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Israel

Israel , oficialmente el Estado de Israel , es un país de la región del Levante meridional de Asia occidental . Limita con Líbano y Siria al norte, Cisjordania y Jordania al este, la Franja de Gaza y Egipto al suroeste y el mar Mediterráneo al oeste. [22] El país también tiene una pequeña costa en el mar Rojo en su punto más meridional, y parte del mar Muerto se encuentra a lo largo de su frontera oriental. Jerusalén es proclamada controvertidamente por Israel como su capital, [23] mientras que Tel Aviv es la zona urbana y el centro económico más grande del país .

Israel está ubicado en una región conocida por los judíos como la Tierra de Israel , sinónimo de la región de Palestina , Tierra Santa y Canaán . En la antigüedad, fue el hogar de la civilización cananea seguida de los reinos de Israel y Judá . Situada en una encrucijada continental , la región experimentó cambios demográficos bajo el gobierno de varios imperios , desde los romanos hasta los otomanos . [24] El antisemitismo europeo a fines del siglo XIX galvanizó al sionismo , que buscó una patria judía en Palestina y obtuvo el apoyo británico . Después de la Primera Guerra Mundial , Gran Bretaña ocupó la región y estableció el Mandato Británico de Palestina en 1920. El aumento de la inmigración judía en el período previo al Holocausto y la política colonial británica llevaron a un conflicto intercomunitario entre judíos y árabes , [25] [26] que se convirtió en una guerra civil en 1947 después de que la ONU propusiera dividir la tierra entre ellos.

El Estado de Israel declaró su establecimiento el 14 de mayo de 1948. Los ejércitos de los estados árabes vecinos invadieron el área del antiguo Mandato al día siguiente, comenzando la Primera Guerra Árabe-Israelí . Los acuerdos de armisticio posteriores establecieron el control israelí sobre el 77 por ciento del territorio del antiguo Mandato. [27] [28] [29] La mayoría de los árabes palestinos fueron expulsados ​​o huyeron en lo que se conoce como la Nakba , y los que quedaron se convirtieron en la principal minoría del nuevo estado. [30] [31] [32] Durante las décadas siguientes, la población de Israel aumentó masivamente a medida que el país recibió una afluencia de judíos que emigraron, huyeron o fueron expulsados ​​​​del mundo musulmán . [33] [34] Después de la Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967, Israel ocupó Cisjordania, la Franja de Gaza, la península del Sinaí egipcia y los Altos del Golán sirios . Israel estableció y continúa expandiendo asentamientos en los territorios ocupados ilegalmente , en contravención del derecho internacional , y ha anexado efectivamente Jerusalén Oriental y los Altos del Golán en movimientos en gran parte no reconocidos internacionalmente. Después de la Guerra de Yom Kippur de 1973 , Israel firmó tratados de paz con Egipto (devolviendo el Sinaí en 1982) y Jordania . En la década de 2020, normalizó las relaciones con más países árabes. Sin embargo, los esfuerzos para resolver el conflicto israelí-palestino después de los Acuerdos provisionales de Oslo no han tenido éxito, y el país ha participado en varias guerras y enfrentamientos con grupos militantes palestinos . Las prácticas de Israel en su ocupación de los territorios palestinos han generado críticas internacionales sostenidas junto con acusaciones de que ha cometido crímenes de guerra y crímenes contra la humanidad contra el pueblo palestino por parte de organizaciones de derechos humanos y funcionarios de las Naciones Unidas.

Las Leyes Básicas del país establecen un parlamento unicameral elegido por representación proporcional , la Knesset , que determina la composición del gobierno encabezado por el primer ministro y elige al presidente . [35] Israel es el único país que tiene un idioma oficial revivido , el hebreo . Su cultura comprende elementos judíos y de la diáspora judía junto con influencias árabes . Israel tiene una de las mayores economías de Oriente Medio y uno de los mayores PIB per cápita y niveles de vida de Asia . Es uno de los países tecnológicamente más avanzados y desarrollados del mundo, gasta proporcionalmente más en investigación y desarrollo que cualquier otro y se cree ampliamente que posee armas nucleares . [36] [ 37] [38] [39] [40] [41] El país se unió a la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos en 2010 y tiene la única tasa de fertilidad por encima del reemplazo entre sus miembros. [42] [43] [44]

Etimología

La estela de Merneptah (siglo XIII a. C.). La mayoría de los arqueólogos bíblicos traducen un conjunto de jeroglíficos como Israel , la primera vez que aparece el nombre en el registro.

Bajo el Mandato Británico (1920-1948), toda la región era conocida como Palestina . [45] Tras su creación en 1948, el país adoptó formalmente el nombre de Estado de Israel ( hebreo : מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל , Medīnat Yisrā'el [mediˈnat jisʁaˈʔel] ; árabe : دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل , Dawlat Isrāʼīl , [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl] ) después de que se consideraran otros nombres propuestos, entre ellos Tierra de Israel ( Eretz Israel ), Ever (del ancestro Eber ), Sión y Judea , pero se rechazaron. [46] El nombre Israel fue sugerido por Ben-Gurion y aprobado por una votación de 6 a 3. [47] En las primeras semanas después de su establecimiento, el gobierno eligió el término israelí para designar a un ciudadano del estado israelí. [48]

Los nombres Tierra de Israel e Hijos de Israel se han utilizado históricamente para referirse al Reino bíblico de Israel y a todo el pueblo judío respectivamente. [49] El nombre Israel (hebreo: Yīsrāʾēl ; griego de la Septuaginta : Ἰσραήλ , Israēl , " El (Dios) persiste/gobierna", aunque después de Oseas 12:4 a menudo se interpreta como "lucha con Dios") se refiere al patriarca Jacob , quien, según la Biblia hebrea , recibió el nombre después de luchar con éxito con el ángel del Señor. [50] El artefacto arqueológico más antiguo conocido que menciona la palabra Israel como colectivo es la estela de Merneptah del antiguo Egipto (que data de finales del siglo XIII a. C.). [51]

Historia

Prehistoria

La presencia temprana de homínidos en el Levante , donde se encuentra Israel, se remonta al menos a 1,5 millones de años según el sitio prehistórico de Ubeidiya . [52] Los homínidos de Skhul y Qafzeh , que datan de hace 120.000 años, son algunos de los primeros rastros de humanos anatómicamente modernos fuera de África. [53] La cultura natufiense surgió en el décimo milenio a. C., [54] seguida por la cultura ghassuliana alrededor del 4.500 a. C. [55]

Edad del Bronce y Edad del Hierro

Las primeras referencias a los "cananeos" y "Canaán" aparecen en textos egipcios y del Cercano Oriente ( c. 2000 a. C.); estas poblaciones estaban estructuradas como ciudades-estado políticamente independientes . [56] [57] Durante la Edad del Bronce Tardío (1550-1200 a. C.), grandes partes de Canaán formaron estados vasallos del Nuevo Reino de Egipto . [58] Como resultado del colapso de la Edad del Bronce Tardío , Canaán cayó en el caos y el control egipcio sobre la región se derrumbó. [59] [60]

Un pueblo llamado Israel aparece por primera vez en la Estela de Merneptah , una antigua inscripción egipcia que data de alrededor de 1200 a. C. [61] [62] [fn 5] [64] Se cree que los antepasados ​​​​de los israelitas incluyeron antiguos pueblos de habla semítica nativos de esta área. [65] : 78–79  Los relatos arqueológicos modernos sugieren que los israelitas y su cultura se ramificaron de los pueblos cananeos [66] a través del desarrollo de una religión monolatrista distintiva —y luego monoteísta— centrada en Yahvé . [67] [68] Hablaban una forma arcaica de hebreo , conocida como hebreo bíblico . [69] Casi al mismo tiempo, los filisteos se asentaron en la llanura costera del sur . [70] [71]

La arqueología moderna ha descartado en gran medida la historicidad de la narrativa en la Torá y en su lugar ve la narrativa como el mito nacional de los israelitas . [72] Sin embargo, algunos elementos de estas tradiciones parecen tener raíces históricas. [72] [73] [74] Existe un debate sobre la existencia más temprana de los Reinos de Israel y Judá y su extensión y poder. Si bien no está claro si alguna vez hubo un Reino Unido de Israel , [75] [76] los historiadores y arqueólogos coinciden en que el Reino del norte de Israel existía alrededor del 900 a. C. [77] : 169-195  [78] y el Reino de Judá alrededor del 850 a. C. [79] [80] El Reino de Israel fue el más próspero de los dos y pronto se convirtió en una potencia regional, con capital en Samaria ; [81] [82] [83] Durante la dinastía Omrida , controló Samaria , Galilea , el valle superior del Jordán , el Sarón y grandes partes de Transjordania . [84]

