well as "secret gardens" on the edges of the main garden, filled with greenery, where visitors could read or have quiet conversations. By the mid-18th century most of the Baroque gardens were partially or entirely transformed into variations of the English landscape garden.[157]
Besides Versailles and Vaux-le-Vicomte, celebrated baroque gardens still retaining much of their original appearance include the Royal Palace of Caserta near Naples; Nymphenburg Palace and Augustusburg and Falkenlust Palaces, Brühl in Germany; Het Loo Palace, Netherlands; the Belvedere Palace in Vienna; Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso, Spain; and Peterhof Palace in St. Petersburg, Russia.[157]
16th through 19th century European cities witnessed a large change in urban design and planning principals that reshaped the landscapes and built environment. Rome, Paris, and other major cities were transformed to accommodate growing populations through improvements in housing, transportation, and public services. Throughout this time, the Baroque style was in full swing, and the influences of elaborate, dramatic, and artistic architectural styles extended into the urban fabric through what is known as Baroque urban planning. The experience of living and walking in the cities aims to complement the emotions of the Baroque style. This style of planning often embraced displaying the wealth and strength of the ruling powers, and the important buildings served as the visual and symbolic center of the cities.[158]
The replanning of the city of Rome under the rule of Pope Sixtus V revived and expanded the city in the 16th century. Many grand piazzas and squares were added as public spaces to contribute to the dramatic effect of the Baroque style. The piazzas featured fountains and other decorative features to embody the emotions of the time. An important factor in Baroque style planning was to connect churches, government structures, and piazzas together in a refined network of axis'. This allowed the important landmarks of the Catholic Church to become the focal points of the city.[159]
As another example of Baroque urban planning, Paris was in desperate need for an urban revival in the 19th century. The city underwent a dramatic change within its urban fabric through the help of Baron Haussmann. Under the rule of Napoleon III, Haussmann was appointed to reconstruct Paris by adding a new network of streets, parks, trains, and public services. Some of the characteristics of Haussmann's design include straight, wide boulevards lined with trees, and short access to parks and green spaces.[160] The plan highlights some important buildings, such as the Paris Opera House.
_(cropped).jpg/1280px-Aerial_view_of_Barcelona,_Spain_(51227309370)_(cropped).jpg)
More characteristics of Baroque urban planning are embodied in Barcelona. The Eixample district, designed by Ildefons Cerdà, showcases wide avenues in a grid system with a few diagonal boulevards. The intersections are unique with octagonal blocks, which provide the streets with great visibility and light.[161] Many works in this district come from architect Antoni Gaudí, who displays a unique style. Centered in the Eixample district design is the Sagrada Família by Gaudí, which poses great significance to the city.
![Vieux-Laque Room, Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, Austria, decorated with Chinese black lacquerware panels, by Nikolaus Pacassi, 1743–1763[164]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Vienna_(124619801).jpeg/1280px-Vienna_(124619801).jpeg)
The Rococo is the final stage of the Baroque, and in many ways took the Baroque's fundamental qualities of illusion and drama to their logical extremes. Beginning in France as a reaction against the heavy Baroque grandeur of Louis XIV's court at the Palace of Versailles, the rococo movement became associated particularly with the powerful Madame de Pompadour (1721–1764), the mistress of the new king, Louis XV (1710–1774). Because of this, the style was also known as Pompadour. Although it's highly associated with the reign of Louis XV, it didn't appear in this period. Multiple works from the last years of Louis XIV's reign are examples of early Rococo. The name of the movement derives from the French rocaille, or pebble, and refers to stones and shells that decorate the interiors of caves, as similar shell forms became a common feature in Rococo design. It began as a design and decorative arts style, and was characterized by elegant flowing shapes. Architecture followed and then painting and sculpture. The French painter with whom the term Rococo is most often associated is Jean-Antoine Watteau, whose pastoral scenes, or fêtes galantes, dominate the early part of the 18th century.