El Reino de Israel fue conquistado alrededor del 720 a. C. por el Imperio Neoasirio . [85] El Reino de Judá, bajo el gobierno davídico con su capital en Jerusalén , más tarde se convirtió en un estado cliente primero del Imperio Neoasirio y luego del Imperio Neobabilónico . Se estima que la población de la región era de alrededor de 400.000 en la Edad de Hierro II . [86] En 587/6 a. C., después de una revuelta en Judá , el rey Nabucodonosor II sitió y destruyó Jerusalén y el Templo de Salomón, [87] [88] disolvió el reino y exilió a gran parte de la élite judía a Babilonia . [89]

Antigüedad clásica

Después de capturar Babilonia en 539 a. C., Ciro el Grande , fundador del Imperio aqueménida , emitió una proclamación que permitía a la población judía exiliada regresar a Judá. [90] [91] La construcción del Segundo Templo se completó alrededor del  520 a. C. [ 90] Los aqueménidas gobernaron la región como la provincia de Yehud Medinata . [92] En 332 a. C., Alejandro Magno de Macedonia conquistó la región como parte de su campaña contra el Imperio aqueménida . Después de su muerte, el área fue controlada por los imperios ptolemaico y seléucida como parte de Celesiria . Durante los siglos siguientes, la helenización de la región provocó tensiones culturales que llegaron a un punto crítico durante el reinado de Antíoco IV , dando lugar a la Revuelta Macabea de 167 a. C. Los disturbios civiles debilitaron el gobierno seléucida y a finales del siglo II surgió el semiautónomo Reino Asmoneo de Judea , que finalmente alcanzó la independencia total y se expandió a las regiones vecinas. [93] [94] [95]

Vista de la fortaleza de Masada con vistas al Mar Muerto , que fue escenario de un asedio romano en el siglo I.

La República romana invadió la región en el 63 a. C., primero tomando el control de Siria y luego interviniendo en la Guerra Civil Asmonea . La lucha entre facciones pro-romanas y pro- partas en Judea condujo a la instalación de Herodes el Grande como vasallo dinástico de Roma . En el 6 d. C., el área fue anexada como la provincia romana de Judea ; las tensiones con el gobierno romano llevaron a una serie de guerras judeo-romanas , que resultaron en una destrucción generalizada. La Primera Guerra Judeo-Romana (66-73 d. C.) resultó en la destrucción de Jerusalén y el Segundo Templo y una porción considerable de la población fue asesinada o desplazada. [96]

Un segundo levantamiento conocido como la revuelta de Bar Kokhba (132-136 d. C.) permitió inicialmente a los judíos formar un estado independiente, pero los romanos aplastaron brutalmente la rebelión, devastando y despoblando el campo de Judea. [96] [97] [98] [99] [100] Jerusalén fue reconstruida como una colonia romana ( Aelia Capitolina ), y la provincia de Judea pasó a llamarse Siria Palestina . [101] [102] Los judíos fueron expulsados ​​de los distritos que rodeaban Jerusalén. [103] [99] Sin embargo, hubo una pequeña presencia judía continua y Galilea se convirtió en su centro religioso. [104] [105]

Antigüedad tardía y época medieval

Sinagoga de Kfar Bar'am del siglo III en Galilea [106]

El cristianismo primitivo desplazó al paganismo romano en el siglo IV d. C., con Constantino abrazando y promoviendo la religión cristiana y Teodosio I convirtiéndola en la religión del estado . Se aprobaron una serie de leyes que discriminaban a los judíos y al judaísmo, y los judíos fueron perseguidos tanto por la iglesia como por las autoridades. [107] Muchos judíos habían emigrado a florecientes comunidades de la diáspora , [108] mientras que a nivel local hubo tanto inmigración cristiana como conversión local. A mediados del siglo V, había una mayoría cristiana. [109] [110] Hacia finales del siglo V, estallaron revueltas samaritanas , que continuaron hasta finales del siglo VI y dieron como resultado una gran disminución de la población samaritana. [111] Después de la conquista sasánida de Jerusalén y la efímera revuelta judía contra Heraclio en 614 d. C., el Imperio bizantino reconsolidó el control del área en 628. [112]

En 634-641 d. C., el califato Rashidun conquistó el Levante . [108] [113] [114] Durante los siguientes seis siglos, el control de la región se transfirió entre los califatos omeya , abasí , fatimí y, posteriormente, las dinastías seléucidas y ayubíes . [115] La población disminuyó drásticamente durante los siguientes siglos, cayendo de un estimado de 1 millón durante los períodos romano y bizantino a alrededor de 300.000 a principios del período otomano, y hubo un proceso constante de arabización e islamización . [114] [113 ] [116] [86] [24] El final del siglo XI trajo las Cruzadas , incursiones sancionadas por el papado de cruzados cristianos con la intención de arrebatar Jerusalén y Tierra Santa del control musulmán y establecer Estados cruzados . [117] Los ayubíes hicieron retroceder a los cruzados antes de que los sultanes mamelucos de Egipto restablecieran plenamente el gobierno musulmán en 1291. [118]

La época moderna y el surgimiento del sionismo

Judíos en el Muro Occidental en la década de 1870

En 1516, el Imperio otomano conquistó la región y la gobernó como parte de la Siria otomana . [119] Se produjeron dos incidentes violentos contra los judíos, los ataques de Safed de 1517 y los ataques de Hebrón de 1517 , después de que los otomanos turcos expulsaran a los mamelucos durante la guerra otomano-mameluca . [120] [121] Bajo el Imperio otomano, el Levante era bastante cosmopolita, con libertades religiosas para cristianos, musulmanes y judíos . En 1561, el sultán otomano invitó a los judíos sefardíes que escapaban de la Inquisición española a establecerse y reconstruir la ciudad de Tiberíades . [122] [123]

Bajo el sistema millet del Imperio Otomano , los cristianos y los judíos eran considerados dhimmi (que significa "protegidos") bajo la ley otomana a cambio de lealtad al estado y el pago del impuesto jizya . [124] [125] Los súbditos otomanos no musulmanes enfrentaban restricciones geográficas y de estilo de vida, aunque estas no siempre se aplicaban. [126] [127] [128] El sistema millet organizaba a los no musulmanes en comunidades autónomas sobre la base de la religión. [129]

El Primer Congreso Sionista (1897) en Basilea , Suiza

El concepto del "retorno" siguió siendo un símbolo dentro de la creencia religiosa judía que enfatizaba que su retorno debería ser determinado por la Providencia Divina en lugar de la acción humana. [130] El destacado historiador sionista Shlomo Avineri describe esta conexión: "Los judíos no se relacionaron con la visión del Retorno de una manera más activa de lo que la mayoría de los cristianos vieron la Segunda Venida". La noción religiosa judaica de ser una nación era distinta de la noción europea moderna de nacionalismo. [131] La población judía de Palestina desde el gobierno otomano hasta el comienzo del movimiento sionista, conocida como el Antiguo Yishuv , comprendía una minoría y fluctuaba en tamaño. Durante el siglo XVI, las comunidades judías echaron raíces en las Cuatro Ciudades Santas : Jerusalén , Tiberíades , Hebrón y Safed , y en 1697, el rabino Yehuda Hachasid dirigió un grupo de 1.500 judíos a Jerusalén. [132] Una revuelta drusa de 1660 contra los otomanos destruyó Safed y Tiberíades . [119] En la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII, los judíos de Europa del Este que eran oponentes del jasidismo , conocidos como los perushim , se establecieron en Palestina. [133] [134]

A finales del siglo XVIII, el jeque árabe local Zahir al-Umar creó un emirato independiente de facto en Galilea. Los intentos otomanos de someter al jeque fracasaron. Tras la muerte de Zahir, los otomanos recuperaron el control de la zona. En 1799, el gobernador Jazzar Pasha repelió un asalto a Acre por parte de las tropas de Napoleón , lo que llevó a los franceses a abandonar la campaña siria. [135] En 1834, se reprimió una revuelta de los campesinos árabes palestinos contra las políticas de reclutamiento e impuestos egipcias bajo Muhammad Ali ; el ejército de Muhammad Ali se retiró y el gobierno otomano fue restaurado con el apoyo británico en 1840. [136] Las reformas de Tanzimat se implementaron en todo el Imperio Otomano.

La primera ola de migración judía moderna a la Palestina gobernada por los otomanos , conocida como la Primera Aliá , comenzó en 1881, cuando los judíos huyeron de los pogromos en Europa del Este. [137] Las Leyes de Mayo de 1882 aumentaron la discriminación económica contra los judíos y restringieron dónde podían vivir. [138] [139] En respuesta, tomó forma el sionismo político , un movimiento que buscaba establecer un estado judío en Palestina, ofreciendo así una solución a la cuestión judía de los estados europeos. [140] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] El antisemitismo, los pogromos y las políticas oficiales en la Rusia zarista llevaron a la emigración de tres millones de judíos en los años entre 1882 y 1914, de los cuales solo el 1% fue a Palestina. Aquellos que fueron a Palestina lo hicieron principalmente por ideas de autodeterminación e identidad judía, más que como respuesta a los pogromos o la inseguridad económica. [130]

La Segunda Aliá (1904-1914) comenzó después del pogromo de Kishinev ; unos 40.000 judíos se establecieron en Palestina, aunque casi la mitad finalmente se fue. Tanto la primera como la segunda ola de inmigrantes fueron principalmente judíos ortodoxos . [141] La Segunda Aliá incluyó grupos socialistas sionistas que establecieron el movimiento kibutz basado en la idea de establecer una economía judía separada basada exclusivamente en el trabajo judío. [142] [143] Aquellos de la Segunda Aliá que se convirtieron en líderes del Yishuv en las décadas siguientes creían que la economía de los colonos judíos no debería depender del trabajo árabe. Esto sería una fuente dominante de antagonismo con la población árabe, con la ideología nacionalista del nuevo Yishuv dominando a su ideología socialista. [144] Aunque los inmigrantes de la Segunda Aliá buscaron en gran medida crear asentamientos agrícolas judíos comunales, Tel Aviv fue establecida como la primera ciudad judía planificada en 1909. Las milicias armadas judías surgieron durante este período, siendo la primera Bar-Giora en 1907. Dos años más tarde, se fundó la organización Hashomer más grande para reemplazarla.

Mandato británico sobre Palestina

Los esfuerzos de Chaim Weizmann por conseguir el apoyo británico para el movimiento sionista acabaron dando como resultado la Declaración Balfour (1917), [145] que declaraba el apoyo británico a la creación de un " hogar nacional " judío en Palestina. [146] [147] La ​​interpretación que Weizmann dio a la declaración fue que las negociaciones sobre el futuro del país debían tener lugar directamente entre Gran Bretaña y los judíos, con exclusión de los árabes. En los años siguientes las relaciones entre judíos y árabes en Palestina se deterioraron drásticamente. [148]

En 1918, la Legión Judía , principalmente voluntarios sionistas, ayudó en la conquista británica de Palestina . [149] En 1920, el territorio fue dividido entre Gran Bretaña y Francia bajo el sistema de mandato , y el área administrada por los británicos (incluido el Israel moderno) fue nombrada Mandato Británico de Palestina . [118] [150] [151] La oposición árabe al gobierno británico y la inmigración judía condujo a los disturbios palestinos de 1920 y a la formación de una milicia judía conocida como Haganah como una consecuencia de Hashomer, de la cual más tarde se separaron los paramilitares Irgun y Lehi . [152] En 1922, la Liga de las Naciones otorgó a Gran Bretaña el Mandato para Palestina bajo términos que incluían la Declaración Balfour con su promesa a los judíos, y con disposiciones similares con respecto a los palestinos árabes. [153] La población de la zona era predominantemente árabe y musulmana: los judíos representaban aproximadamente el 11%, [154] y los cristianos árabes aproximadamente el 9,5% de la población. [155]

"Judíos y árabes en dura lucha por la Tierra Santa", artículo de 1938

La Tercera Aliá (1919-1923) y la Cuarta Aliá (1924-1929) trajeron 100.000 judíos adicionales a Palestina. El ascenso del nazismo y la creciente persecución de los judíos en la Europa de los años 30 condujeron a la Quinta Aliá , con una afluencia de un cuarto de millón de judíos. Esta fue una de las principales causas de la revuelta árabe de 1936-39 , que fue reprimida por las fuerzas de seguridad británicas y las milicias sionistas. Varios cientos de miembros del personal de seguridad británico y judíos fueron asesinados. 5.032 árabes fueron asesinados, 14.760 resultaron heridos y 12.622 fueron detenidos. [156] [157] [158] Se estima que un diez por ciento de la población árabe palestina adulta masculina fue asesinada, herida, encarcelada o exiliada. [159]

Los británicos introdujeron restricciones a la inmigración judía a Palestina con el Libro Blanco de 1939. Con países de todo el mundo rechazando a los refugiados judíos que huían del Holocausto , se organizó un movimiento clandestino conocido como Aliyah Bet para traer judíos a Palestina. Al final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , el 31% de la población total de Palestina era judía. [160] El Reino Unido se encontró enfrentando una insurgencia judía por las restricciones de inmigración y un conflicto continuo con la comunidad árabe por los niveles límite. La Haganah se unió a Irgun y Lehi en una lucha armada contra el dominio británico. [161] La Haganah intentó traer a decenas de miles de refugiados judíos y sobrevivientes del Holocausto a Palestina en barco en un programa llamado Aliyah Bet . La mayoría de los barcos fueron interceptados por la Marina Real y los refugiados colocados en campos de detención en Atlit y Chipre . [162] [163]

Mapa de la ONU : "Plan de partición de Palestina con unión económica"

El 22 de julio de 1946, el Irgún bombardeó la sede administrativa británica para Palestina, matando a 91 personas. [164] [165] [166] [167] [168] [169] El ataque fue una respuesta a la Operación Agatha (una serie de incursiones, incluida una en la Agencia Judía , por parte de los británicos) y fue el más mortífero dirigido a los británicos durante la era del Mandato. [168] [169] La insurgencia judía continuó durante 1946 y 1947 a pesar de los esfuerzos concertados del ejército británico y la Fuerza de Policía Palestina para reprimirla. Los esfuerzos británicos para mediar una solución negociada con representantes judíos y árabes también fracasaron, ya que los judíos no estaban dispuestos a aceptar ninguna solución que no involucrara un estado judío y sugiriera una partición de Palestina en estados judío y árabe, mientras que los árabes eran inflexibles en que un estado judío en cualquier parte de Palestina era inaceptable y que la única solución era una Palestina unificada bajo el gobierno árabe. En febrero de 1947, los británicos remitieron la cuestión de Palestina a las recién formadas Naciones Unidas . El 15 de mayo de 1947, la Asamblea General de la ONU resolvió que se creara un Comité Especial "para preparar... un informe sobre la cuestión de Palestina". [170] El Informe del Comité [171] propuso un plan para reemplazar el Mandato Británico con "un Estado árabe independiente, un Estado judío independiente, y la Ciudad de Jerusalén [...] la última en estar bajo un Sistema Internacional de Administración Fiduciaria". [172] Mientras tanto, la insurgencia judía continuó y alcanzó su punto máximo en julio de 1947, con una serie de incursiones guerrilleras generalizadas que culminaron en el asunto de los Sargentos , en el que el Irgún tomó a dos sargentos británicos como rehenes como un intento de presionar contra la ejecución planificada de tres operativos del Irgún. Después de que se llevaron a cabo las ejecuciones, el Irgún mató a los dos soldados británicos, colgó sus cuerpos de los árboles y dejó una trampa explosiva en el lugar que hirió a un soldado británico. El incidente causó indignación generalizada en el Reino Unido. [173] En septiembre de 1947, el gabinete británico decidió evacuar Palestina porque el Mandato ya no era sostenible. [174]