There are multiple similarities between Rococo and Baroque. Both styles insist on monumental forms, and so use continuous spaces, double columns or pilasters, and luxurious materials (including gilded elements). There also noticeable differences. Rococo designed freed themselves from the adherence to symmetry that had dominated architecture and design since the Renaissance. Many small objects, like ink pots or porcelain figures, but also some ornaments, are often asymmetrical. This goes hand in hand with the fact that most ornamentation consisted of interpretation of foliage and sea shells, not as many Classical ornaments inherited from the Renaissance like in Baroque. Another key difference is the fact that since the Baroque is the main cultural manifestation of the spirit of the Counter-Reformation, it is most often associated with ecclesiastical architecture. In contrast, the Rococo is mainly associated with palaces and domestic architecture. In Paris, the popularity of the Rococo coincided with the emergence of the salon as a new type of social gathering, the venues for which were often decorated in this style. Rococo rooms were typically smaller than their Baroque counterparts, reflecting a movement towards domestic intimacy.[167] Colours also match this change, from the earthy tones of Caravaggio's paintings, and the interiors of red marble and gilded mounts of the reign of Louis XIV, to the pastel and relaxed pale blue, Pompadour pink, and white of the Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour's France. Similarly to colours, there was also a transition from serious, dramatic and moralistic subjects in painting and sculpture, to lighthearted and joyful themes.
One last difference between Baroque and Rococo is the interest that 18th century aristocrats had for East Asia. Chinoiserie was a style in fine art, architecture and design, popular during the 18th century, that was heavily inspired by Chinese art, but also by Rococo at the same time. Because traveling to China or other Far Eastern countries was hard at that time and so remained mysterious to most Westerners, European imagination were fuelled by perceptions of Asia as a place of wealth and luxury, and consequently patrons from emperors to merchants vied with each other in adorning their living quarters with Asian goods and decorating them in Asian styles. Where Asian objects were hard to obtain, European craftsmen and painters stepped up to fill the demand, creating a blend of Rococo forms and Asian figures, motifs and techniques. Aside from European recreations of objects in East Asian style, Chinese lacquerware was reused in multiple ways. European aristocrats fully decorated a handful of rooms of palaces, with Chinese lacquer panels used as wall panels. Due to its aspect, black lacquer was popular for Western men's studies. Those panels used were usually glossy and black, made in the Henan province of China. They were made of multiple layers of lacquer, then incised with motifs in-filled with colour and gold. Chinese, but also Japanese lacquer panels were also used by some 18th century European carpenters for making furniture. In order to be produced, Asian screens were dismantled and used to veneer European-made furniture.
The pioneer German art historian and archeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann also condemned the baroque style, and praised the superior values of classical art and architecture. By the 19th century, Baroque was a target for ridicule and criticism. The neoclassical critic Francesco Milizia wrote: "Borrominini in architecture, Bernini in sculpture, Pietro da Cortona in painting...are a plague on good taste, which infected a large number of artists."[168] In the 19th century, criticism went even further; the British critic John Ruskin declared that baroque sculpture was not only bad, but also morally corrupt.[168]
The Swiss-born art historian Heinrich Wölfflin (1864–1945) started the rehabilitation of the word Baroque in his Renaissance und Barock (1888); Wölfflin identified the Baroque as "movement imported into mass", an art antithetic to Renaissance art. He did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Baroque art and architecture became fashionable in the interwar period, and has largely remained in critical favor. The term "Baroque" may still be used, often pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, or design that are thought to have excessive ornamentation or complexity of line.[169] At the same time "baroque" has become an accepted terms for various trends in Roman art and Roman architecture in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, which display some of the same characteristics as the later Baroque.[citation needed]
Highly criticized, the Baroque would later be a source of inspiration for artists, architects and designers during the 19th century through Romanticism, a movement that developed in the 18th century and that reached its peak in the 19th. It was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism, as well as glorification of the past and nature, preferring the medieval to the classical. A mix of literary, religious, and political factors prompted late-18th and 19th century British architects and designers to look back to the Middle Ages for inspiration. Romanticism is the reason the 19th century is best known as the century of revivals.[175] In France, Romanticism was not the key factor that led to the revival of Gothic architecture and design. Vandalism of monuments and buildings associated with the Ancien Régime (Old Regime) happened during the French Revolution. Because of this an archaeologist, Alexandre Lenoir, was appointed curator of the Petits-Augustins depot, where sculptures, statues and tombs removed from churches, abbeys and convents had been transported. He organized the Museum of French Monuments (1795–1816), and was the first to bring back the taste for the art of the Middle Ages, which progressed slowly to flourish a quarter of a century later.[176]
This taste and revival of medieval art led to the revival of other periods, including the Baroque and Rococo. Revivalism started with themes first from the Middle Ages, then, towards the end of the reign of Louis Philippe I (1830–1848), from the Renaissance. Baroque and Rococo inspiration was more popular during the reign of Napoleon III (1852–1870), and continued later, after the fall of the Second French Empire.[177]
Compared to how in England architects and designers saw the Gothic as a national style, Rococo was seen as one of the most representative movements for France. The French felt much more connected to the styles of the Ancien Régime and Napoleon's Empire, than to the medieval or Renaissance past, although Gothic architecture appeared in France, not in England.