El 29 de noviembre de 1947, la Asamblea General adoptó la Resolución 181 (II) . [175] El plan adjunto a la resolución era esencialmente el propuesto en el informe del 3 de septiembre. La Agencia Judía , el representante reconocido de la comunidad judía, aceptó el plan, que asignaba el 55-56% de la Palestina del Mandato a los judíos. En ese momento, los judíos eran aproximadamente un tercio de la población y poseían alrededor del 6-7% de la tierra. Los árabes constituían la mayoría y poseían alrededor del 20% de la tierra, y el resto estaba en manos de las autoridades del Mandato o de terratenientes extranjeros. [176] [177] [178] [179] [180] [181] [182] La Liga Árabe y el Comité Superior Árabe de Palestina lo rechazaron sobre la base de que el plan de partición privilegiaba los intereses europeos sobre los de los palestinos, [183] ​​e indicaron que rechazarían cualquier otro plan de partición. [184] [185] El 1 de diciembre de 1947, el Comité Superior Árabe proclamó una huelga de tres días y estallaron disturbios en Jerusalén . [186] La situación desembocó en una guerra civil . El secretario colonial Arthur Creech Jones anunció que el Mandato británico terminaría el 15 de mayo de 1948, momento en el que los británicos evacuarían. Cuando las milicias y bandas árabes atacaron las zonas judías, se enfrentaron principalmente a la Haganá , así como a los grupos más pequeños Irgun y Lehi. En abril de 1948, la Haganá pasó a la ofensiva. [187] [188]

Estado de Israel

Establecimiento y primeros años

David Ben-Gurion declarando la creación de Israel el 14 de mayo de 1948

El 14 de mayo de 1948, el día antes de la expiración del Mandato Británico, David Ben-Gurion , el jefe de la Agencia Judía, declaró "el establecimiento de un estado judío en Eretz-Israel ". [189] La única referencia en el texto de la Declaración a las fronteras del nuevo estado es el uso del término Eretz-Israel (" Tierra de Israel "). [ cita requerida ] Al día siguiente, los ejércitos de cuatro países árabes ( Egipto , Siria , Transjordania e Irak) entraron en lo que había sido el Mandato Británico de Palestina, iniciando la Guerra Árabe-Israelí de 1948 ; [190] [191] [192] contingentes de Yemen , Marruecos , Arabia Saudita y Sudán se unieron a la guerra. [193] [194] El propósito aparente de la invasión era evitar el establecimiento del estado judío. [181] [195] [196] La Liga Árabe declaró que la invasión tenía como objetivo restablecer el orden y evitar más derramamiento de sangre. [197]

Después de un año de combates, se declaró un alto el fuego y se establecieron fronteras temporales, conocidas como la Línea Verde . [198] Jordania anexó lo que se conoció como Cisjordania , incluida Jerusalén Oriental , y Egipto ocupó la Franja de Gaza . Más de 700.000 palestinos huyeron o fueron expulsados ​​por las milicias sionistas y el ejército israelí , lo que se conocería en árabe como la Nakba ('catástrofe'). [199] Los acontecimientos también llevaron a la destrucción de la sociedad, la cultura , la identidad , los derechos políticos y las aspiraciones nacionales de la mayor parte de la población predominantemente árabe de Palestina . Unos 156.000 permanecieron y se convirtieron en ciudadanos árabes de Israel . [200]

Izamiento de la Bandera de Tinta el 10 de marzo de 1949, marcando el final de la guerra de 1948

Israel fue admitido como miembro de la ONU el 11 de mayo de 1949. [201] En los primeros años del estado, el movimiento sionista laborista liderado por el primer ministro David Ben-Gurion dominó la política israelí . [202] [203] La inmigración a Israel durante finales de la década de 1940 y principios de la de 1950 fue asistida por el Departamento de Inmigración israelí y el Mossad LeAliyah Bet ( lit. "Instituto para la Inmigración B "), patrocinado por una organización no gubernamental . [204] Este último participó en operaciones clandestinas en países, particularmente en Oriente Medio y Europa del Este, donde se creía que las vidas de los judíos estaban en peligro y la salida era difícil. El Mossad LeAliyah Bet se disolvió en 1953. [205] La inmigración se realizó de acuerdo con el Plan Un Millón . Algunos inmigrantes tenían creencias sionistas o vinieron por la promesa de una vida mejor, mientras que otros se mudaron para escapar de la persecución o fueron expulsados. [206] [207]

Una afluencia de sobrevivientes del Holocausto y judíos de países árabes y musulmanes a Israel durante los primeros tres años aumentó el número de judíos de 700.000 a 1.400.000. Para 1958, la población había aumentado a dos millones. [208] Entre 1948 y 1970, aproximadamente 1.150.000 refugiados judíos se reubicaron en Israel. [209] Algunos nuevos inmigrantes llegaron como refugiados y fueron alojados en campamentos temporales conocidos como ma'abarot ; para 1952, más de 200.000 personas vivían en estas ciudades de tiendas de campaña. [210] Los judíos de origen europeo a menudo eran tratados más favorablemente que los judíos de países de Medio Oriente y el norte de África : las unidades de vivienda reservadas para estos últimos a menudo se reasignaban para los primeros, por lo que los judíos recién llegados de tierras árabes generalmente terminaban quedándose más tiempo en campos de tránsito. [211] [212] Durante este período, se racionaron alimentos, ropa y muebles en lo que se conoció como el período de austeridad . La necesidad de resolver la crisis llevó a Ben-Gurion a firmar un acuerdo de reparaciones con Alemania Occidental que desencadenó protestas masivas de judíos enojados ante la idea de que Israel pudiera aceptar una compensación monetaria por el Holocausto. [213]

Conflicto árabe-israelí

Durante la década de 1950, Israel fue atacado frecuentemente por fedayines palestinos , casi siempre contra civiles, [214] principalmente de la Franja de Gaza ocupada por Egipto, [215] lo que llevó a varias operaciones de represalia israelíes . En 1956, el Reino Unido y Francia intentaron recuperar el control del Canal de Suez , que Egipto había nacionalizado. El continuo bloqueo del Canal de Suez y el Estrecho de Tirán a la navegación israelí, junto con el aumento de los ataques fedayines contra la población del sur de Israel y las recientes declaraciones amenazantes árabes, impulsaron a Israel a atacar Egipto. [216] [217] [218] Israel se unió a una alianza secreta con el Reino Unido y Francia e invadió la península del Sinaí en la Crisis de Suez , pero la ONU lo presionó para que se retirara a cambio de garantías de los derechos de navegación israelíes. [219] [220] [221] La guerra resultó en una reducción significativa de la infiltración fronteriza israelí. [222]

Noticiero estadounidense sobre el juicio a Adolf Eichmann

A principios de la década de 1960, Israel capturó al criminal de guerra nazi Adolf Eichmann en Argentina y lo llevó a Israel para ser juzgado . [223] Eichmann sigue siendo la única persona ejecutada en Israel por condena en un tribunal civil israelí . [224] En 1963, Israel se vio envuelto en un enfrentamiento diplomático con los Estados Unidos debido al programa nuclear israelí . [225] [226]

Desde 1964, los países árabes, preocupados por los planes israelíes de desviar las aguas del río Jordán hacia la llanura costera , [227] habían estado tratando de desviar las cabeceras para privar a Israel de recursos hídricos, provocando tensiones entre Israel por un lado, y Siria y Líbano por el otro. Los nacionalistas árabes liderados por el presidente egipcio Gamal Abdel Nasser se negaron a reconocer a Israel y pidieron su destrucción. [228] [229] [230] En 1966, las relaciones entre israelíes y árabes se habían deteriorado hasta el punto de que se produjeron batallas entre fuerzas israelíes y árabes. [231]

Territorio ocupado por Israel:
  antes de la Guerra de los Seis Días
  Después de la guerra
La península del Sinaí fue devuelta a Egipto en 1982.

En mayo de 1967, Egipto concentró su ejército cerca de la frontera con Israel, expulsó a las fuerzas de paz de la ONU , estacionadas en la península del Sinaí desde 1957, y bloqueó el acceso de Israel al mar Rojo. [232] [233] [234] Otros estados árabes movilizaron sus fuerzas. [235] Israel reiteró que estas acciones eran un casus belli y lanzó un ataque preventivo contra Egipto en junio. Jordania, Siria e Irak atacaron a Israel. En la Guerra de los Seis Días , Israel capturó y ocupó Cisjordania de Jordania, la Franja de Gaza y la península del Sinaí de Egipto, y los Altos del Golán de Siria. [236] Los límites de Jerusalén se ampliaron, incorporando Jerusalén Oriental . La Línea Verde de 1949 se convirtió en el límite administrativo entre Israel y los territorios ocupados . [237]

Tras la guerra de 1967 y la resolución de los " Tres No " de la Liga Árabe, Israel enfrentó ataques de los egipcios en la península del Sinaí durante la Guerra de Desgaste de 1967-1970 , y de grupos palestinos que atacaban a israelíes en los territorios ocupados, a nivel mundial y en Israel. El más importante entre los grupos palestinos y árabes fue la Organización para la Liberación de Palestina (OLP), establecida en 1964, que inicialmente se comprometió con la "lucha armada como única forma de liberar la patria". [238] A fines de la década de 1960 y principios de la de 1970, grupos palestinos lanzaron ataques [239] [240] contra objetivos israelíes y judíos en todo el mundo, [241] incluida una masacre de atletas israelíes en los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1972 en Múnich. El gobierno israelí respondió con una campaña de asesinatos contra los organizadores de la masacre, un bombardeo y un asalto a la sede de la OLP en el Líbano .

El 6 de octubre de 1973, los ejércitos egipcio y sirio lanzaron un ataque sorpresa contra las fuerzas israelíes en la península del Sinaí y los Altos del Golán, iniciando la Guerra del Yom Kippur . La guerra terminó el 25 de octubre con Israel repeliendo a las fuerzas egipcias y sirias pero sufriendo grandes pérdidas. [242] Una investigación interna exoneró al gobierno de responsabilidad por los fracasos antes y durante la guerra, pero la ira pública obligó a la primera ministra Golda Meir a dimitir. [243] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] En julio de 1976, un avión de pasajeros fue secuestrado en vuelo de Israel a Francia por guerrilleros palestinos; los comandos israelíes rescataron a 102 de los 106 rehenes israelíes.

Proceso de paz

Las elecciones al Knesset de 1977 marcaron un importante punto de inflexión en la historia política israelí, ya que el partido Likud de Menachem Begin tomó el control del Partido Laborista . [244] Más tarde ese año, el presidente egipcio Anwar El Sadat hizo un viaje a Israel y habló ante el Knesset en lo que fue el primer reconocimiento de Israel por parte de un jefe de estado árabe. [245] Sadat y Begin firmaron los Acuerdos de Camp David (1978) y el tratado de paz entre Egipto e Israel (1979). [246] A cambio, Israel se retiró de la península del Sinaí y aceptó entablar negociaciones sobre la autonomía de los palestinos en Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza. [246]

El 11 de marzo de 1978, una incursión guerrillera de la OLP desde el Líbano condujo a la masacre de la carretera costera . Israel respondió lanzando una invasión del sur del Líbano para destruir las bases de la OLP. La mayoría de los combatientes de la OLP se retiraron, pero Israel pudo asegurar el sur del Líbano hasta que una fuerza de la ONU y el ejército libanés pudieron tomar el control. La OLP pronto reanudó su insurgencia contra Israel, e Israel llevó a cabo numerosos ataques de represalia.

Mientras tanto, el gobierno de Begin proporcionó incentivos para que los israelíes se establecieran en la Cisjordania ocupada , lo que aumentó la fricción con los palestinos allí. [247] Algunos creían que la Ley de Jerusalén (1980) reafirmaba la anexión de Jerusalén por parte de Israel en 1967 por decreto gubernamental y reavivó la controversia internacional sobre el estatus de la ciudad . Ninguna legislación israelí ha definido el territorio de Israel y ninguna ley incluyó específicamente a Jerusalén Oriental en él. [248] En 1981, Israel anexó efectivamente los Altos del Golán . [249] La comunidad internacional rechazó en gran medida estas medidas, y el Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU declaró nulas y sin valor tanto la Ley de Jerusalén como la Ley de los Altos del Golán. [250] [251] Varias oleadas de judíos etíopes inmigraron a Israel desde la década de 1980, mientras que entre 1990 y 1994, la inmigración desde los estados postsoviéticos aumentó la población de Israel en un doce por ciento. [252]

El 7 de junio de 1981, durante la guerra entre Irán e Irak , la fuerza aérea israelí destruyó el único reactor nuclear de Irak , entonces en construcción, con el fin de impedir el programa de armas nucleares iraquí. [253] Tras una serie de ataques de la OLP en 1982, Israel invadió el Líbano para destruir las bases de la OLP. [254] En los primeros seis días, los israelíes destruyeron las fuerzas militares de la OLP en el Líbano y derrotaron decisivamente a los sirios. Una investigación del gobierno israelí (la Comisión Kahan ) consideró a Begin y a varios generales israelíes indirectamente responsables de la masacre de Sabra y Chatila y declaró al ministro de Defensa Ariel Sharon como "personalmente responsable". [255] Sharon se vio obligado a dimitir. [256] En 1985, Israel respondió a un ataque terrorista palestino en Chipre bombardeando la sede de la OLP en Túnez. Israel se retiró de la mayor parte del Líbano en 1986, pero mantuvo una zona de amortiguación fronteriza en el sur del Líbano hasta 2000, desde donde las fuerzas israelíes entraron en conflicto con Hezbolá . La Primera Intifada , un levantamiento palestino contra el gobierno israelí, [257] estalló en 1987, con oleadas de manifestaciones descoordinadas y violencia en la Cisjordania ocupada y Gaza. Durante los siguientes seis años, la Intifada se volvió más organizada e incluyó medidas económicas y culturales destinadas a interrumpir la ocupación israelí. Más de mil personas murieron. [258] Durante la Guerra del Golfo de 1991 , la OLP apoyó a Saddam Hussein y los ataques con misiles iraquíes contra Israel . A pesar de la indignación pública, Israel atendió los llamados estadounidenses para abstenerse de contraatacar. [259] [260]

Shimon Peres (izquierda) con Yitzhak Rabin (centro) y el rey Hussein de Jordania (derecha), antes de firmar el tratado de paz entre Israel y Jordania en 1994

En 1992, Yitzhak Rabin se convirtió en primer ministro tras una elección en la que su partido pidió un compromiso con los vecinos de Israel. [261] [262] Al año siguiente, Shimon Peres en nombre de Israel y Mahmoud Abbas por la OLP, firmaron los Acuerdos de Oslo , que dieron a la Autoridad Nacional Palestina (ANP) el derecho a gobernar partes de Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza. [263] La OLP también reconoció el derecho de Israel a existir y prometió poner fin al terrorismo. [264] En 1994, se firmó el tratado de paz entre Israel y Jordania , convirtiendo a Jordania en el segundo país árabe en normalizar las relaciones con Israel. [265] El apoyo público árabe a los Acuerdos se vio dañado por la continuación de los asentamientos israelíes [266] y los puestos de control , y el deterioro de las condiciones económicas. [267] El apoyo público israelí a los Acuerdos disminuyó después de los ataques suicidas palestinos . [268] En noviembre de 1995, Yitzhak Rabin fue asesinado por Yigal Amir , un judío de extrema derecha que se oponía a los Acuerdos. [269]

Durante el mandato de Benjamin Netanyahu a finales de los años 1990, Israel acordó retirarse de Hebrón , [270] aunque esto nunca fue ratificado ni implementado, [271] y firmó el Memorando de Wye River , dando un mayor control a la ANP. [272] Ehud Barak , elegido primer ministro en 1999, retiró sus fuerzas del sur del Líbano y llevó a cabo negociaciones con el presidente de la ANP Yasser Arafat y el presidente estadounidense Bill Clinton en la Cumbre de Camp David de 2000. Barak ofreció un plan para el establecimiento de un estado palestino , que incluyera la totalidad de la Franja de Gaza y más del 90% de Cisjordania con Jerusalén como capital compartida. [273] Cada lado culpó al otro por el fracaso de las conversaciones.