The revivalism of the 19th century led in time to eclecticism (mix of elements of different styles). Because architects often revived Classical styles, most Eclectic buildings and designs have a distinctive look. Besides pure revivals, the Baroque was also one of the main sources of inspiration for eclecticism. The coupled column and the giant order, two elements widely used in Baroque, are often present in this kind of 19th and early 20th century buildings. Eclecticism was not limited only to architecture. Many designs from the Second Empire style (1848–1870) have elements taken from different styles. Little furniture from the period escaped its three most prevalent historicist influences, which are sometimes kept distinct and sometimes combined: the Renaissance, Louis XV (Rococo), and Louis XVI styles. Revivals and inspiration also came sometimes from Baroque, like in the case of remakes and arabesques that imitate Boulle marquetry, and from other styles, like Gothic, Renaissance, or English Regency.[178]
The Belle Époque was a period that begun around 1871–1880 and that ended with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It was characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, colonial expansion, and technological, scientific, and cultural innovations. Eclecticism reached its peak in this period, with Beaux Arts architecture. The style takes its name from the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied. Buildings in this style often feature Ionic columns with their volues on the corner (like those found in French Baroque), a rusticated basement level, overall simplicity but with some really detailed parts, arched doors, and an arch above the entrance like the one of the Petit Palais in Paris. The style aimed for a Baroque opulence through lavishly decorated monumental structures that evoked Louis XIV's Versailles. When it comes to the design of the Belle Époque, all furniture from the past was admired, including, perhaps, contrary to expectations, the Second Empire style (the style of the proceeding period), which remained popular until 1900. In the years around 1900, there was a gigantic recapitulation of styles of all countries in all preceding periods. Everything from Chinese to Spanish models, from Boulle to Gothic, found its way into furniture production, but some styles were more appreciated than others. The High Middle Ages and the early Renaissance were especially prized. Exoticism of every stripe and exuberant Rococo designs were also favoured.[179]
Revivals and influence of the Baroque faded away and disappeared with Art Deco, a style created as a collective effort of multiple French designers to make a new modern style around 1910. It was obscure before WW1, but became very popular during the interwar period, being heavily associated with the 1920s and the 1930s. The movement was a blend of multiple characteristics taken from Modernist currents from the 1900s and the 1910s, like the Vienna Secession, Cubism, Fauvism, Primitivism, Suprematism, Constructivism, Futurism, De Stijl, and Expressionism. Besides Modernism, elements taken from styles popular during the Belle Époque, like Rococo Revival, Neoclassicism, or the neo-Louis XVI style, are also present in Art Deco. The proportions, volumes and structure of Beaux Arts architecture before WW1 is present in early Art Deco buildings of the 1910s and 1920s. Elements taken from Baroque are quite rare, architects and designers preferring the Louis XVI style.
At the end of the interwar period, with the rise in popularity of the International Style, characterized by the complete lack of any ornamentation led to the complete abandonment of influence and revivals of the Baroque. Multiple International Style architects and designers, but also Modernist artists criticized Baroque for its extravagance and what they saw as "excess". Ironically this was just at the same time as the critical appreciation of the original Baroque was reviving strongly.
![St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and others, completed in 1615[27]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Via_della_Conciliazione_at_dawn.JPG/1280px-Via_della_Conciliazione_at_dawn.JPG)
![Dolphin Hotel, Orlando, Florida, US, with urn tops that are reminiscent of urns that decorate corners, tops and roof railings of buildings and furniture from the reign of Louis XIV, by Michael Graves, 1989[182]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Downtown_Disney_05.JPG/1280px-Downtown_Disney_05.JPG)
![Herengracht no. 120, Amsterdam, unknown architect, c.1625[185]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/WLM2011_-_Amsterdam_-_Herengracht_120.JPG/1280px-WLM2011_-_Amsterdam_-_Herengracht_120.JPG)
Appreciation for the Baroque reappeared with the rise of Postmodernism, a movement that questioned Modernism (the status quo after WW2), and which promoted the inclusion of elements of historic styles in new designs, and appreciation for the pre-Modernist past. Specific references to Baroque are rare, since Postmodernism often included highly simplified elements that were 'quotations' of Classicism in general, like pediments or columns.
More references to Baroque are found in Versace ceramic ware and fashion, decorated with maximalist acanthus rinceaux, very similar to the ones found in Italian Baroque ornament plates and in Boulle work, but also similar to the ones found on Empire objects, especially textiles, from the reign of Napoleon I.
empr. au port. barroco « rocher granitique » et « perle irrégulière », attesté dep. le xiiie s. sous la forme barroca (Inquisitiones, p. 99, Portugaliae Monumenta Historica, 1856 sqq. dans Mach.), d'orig. obsc., prob. préromane en raison du suff. -ǒccu très répandu sur le territoire ibérique
But Klein suggests the name may be from Italian painter Federico Barocci (1528–1612), whose work influenced the style.
However, the writings of theologians can go only so far towards explaining the evolution of confessional consciousness and the shaping of religious identity. Lutheran attachment to religious images was a result not only of Luther's own cautious endorsement of their use, but also of the particular religious and political context in which his Reformation unfolded. After the reformer's death in 1546, the image question was fiercely contested once again. But as Calvinism, with its iconoclastic tendencies, spread, Germany's Lutherans responded by reaffirming their commitment to the proper use of religious images. In 1615, Berlin's Lutheran citizens even rioted when their Calvinist rulers removed images from the city's Cathedral.
![Basílica de San Pedro, Roma, de Donato Bramante, Miguel Ángel, Carlo Maderno y otros, terminada en 1615[27]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Basilique_Saint_Pierre_-_Vatican_(VA)_-_2021-08-25_-_4.jpg/1280px-Basilique_Saint_Pierre_-_Vatican_(VA)_-_2021-08-25_-_4.jpg)
![Santa Maria della Salute, Venecia, por Baldassare Longhena, 1631-1687[28]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Santa_Maria_della_Salute_from_Hotel_Monaco.jpg/1280px-Santa_Maria_della_Salute_from_Hotel_Monaco.jpg)
![Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi, Roma, por Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1648-1651[29]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Obelisco_Fontana_dei_Fiumi_Piazza_Navona_Roma.jpg/1280px-Obelisco_Fontana_dei_Fiumi_Piazza_Navona_Roma.jpg)
![Plaza de San Pedro, Roma, por Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1656-1667[27]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/St_Peter's_Square,_Vatican_City_-_April_2007.jpg/1280px-St_Peter's_Square,_Vatican_City_-_April_2007.jpg)
![Santa Maria della Pace, Roma, por Pietro da Cortona, 1656-1667[30]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%C3%89glise_Santa_Maria_Pace_-_Rome_(IT62)_-_2021-08-28_-_3.jpg/1280px-%C3%89glise_Santa_Maria_Pace_-_Rome_(IT62)_-_2021-08-28_-_3.jpg)
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![Palacio Real de Madrid, de Jean Bautista Sachetti, 1735-1764[36]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Palacio_Real_de_Madrid_-_13.jpg/1280px-Palacio_Real_de_Madrid_-_13.jpg)
![Fachada de la Catedral de Santiago de Compostela, España, por Fernando de Casas Novoa, 1738[37]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Catedral_de_Santiago_de_Compostela_agosto_2018_(cropped).jpg/1280px-Catedral_de_Santiago_de_Compostela_agosto_2018_(cropped).jpg)
![Palacio de Wilanów, Varsovia, Polonia, arquitecto desconocido, 1677-1679[41]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/281012_Detail_of_the_Wilan%C3%B3w_Palace_-_19.jpg/1280px-281012_Detail_of_the_Wilan%C3%B3w_Palace_-_19.jpg)
![Columna de la peste, Viena, Austria, por Matthias Rauchmiller y Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1682 y 1694[42]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Wien_Graben_Pests%C3%A4ule_Ostseite.jpg/1280px-Wien_Graben_Pests%C3%A4ule_Ostseite.jpg)
![Iglesia de San Nicolás, Praga, República Checa, por Christoph Dientzenhofer, 1703-1711[43]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/St._Nikolaus_auf_der_Kleinseite_Innenraum_1.jpg/1280px-St._Nikolaus_auf_der_Kleinseite_Innenraum_1.jpg)
![Exterior de la Karlskirche de Viena, por Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1715-1737[44]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Karlskirche_Wien_September_2016.jpg/1280px-Karlskirche_Wien_September_2016.jpg)
![Interior de la Karlskirche, por Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1715-1737[44]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Iglesia_de_San_Carlos_Borromeo,_Viena,_Austria,_2020-01-31,_DD_49-51_HDR.jpg/1280px-Iglesia_de_San_Carlos_Borromeo,_Viena,_Austria,_2020-01-31,_DD_49-51_HDR.jpg)