Siglo XXI

Ataques con cohetes lanzados contra Israel desde la Franja de Gaza, 2001-2021 [274]

A finales de 2000, tras una controvertida visita del líder del Likud, Ariel Sharon , al Monte del Templo , comenzó la Segunda Intifada, que duró cuatro años y medio . Los atentados suicidas fueron una característica recurrente. [275] Algunos comentaristas sostienen que la Intifada fue planeada de antemano por Arafat debido al colapso de las conversaciones de paz. [276] [277] [278] [279] Sharon se convirtió en primer ministro en las elecciones de 2001 ; llevó a cabo su plan de retirarse unilateralmente de la Franja de Gaza y encabezó la construcción de la barrera israelí en Cisjordania , [280] poniendo fin a la Intifada. [281] Entre 2000 y 2008, 1.063 israelíes, 5.517 palestinos y 64 ciudadanos extranjeros fueron asesinados. [282]

En 2006, un asalto de artillería de Hezbolá contra las comunidades fronterizas del norte de Israel y un secuestro transfronterizo de dos soldados israelíes precipitaron la Segunda Guerra del Líbano, que duró un mes . [283] [284] En 2007, la Fuerza Aérea israelí destruyó un reactor nuclear en Siria. En 2008, un alto el fuego entre Hamás e Israel colapsó, lo que resultó en la Guerra de Gaza de tres semanas . [285] [286] En lo que Israel describió como una respuesta a más de cien ataques con cohetes palestinos contra ciudades del sur de Israel, [287] Israel inició una operación en la Franja de Gaza en 2012, que duró ocho días. [288] Israel inició otra operación en Gaza luego de una escalada de ataques con cohetes por parte de Hamás en julio de 2014. [289] En mayo de 2021, tuvo lugar otra ronda de combates en Gaza e Israel, que duró once días. [290]

En la década de 2010, se estableció una creciente cooperación regional entre Israel y los países de la Liga Árabe , que culminó con la firma de los Acuerdos de Abraham . La situación de seguridad israelí pasó del tradicional conflicto árabe-israelí al conflicto por poderes entre Irán e Israel y la confrontación directa con Irán durante la guerra civil siria . El 7 de octubre de 2023, grupos militantes palestinos de Gaza, liderados por Hamás , lanzaron una serie de ataques coordinados contra Israel, lo que llevó al inicio de la guerra entre Israel y Hamás . [291] Ese día, aproximadamente 1300 israelíes, predominantemente civiles, fueron asesinados en comunidades cercanas a la frontera de la Franja de Gaza y durante un festival de música . Más de 200 rehenes fueron secuestrados y llevados a la Franja de Gaza. [292] [293] [294]

Después de expulsar a los militantes de su territorio, Israel lanzó una de las campañas de bombardeo más destructivas de la historia moderna [295] [296] e invadió Gaza el 27 de octubre con los objetivos declarados de destruir a Hamás y liberar a los rehenes. [297] [298] La quinta guerra del conflicto Gaza-Israel desde 2008, ha sido la más mortífera para los palestinos en todo el conflicto israelí-palestino , [299] y el enfrentamiento militar más importante en la región desde la Guerra de Yom Kippur en 1973. [300]

Geografía

Imágenes satelitales de Israel y territorios vecinos durante el día y la noche.

Israel está situado en la zona del Levante de la Media Luna Fértil . El país se encuentra en el extremo oriental del mar Mediterráneo , y limita al norte con Líbano, al noreste con Siria, al este con Jordania y Cisjordania, y al suroeste con Egipto y la Franja de Gaza. Se encuentra entre las latitudes 29° y 34° N y las longitudes 34° y 36° E.

El territorio soberano de Israel (según las líneas de demarcación de los Acuerdos de Armisticio de 1949 y excluyendo todos los territorios capturados por Israel durante la Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967 ) es de aproximadamente 20.770 kilómetros cuadrados (8.019 millas cuadradas), de los cuales el dos por ciento es agua. [301] Sin embargo, Israel es tan estrecho (100 km en su parte más ancha, en comparación con 400 km de norte a sur) que la zona económica exclusiva en el Mediterráneo es el doble de la superficie terrestre del país. [302] El área total bajo la ley israelí, incluyendo Jerusalén Oriental y los Altos del Golán , es de 22.072 kilómetros cuadrados (8.522 millas cuadradas), [303] y el área total bajo control israelí, incluido el territorio controlado por los militares y parcialmente gobernado por los palestinos de Cisjordania , es de 27.799 kilómetros cuadrados (10.733 millas cuadradas). [304]

A pesar de su pequeño tamaño, Israel alberga una variedad de accidentes geográficos, desde el desierto del Néguev en el sur hasta el fértil valle de Jezreel , las cadenas montañosas de Galilea , Carmel y hacia el Golán en el norte. La llanura costera israelí en las orillas del Mediterráneo es el hogar de la mayor parte de la población de la nación. [305] Al este de las tierras altas centrales se encuentra el valle del Rift del Jordán , una pequeña parte del Gran Valle del Rift de 6.500 kilómetros (4.039 millas) . El río Jordán corre a lo largo del valle del Rift del Jordán, desde el monte Hermón a través del valle de Hulah y el mar de Galilea hasta el mar Muerto , el punto más bajo de la superficie de la Tierra. [306] Más al sur se encuentra el Arabá , que termina en el golfo de Eilat , parte del mar Rojo . Makhtesh , o "circos de erosión", son exclusivos del Néguev y la península del Sinaí , siendo el más grande el Makhtesh Ramon con 38 km de longitud. [307] Israel tiene el mayor número de especies de plantas por metro cuadrado de los países de la cuenca mediterránea . [308] Israel contiene cuatro ecorregiones terrestres: bosques de coníferas-esclerófilos-latifolios del Mediterráneo oriental , bosques de coníferas y caducifolios montañosos del sur de Anatolia , desierto árabe y desierto arbustivo mesopotámico . [309]

Los bosques representaban el 8,5% de la superficie del país en 2016, frente al 2% en 1948, como resultado de un programa de plantación forestal a gran escala del Fondo Nacional Judío . [310] [311]

Tectónica y sismicidad

El Valle del Rift del Jordán es el resultado de movimientos tectónicos dentro del sistema de fallas Transformadora del Mar Muerto (DSF). La DSF forma el límite de transformación entre la Placa Africana al oeste y la Placa Arábiga al este. Los Altos del Golán y toda Jordania son parte de la Placa Arábiga, mientras que Galilea, Cisjordania, la llanura costera y el Néguev junto con la península del Sinaí están en la Placa Africana. Esta disposición tectónica conduce a una actividad sísmica relativamente alta . Se cree que todo el segmento del Valle del Jordán se ha roto repetidamente, por ejemplo, durante los dos últimos terremotos importantes a lo largo de esta estructura en 749 y 1033. El déficit de deslizamiento que se ha acumulado desde el evento de 1033 es suficiente para causar un terremoto de M w  ~7.4. [312]

Los terremotos más catastróficos conocidos ocurrieron en 31 a. C., 363 , 749 y 1033 d. C., es decir, cada 400 años aproximadamente. [313] Los terremotos destructivos que provocan graves pérdidas de vidas ocurren aproximadamente cada 80 años. [ 314] Si bien existen estrictas normas de construcción y las estructuras construidas recientemente son a prueba de terremotos, a partir de 2007 muchos edificios públicos, así como 50.000 edificios residenciales, no cumplían con las nuevas normas y se "esperaba que colapsaran" si se exponían a un fuerte terremoto. [314]

Clima

Las proyecciones del Sexto Informe de Evaluación del IPCC muestran claramente los impactos del cambio climático en Israel incluso con un calentamiento de 2 grados.

Las temperaturas en Israel varían ampliamente, especialmente durante el invierno. Las zonas costeras, como las de Tel Aviv y Haifa , tienen un clima mediterráneo típico con inviernos frescos y lluviosos y veranos largos y calurosos. La zona de Beersheba y el norte del Néguev tienen un clima semiárido con veranos calurosos, inviernos frescos y menos días de lluvia. Las zonas del sur del Néguev y Aravá tienen un clima desértico con veranos muy calurosos y secos e inviernos suaves con pocos días de lluvia. La temperatura más alta del mundo fuera de África y América del Norte en 2021 , 54 °C (129 °F), se registró en 1942 en el kibutz Tirat Zvi en el valle norte del río Jordán. [315] [316] Las regiones montañosas pueden ser ventosas y frías, y las áreas a una altitud de 750 metros (2460 pies) o más (la misma elevación que Jerusalén) suelen recibir al menos una nevada al año. [317] De mayo a septiembre, la lluvia en Israel es rara. [318] [319]

Existen cuatro regiones fitogeográficas diferentes en Israel, debido a la ubicación del país entre las zonas templadas y tropicales. Por esta razón, la flora y la fauna son extremadamente diversas. Hay 2.867 especies conocidas de plantas en Israel . De ellas, al menos 253 especies son introducidas y no autóctonas. [320] Hay 380 reservas naturales israelíes . [321]

Con escasos recursos hídricos, Israel ha desarrollado varias tecnologías de ahorro de agua, incluyendo el riego por goteo . [322] [ Se necesita una mejor fuente ] La considerable cantidad de luz solar disponible para la energía solar hace de Israel la nación líder en el uso de energía solar per cápita: prácticamente todas las casas utilizan paneles solares para calentar el agua. [323] El Ministerio de Protección Ambiental israelí ha informado de que el cambio climático "tendrá un impacto decisivo en todas las áreas de la vida", en particular para las poblaciones vulnerables. [324]

Gobierno y política

La cámara del Knesset , sede del parlamento israelí

Israel tiene un sistema parlamentario , de representación proporcional y sufragio universal . Un miembro del parlamento apoyado por una mayoría parlamentaria se convierte en primer ministro —normalmente es el presidente del partido más grande—. El primer ministro es el jefe de gobierno y de gabinete . [325] [326] El presidente es el jefe de estado , con deberes limitados y en gran medida ceremoniales. [325]

Israel está gobernado por un parlamento de 120 miembros, conocido como Knesset . La membresía de la Knesset se basa en la representación proporcional de los partidos políticos , [327] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] con un umbral electoral del 3,25%, que en la práctica ha resultado en gobiernos de coalición. Los residentes de los asentamientos israelíes en Cisjordania son elegibles para votar [328] y después de las elecciones de 2015 , 10 de los 120 miembros de la Knesset ( 8%) eran colonos. [329] Las elecciones parlamentarias están programadas cada cuatro años, pero las coaliciones inestables o un voto de censura pueden disolver un gobierno antes. [35] El primer partido liderado por árabes se estableció en 1988 [330] y a partir de 2022, los partidos liderados por árabes tienen alrededor del 10% de los escaños. [331] La Ley Básica: La Knesset (1958) y sus enmiendas impiden que una lista de un partido se presente a las elecciones a la Knesset si sus objetivos o acciones incluyen la "negación de la existencia del Estado de Israel como el Estado del pueblo judío".

Las Leyes Básicas de Israel funcionan como una constitución no codificada . En sus Leyes Básicas, Israel se define como un estado judío y democrático , y el estado-nación exclusivamente del pueblo judío . [332] En 2003, la Knesset comenzó a redactar una constitución oficial basada en estas leyes. [301] [333]

Israel no tiene religión oficial, [334] [335] [336] pero la definición del Estado como "judío y democrático" crea una fuerte conexión con el judaísmo. El 19 de julio de 2018, la Knesset aprobó una Ley Básica que caracteriza al Estado de Israel principalmente como un " Estado nación del pueblo judío ", y el hebreo como su idioma oficial. El proyecto de ley atribuye un "estatus especial" indefinido a la lengua árabe. [337] El mismo proyecto de ley otorga a los judíos un derecho único a la autodeterminación nacional y considera el desarrollo de asentamientos judíos en el país como "un interés nacional", lo que faculta al gobierno a "tomar medidas para alentar, promover e implementar este interés". [338]

Divisiones administrativas

El Estado de Israel está dividido en seis distritos administrativos principales , conocidos como mehozot (hebreo: מחוזות ; sg .: mahoz ): los distritos Centro , Haifa , Jerusalén , Norte , Sur y Tel Aviv , así como la zona de Judea y Samaria en Cisjordania . Toda la zona de Judea y Samaria y partes de los distritos de Jerusalén y Norte no están reconocidos internacionalmente como parte de Israel. Los distritos se dividen a su vez en quince subdistritos conocidos como nafot (hebreo: נפות ; sg .: nafa ), que a su vez están divididos en cincuenta regiones naturales. [339]

^a Incluidos 361.700 árabes y 233.900 judíos en Jerusalén Oriental , en 2020.[ 341]
^b Sólo ciudadanos israelíes.

Ley de ciudadanía israelí

Las dos leyes principales relacionadas con la ciudadanía israelí son la Ley de Retorno de 1950 y la Ley de Ciudadanía de 1952. La Ley de Retorno otorga a los judíos el derecho irrestricto a inmigrar a Israel y obtener la ciudadanía israelí. Las personas nacidas en el país reciben la ciudadanía por nacimiento si al menos uno de sus padres es ciudadano. [342]

La ley israelí define la nacionalidad judía como distinta de la nacionalidad israelí, y el Tribunal Supremo de Israel ha dictaminado que no existe una nacionalidad israelí. [343] [344] La ley israelí define a un nacional judío como cualquier persona que practica el judaísmo y sus descendientes. [343] La legislación ha definido a Israel como el estado nación del pueblo judío desde 2018. [345]

Territorios ocupados por Israel

Mapa de Israel que muestra Cisjordania, la Franja de Gaza y los Altos del Golán

En 1967, como resultado de la Guerra de los Seis Días , Israel capturó y ocupó Cisjordania , incluida Jerusalén Oriental , la Franja de Gaza y los Altos del Golán . Israel también capturó la península del Sinaí , pero la devolvió a Egipto como parte del tratado de paz entre Egipto e Israel de 1979. [246] Entre 1982 y 2000, Israel ocupó parte del sur del Líbano , en lo que se conoció como el Cinturón de Seguridad . Desde la captura de estos territorios por parte de Israel, se han construido asentamientos e instalaciones militares israelíes dentro de cada uno de ellos, excepto Líbano.

Los Altos del Golán y Jerusalén Oriental han sido incorporados plenamente a Israel según la legislación israelí, pero no según el derecho internacional. Israel ha aplicado la legislación civil a ambas zonas y ha concedido a sus habitantes el estatuto de residente permanente y la posibilidad de solicitar la ciudadanía . El Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas ha declarado que la anexión de los Altos del Golán y Jerusalén Oriental es "nula y sin valor" y sigue considerando que los territorios están ocupados. [346] [347] El estatuto de Jerusalén Oriental en cualquier futuro acuerdo de paz ha sido a veces una cuestión difícil en las negociaciones entre los gobiernos israelíes y los representantes de los palestinos.

La barrera israelí de Cisjordania es una barrera de separación construida por Israel a lo largo de la Línea Verde y dentro de partes de Cisjordania.

Cisjordania, excluyendo Jerusalén Oriental, se conoce en la legislación israelí como la zona de Judea y Samaria . Los casi 400.000 colonos israelíes que residen en la zona se consideran parte de la población de Israel, tienen representación en la Knesset, están sujetos a una gran parte de las leyes civiles y penales de Israel y su producción se considera parte de la economía de Israel. [348] [fn 4] La tierra en sí no se considera parte de Israel según la ley israelí, ya que Israel se ha abstenido conscientemente de anexionarse el territorio, sin renunciar nunca a su derecho legal sobre la tierra o definir una frontera. [348] La oposición política israelí a la anexión se debe principalmente a la percepción de "amenaza demográfica" de incorporar la población palestina de Cisjordania a Israel. [348] Fuera de los asentamientos israelíes, Cisjordania sigue bajo el gobierno militar israelí directo y los palestinos de la zona no pueden convertirse en ciudadanos israelíes. La comunidad internacional sostiene que Israel no tiene soberanía en Cisjordania, y considera que el control de Israel sobre la zona es la ocupación militar más larga de la historia moderna. [351] Cisjordania fue ocupada y anexada por Jordania en 1950, tras los Acuerdos de Armisticio de 1949. Sólo Gran Bretaña reconoció esta anexión y Jordania ha cedido desde entonces su reclamación sobre el territorio a la OLP . La población es principalmente palestina , incluidos los refugiados de la guerra árabe-israelí de 1948. [352] Desde su ocupación en 1967 hasta 1993, los palestinos que vivían en estos territorios estaban bajo administración militar israelí . Desde las cartas de reconocimiento de Israel-OLP , la mayor parte de la población y las ciudades palestinas han estado bajo la jurisdicción interna de la Autoridad Palestina , y sólo bajo control militar israelí parcial, aunque Israel ha redesplegado sus tropas y restablecido la administración militar completa durante los períodos de disturbios. En respuesta a los crecientes ataques durante la Segunda Intifada , el gobierno israelí comenzó a construir la barrera israelí de Cisjordania. [353] Una vez concluida, aproximadamente el 13% de la barrera se construirá en la Línea Verde o en Israel y el 87% restante dentro de Cisjordania. [354] [355]