![Alto Belvedere, Viena, por Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt, 1717-1723[45]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Palacio_Belvedere,_Viena,_Austria,_2020-02-01,_DD_87-89_HDR.jpg/1280px-Palacio_Belvedere,_Viena,_Austria,_2020-02-01,_DD_87-89_HDR.jpg)
![Palacio Rogalin, Rogalin, Polonia, arquitecto desconocido, 1768-1774[46]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pa%C5%82ac_w_Rogalinie_od_strony_ogrodu_02.jpg/1280px-Pa%C5%82ac_w_Rogalinie_od_strony_ogrodu_02.jpg)
![Castillo de Maisons, Francia, por François Mansart, 1630-1651[54]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Maisons-Laffitte_001.jpg/1280px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Maisons-Laffitte_001.jpg)
![Galerie d'Apollon, Palacio del Louvre, París, por Louis Le Vau y Charles Le Brun, después de 1661[55]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Galerie_d'Apollon_du_Louvre_d%C3%A9serte_1.jpg/1280px-Galerie_d'Apollon_du_Louvre_d%C3%A9serte_1.jpg)
![Fachada oriental del Palacio del Louvre, París, obra de Claude Perrault y Louis Le Vau, 1665-1680[56]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Louvre-facade-est.jpg/1280px-Louvre-facade-est.jpg)
![Capilla del Palacio de Versalles, Versalles, Francia, 1696-1710[57]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Versailles_Chapel_-_July_2006_edit.jpg/1280px-Versailles_Chapel_-_July_2006_edit.jpg)
![Porte Saint-Denis, París, por François Blondel, 1672[58]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Porte_Saint-Denis_01.jpg/1280px-Porte_Saint-Denis_01.jpg)
![Dôme des Invalides, París, por Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1677-1706[59]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Louis-des-Invalides,_140309_2.jpg/1280px-Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Louis-des-Invalides,_140309_2.jpg)
![Salón de los Espejos del Palacio de Versalles, 1678-1684[60]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg/1280px-Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg)
![Fachada del jardín del Palacio de Versalles, obra de Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1678-1688[61]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Palace_of_Versailles_June_2010.jpg/1280px-Palace_of_Versailles_June_2010.jpg)
![Patio de mármol del Palacio de Versalles, 1680[62]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Cour_de_Marbre_du_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles_October_5,_2011.jpg/1280px-Cour_de_Marbre_du_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles_October_5,_2011.jpg)
![Place Vendôme, París, por Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1699-1706[63]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Place_Vendome,_Paris_20_April_2011.jpg/1280px-Place_Vendome,_Paris_20_April_2011.jpg)
![Hôtel de Rothelin-Charolais, París, por Pierre Cailleteau, 1700-1704[64]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/H%C3%B4tel_de_Rothelin_-_fa%C3%A7ade_cour.jpg/1280px-H%C3%B4tel_de_Rothelin_-_fa%C3%A7ade_cour.jpg)
![Palacio de Mafra, Mafra, Portugal, por João Frederico Ludovice, 1717-1755[70]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Mafra_(27595630149)_(cropped).jpg/1280px-Mafra_(27595630149)_(cropped).jpg)
![Azulejo en los claustros del Monasterio de São Vicente de Fora, Lisboa, Portugal, con una escena basada en un grabado de Jean Le Pautre, arquitecto o artesano desconocido, 1730-1735[71]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Patriarcato_di_Lisbona_(3093346552).jpg/1280px-Patriarcato_di_Lisbona_(3093346552).jpg)
![Gran Escalera del Santuario de Bom Jesus do Monte, Braga, Portugal, por Carlos Luís Ferreira Amarante y otros, c. 1784[72]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Bom_Jesus_2017_(10).jpg/1280px-Bom_Jesus_2017_(10).jpg)
![Jardines de Peterhof, San Petersburgo, Rusia, arquitecto desconocido, 1746-1758[83]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/2019-08-02-3847-Saint_Petersburg.jpg/1280px-2019-08-02-3847-Saint_Petersburg.jpg)
![Convento Smolny, San Petersburgo, por Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, 1748[84]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Smolny_Cathedral_SPB_02.jpg/1280px-Smolny_Cathedral_SPB_02.jpg)
![Tsarskoe Selo, Pushkin, Rusia, por Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, 1749-1756[85]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Catherine_Palace_in_Tsarskoe_Selo.jpg/1280px-Catherine_Palace_in_Tsarskoe_Selo.jpg)
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![Basílica de San Francisco de Asís, La Habana, Cuba, arquitecto desconocido, 1548-1738[87]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Basilica_Menor_de_San_Francisco_de_Asis_in_Havana_2016.jpg/1280px-Basilica_Menor_de_San_Francisco_de_Asis_in_Havana_2016.jpg)
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![Iglesia de Santo Domingo, Santiago de Chile, arquitecto desconocido, 1747–1808[88]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Iglesia_de_Santo_Domingo,_Santiago,_2017-09-24.jpg/1280px-Iglesia_de_Santo_Domingo,_Santiago,_2017-09-24.jpg)
![Iglesia de Santa Prisca de Taxco, Taxco, México, por Diego Durán y Cayetano Sigüenza, 1751-1758[89]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Taxco_Santa_Prisca.jpg/1280px-Taxco_Santa_Prisca.jpg)
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![São Paulo in Macau, China, unknown architect, 1601[98]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Restos_de_la_Catedral_de_San_Pablo,_Macao,_2013-08-08,_DD_05.jpg/1280px-Restos_de_la_Catedral_de_San_Pablo,_Macao,_2013-08-08,_DD_05.jpg)
![São Paulo in Diu, India, unknown architect, 1601[99]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Eglise_St_Paul.jpg/1280px-Eglise_St_Paul.jpg)
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![Horezu Monastery, Horezu, Romania, with a Solomonic column, unknown architect, 17th–18th centuries[100]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Hurezi_(14572944446).jpg/1280px-Hurezi_(14572944446).jpg)
![Resurrection of Christ; by Annibale Carracci; 1593; oil on canvas; 217 x 160 cm; Louvre[103]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Annibale_Carracci,_Resurrezione,_Louvre.jpg/1280px-Annibale_Carracci,_Resurrezione,_Louvre.jpg)
![Triumph of Bacchus and Adriane (part of The Loves of the Gods); by Annibale Carracci; c.1597–1600; fresco; length (gallery): 20.2 m; Palazzo Farnese, Rome[104]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/The_Triumph_of_Bacchus_and_Ariadne_-_Annibale_Carracci_-_1597_-_Farnese_Gallery,_Rome.jpg/1280px-The_Triumph_of_Bacchus_and_Ariadne_-_Annibale_Carracci_-_1597_-_Farnese_Gallery,_Rome.jpg)
![The Calling of St Matthew; by Caravaggio; c.1602–1604; oil on canvas; 3 x 2 m; San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome[105]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/The_Calling_of_Saint_Matthew-Caravaggo_(1599-1600).jpg/1280px-The_Calling_of_Saint_Matthew-Caravaggo_(1599-1600).jpg)
![Judith Slaying Holofernes; by Artemisia Gentileschi; 1611–1612; oil on canvas; 163 x 126 cm; Uffizi, Florence, Italy[106]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Artemisia_Gentileschi_-_Giuditta_decapita_Oloferne_-_Google_Art_Project-Adjust.jpg/1280px-Artemisia_Gentileschi_-_Giuditta_decapita_Oloferne_-_Google_Art_Project-Adjust.jpg)
![The Rape of the Sabine Women; by Nicolas Poussin; 1634–1635; oil on canvas; 1.55 × 2.1 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City[107]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Nicolas_Poussin_-_L'Enl%C3%A8vement_des_Sabines_(1634-5).jpg/1280px-Nicolas_Poussin_-_L'Enl%C3%A8vement_des_Sabines_(1634-5).jpg)
![The Night Watch; by Rembrandt; 1642; oil on canvas; 3.63 × 4.37 m; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands[108]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/La_ronda_de_noche,_por_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg/1280px-La_ronda_de_noche,_por_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg)
![Las Meninas; by Diego Velázquez; 1656; oil on canvas; 3.18 cm × 2.76 m; Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain[109]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Las_Meninas,_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez,_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg/1280px-Las_Meninas,_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez,_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg)
![Vanitas Still Life; by Maria van Oosterwijck; 1668; oil on canvas; 73 x 88.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum[111]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Maria_van_Oosterwijck,_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Wien,_Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_-_Vanitas-Stilleben_-_GG_5714.jpg/1280px-Maria_van_Oosterwijck,_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Wien,_Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_-_Vanitas-Stilleben_-_GG_5714.jpg)
![Ecstasy of Saint Teresa; by Gian Lorenzo Bernini; 1647–1652; marble; height: 3.5 m; Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome[118]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa_September_2015-2a.jpg/1280px-Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa_September_2015-2a.jpg)
![The King's Fame Riding Pegasus; by Antoine Coysevox; 1698–1702; Carrara marble; height: 3.15 m; Louvre[119]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Fame_riding_Pegasus_Coysevox_Louvre_MR1824.jpg/1280px-Fame_riding_Pegasus_Coysevox_Louvre_MR1824.jpg)
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![Four-poster bed from the Château d'Effiat; c.1650; natural walnut, chiselled Genoa silk velvet and embroidered silks; 295 cm; Louvre[122]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Decorative_arts_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_32_D201903_(cropped).jpg/1280px-Decorative_arts_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_32_D201903_(cropped).jpg)
![Pier table; 1685–1690; carved, gessoed, and gilded wood, with a marble top; 83.6 × 128.6 × 71.6 cm; Art Institute of Chicago, US[124]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Francia,_tavolo_da_parete,_1685-90_ca.jpg/1280px-Francia,_tavolo_da_parete,_1685-90_ca.jpg)
![Cupboard; by André Charles Boulle; c.1700; ebony and amaranth veneering, polychrome woods, brass, tin, shell, and horn marquetry on an oak frame, gilt-bronze; 255.5 x 157.5 cm; Louvre[125]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Armoire_aux_perroquets_du_Louvre.jpg/1280px-Armoire_aux_perroquets_du_Louvre.jpg)
![Commode; by André-Charles Boulle; c.1710–1732; walnut veneered with ebony and marquetry of engraved brass and tortoiseshell, gilt-bronze mounts, antique marble top; 87.6 x 128.3 x 62.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[126]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Commode_MET_DP108742.jpg/1280px-Commode_MET_DP108742.jpg)
![German slant-front desk; by Heinrich Ludwig Rohde or Ferdinand Plitzner; c.1715–1725; marquetry with maple, amaranth, mahogany, and walnut on spruce and oak; 90 × 84 × 44.5 cm; Art Institute of Chicago[127]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Heinrich_ludwig_rohde_o_ferdinand_plitzner_(attr.),_scrittoio_a_ribalta,_magonza_1720_ca.jpg/1280px-Heinrich_ludwig_rohde_o_ferdinand_plitzner_(attr.),_scrittoio_a_ribalta,_magonza_1720_ca.jpg)
![Gardens at Vaux-le-Vicomte, France, by André Le Nôtre, 1657–1661[153]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Kasteel_van_Vaux-le-Vicomte_-_Maincy_06.jpg/1280px-Kasteel_van_Vaux-le-Vicomte_-_Maincy_06.jpg)
![Gardens of Versailles, by André Le Nôtre, begun in 1661[154]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Vue_a%C3%A9rienne_du_domaine_de_Versailles_le_20_ao%C3%BBt_2014_par_ToucanWings_-_Creative_Commons_By_Sa_3.0_-_22.jpg/1280px-Vue_a%C3%A9rienne_du_domaine_de_Versailles_le_20_ao%C3%BBt_2014_par_ToucanWings_-_Creative_Commons_By_Sa_3.0_-_22.jpg)
![Garden of the Tessin Palace, Stockholm, Sweden, by Nicodemus Tessin the Younger, 1692–1700[156]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/1_Tessinska_palatset_tr%C3%A4dg%C3%A5rd_2.jpg/1280px-1_Tessinska_palatset_tr%C3%A4dg%C3%A5rd_2.jpg)
![Meudon Observatory, Château de Meudon, Meudon, France, an example of an early Rococo building from the last years of Louis XIV, unknown architect, 1706–1709[162]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Meudon_observatoire_2016_(15).jpg/1280px-Meudon_observatoire_2016_(15).jpg)
![Amalienburg, Nymphenburg Palace Park, Munich, Germany, by François de Cuvilliés, 1734–1739[163]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/20230209_Amalienburg_Nymphenburg.jpg/1280px-20230209_Amalienburg_Nymphenburg.jpg)
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![Chinese House, Sanssouci Park, Potsdam, Germany, an example of Chinoiserie, by Johann Gottfried Büring, 1755–1764[165]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Chinese_House_Potsdam-,_Germany.jpg/1280px-Chinese_House_Potsdam-,_Germany.jpg)
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![Pagod, based on Asian figures of Budai, an example of Chinoiserie; by Johann Joachim Kändler; c.1765; hard paste porcelain; Metropolitan Museum of Art[166]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Nodding_pagod,_Meissen,_Germany,_c._1760,_porcelain,_1892.60.325_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art_-_New_York_City_-_DSC07727.jpg/1280px-Nodding_pagod,_Meissen,_Germany,_c._1760,_porcelain,_1892.60.325_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art_-_New_York_City_-_DSC07727.jpg)
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_-_MUDO_-_%22Cabaret_%C3%A0_la_mani%C3%A8re_de_Boulle%22_(vers_1850-1870).jpg/1280px-Beauvais_(Oise)_-_MUDO_-_%22Cabaret_%C3%A0_la_mani%C3%A8re_de_Boulle%22_(vers_1850-1870).jpg)
![Large console with central projection; by Benjamin Deguil and Benjamin-Paul Ramillon; 1850–1875; gilt wood and marble; 100 x 283 x 77 cm; Napoleon III Apartments, Louvre Palace, Paris[170]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Decorative_arts_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_85_(01).jpg/1280px-Decorative_arts_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_85_(01).jpg)
![The Grand Salon of the apartments of the minister of state, currently known as the Napoleon III Apartments, designed by Hector Lefuel and decorated with paintings by Charles Raphaël Maréchal, 1859-1860[171]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Napoleon_III_Apartments_(44883695984).jpg/1280px-Napoleon_III_Apartments_(44883695984).jpg)
![Candelabrum with eleven lights; by Ferdinand Barbedienne; 1861; gilt bronze; height: 83.7 cm, length: 49.4 cm; Napoleon III Apartments[172]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Decorative_arts_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_83_(07).jpg/1280px-Decorative_arts_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_83_(07).jpg)
![Exterior of the Palais Garnier, Paris, an example of Beaux Arts architecture, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875[173]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Paris_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg/1280px-Paris_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg)
![Grand foyer of the Palais Garnier, inspired by the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, but with some ornaments taken from other historical styles, like the neo-Renaissance column lower parts, or the Greek Revival lyres at the tops of windows, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875[173]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Foyer_(51865286672).jpg/1280px-Foyer_(51865286672).jpg)
![Petit Palais, Paris, an example of Beaux Arts architecture, with Ionic columns very similar to those of the reign of Louis XIV, by Charles Giraud, 1900[174]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Petit-Palais-Paris-02-2018.jpg/1280px-Petit-Palais-Paris-02-2018.jpg)
![550 Madison Avenue, New York, with a top broken pediment, reminiscent of those found in Baroque highboys, by Philip Johnson, 1981-1984[180]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Sony_Building_by_David_Shankbone_crop.jpg/1280px-Sony_Building_by_David_Shankbone_crop.jpg)
![Broken pediment of San Marcello al Corso, Rome, by Carlo Fontana, 1682-1683[181]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Chiesa_San_Marcello_al_Corso_(cropped_broken_pediment).jpg/1280px-Chiesa_San_Marcello_al_Corso_(cropped_broken_pediment).jpg)
![Urns that decorate the roof railing of the Marble Court of the Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, by Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart, c. 1660–1715[183]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Versailles_roof_details_dormer_windows.jpg/1280px-Versailles_roof_details_dormer_windows.jpg)
![Hotel Zaandam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, inspired by Dutch 16th and 17th century canal houses, by Wam Architecten, 2010[184]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Zaanstad_Inntel_Hotel_15.jpg/1280px-Zaanstad_Inntel_Hotel_15.jpg)
![Baroque rinceaux with putti painted on the boiserie of a room from the Hôtel Colbert de Villacerf, now in the Musée Carnavalet, Paris, unknown architect, sculptor and painter, c.1650[186]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/H%C3%B4tel_Colbert_de_Villacerf_3.jpg/1280px-H%C3%B4tel_Colbert_de_Villacerf_3.jpg)
_Armoire_Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_D%C3%A9coratifs_Paris_001.jpg/1280px-Nicolas_Sageot_(attr.)_Armoire_Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_D%C3%A9coratifs_Paris_001.jpg)
![Empire style rinceaux on a vase, by the Sèvres Porcelain Manufactory, 1814, hard-paste porcelain with platinum background and gilt bronze mounts, Louvre[187]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Pair_of_Spindle_Vases_-_OA_11090_-_Louvre_(08).jpg/1280px-Pair_of_Spindle_Vases_-_OA_11090_-_Louvre_(08).jpg)
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