La reivindicación de Israel del sufragio universal ha sido cuestionada debido a sus límites territoriales difusos y su simultánea extensión de los derechos de voto a los colonos israelíes en los territorios ocupados y la negación de los derechos de voto a sus vecinos palestinos, así como la supuesta naturaleza etnocrática del Estado. [356] [357]

La Franja de Gaza se considera un "territorio extranjero" según la ley israelí. Israel y Egipto operan un bloqueo terrestre, aéreo y marítimo de la Franja de Gaza . La Franja de Gaza fue ocupada por Israel después de 1967. En 2005, como parte del plan de retirada unilateral de Israel , Israel retiró a sus colonos y fuerzas del territorio, pero sigue manteniendo el control de su espacio aéreo y aguas. La comunidad internacional, incluidas numerosas organizaciones humanitarias internacionales y organismos de la ONU, considera que Gaza sigue ocupada. [358] [359] [360] [361] [362] Después de la Batalla de Gaza de 2007 , cuando Hamás asumió el poder en la Franja de Gaza , [363] Israel reforzó el control de los cruces de Gaza a lo largo de su frontera , así como por mar y aire, e impidió que las personas entraran y salieran excepto en casos aislados que consideró humanitarios. [363] Gaza tiene una frontera con Egipto , y un acuerdo entre Israel, la UE y la AP rige cómo se realizan los cruces fronterizos. [364] Se ha criticado la aplicación de la democracia a sus ciudadanos palestinos y la aplicación selectiva de la democracia israelí en los territorios palestinos controlados por Israel. [365] [366]

Opinión internacional

La Corte Internacional de Justicia dijo, en su opinión consultiva de 2004 sobre la legalidad de la construcción de la barrera israelí en Cisjordania , que las tierras capturadas por Israel en la Guerra de los Seis Días, incluida Jerusalén Oriental, son territorio ocupado y encontró que la construcción del muro dentro del territorio palestino ocupado viola el derecho internacional. [367] La ​​mayoría de las negociaciones relacionadas con los territorios se han basado en la Resolución 242 del Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU , que enfatiza "la inadmisibilidad de la adquisición de territorio por la guerra", y llama a Israel a retirarse de los territorios ocupados a cambio de la normalización de las relaciones con los estados árabes (" Territorio por paz "). [368] [369] [370] Israel ha sido criticado por participar en violaciones sistemáticas y generalizadas de los derechos humanos en los territorios ocupados , incluida la propia ocupación [371] y crímenes de guerra contra civiles. [372] [373] [374] [375] Las acusaciones incluyen violaciones del derecho internacional humanitario [376] por parte del Consejo de Derechos Humanos de la ONU . [377] El Departamento de Estado de los EE.UU. ha calificado de "creíbles" los informes sobre abusos de importantes derechos humanos de los palestinos , tanto en Israel [378] como en los territorios ocupados. [379] Amnistía Internacional y otras ONG han documentado detenciones arbitrarias masivas, torturas, ejecuciones ilegales, abusos sistemáticos e impunidad [380] [381] [382] [383] junto con una negación del derecho a la autodeterminación palestina . [384] [385] [386] [387] [388] El Primer Ministro Netanyahu ha defendido a las fuerzas de seguridad del país por proteger a los inocentes de los terroristas [389] y ha expresado su desprecio por lo que describe como una falta de preocupación por las violaciones de los derechos humanos cometidas por "asesinos criminales". [390]

La comunidad internacional considera ampliamente que los asentamientos israelíes en los territorios ocupados son ilegales según el derecho internacional . [391] La Resolución 2334 del Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas (aprobada en 2016) establece que la actividad de asentamiento de Israel constituye una "violación flagrante" del derecho internacional y exige que Israel detenga dicha actividad y cumpla con sus obligaciones como potencia ocupante en virtud del Cuarto Convenio de Ginebra . [392] Un relator especial de las Naciones Unidas concluyó que el programa de asentamientos era un crimen de guerra según el Estatuto de Roma , [393] y Amnistía Internacional encontró que el programa de asentamientos constituye una transferencia ilegal de civiles a territorio ocupado y "saqueo", lo cual está prohibido por las Convenciones de La Haya y las Convenciones de Ginebra , además de ser un crimen de guerra según el Estatuto de Roma. [394]

En una opinión consultiva de 2024 , la Corte Internacional de Justicia declaró que la ocupación de los territorios palestinos por parte de Israel violaba el derecho internacional; Israel debería poner fin a su ocupación lo antes posible y pagar reparaciones. El tribunal también advirtió que otros Estados tenían la obligación de no reconocer la ocupación como legal ni de ayudarla ni asistirla. Además, el tribunal determinó que Israel violaba el artículo 3 de la Convención Internacional sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación Racial , que exige que los Estados prevengan, prohíban y erradiquen todas las prácticas de segregación racial y apartheid. [395] [396] [397]

Acusaciones de apartheid

El trato que Israel da a los palestinos en los territorios ocupados ha suscitado acusaciones generalizadas de que es culpable de apartheid , un crimen contra la humanidad según el Estatuto de Roma y la Convención Internacional sobre la Represión y el Castigo del Crimen de Apartheid . [398] [399] La encuesta de 2021 del Washington Post a académicos y expertos sobre Oriente Medio encontró un aumento del 59% al 65% de estos académicos que describen a Israel como una "realidad de un solo Estado similar al apartheid". [400] [401] La afirmación de que las políticas de Israel para los palestinos dentro de Israel equivalen a apartheid ha sido afirmada por la organización israelí de derechos humanos B'tselem y organizaciones internacionales de derechos humanos como Amnistía Internacional y Human Rights Watch . [399] [402] La organización israelí de derechos humanos Yesh Din también ha acusado a Israel de apartheid. [402] La afirmación de Amnistía fue criticada por políticos y representantes de Israel y sus aliados más cercanos, como Estados Unidos, [403] el Reino Unido, [404] la Comisión Europea , [405] Australia, [406] los Países Bajos [407] y Alemania, [408] mientras que dichas acusaciones fueron bien recibidas por los palestinos, [409] representantes de otros estados, [ ¿cuáles? ] y organizaciones como la Liga Árabe . [410] En 2022, Michael Lynk, un profesor de derecho canadiense designado por el Consejo de Derechos Humanos de la ONU , dijo que la situación cumplía con la definición legal de apartheid y concluyó: "Israel ha impuesto a Palestina una realidad de apartheid en un mundo post-apartheid". [411] [412] Los informes posteriores de su sucesora, Francesca Albanese , y de la presidenta de la Misión Permanente de Investigación de las Naciones Unidas sobre el conflicto entre Israel y Palestina, Navi Pillay, se hicieron eco de la opinión. [413] [414]

En febrero de 2024, la CIJ celebró audiencias públicas sobre las consecuencias jurídicas derivadas de las políticas y prácticas de Israel en el territorio palestino ocupado, incluida Jerusalén Oriental . Durante las audiencias, 24 Estados y tres organizaciones internacionales afirmaron que las prácticas israelíes constituían una violación de la prohibición del apartheid y/o actos prohibidos de discriminación racial. [415]

Relaciones exteriores

  Relaciones diplomáticas
  Relaciones diplomáticas suspendidas
  Antiguas relaciones diplomáticas
  No hay relaciones diplomáticas, pero sí relaciones comerciales
  Sin relaciones diplomáticas

Israel mantiene relaciones diplomáticas con 165  estados miembros de la ONU , así como con la Santa Sede , Kosovo , las Islas Cook y Niue . Tiene 107 misiones diplomáticas ; [416] los países con los que no tiene relaciones diplomáticas incluyen la mayoría de los países musulmanes. [417] Seis de las veintidós naciones de la Liga Árabe han normalizado las relaciones con Israel. Israel permanece formalmente en un estado de guerra con Siria , un estatus que se remonta ininterrumpidamente a 1948. Ha estado en un estado de guerra formal similar con el Líbano desde el final de la Guerra Civil Libanesa en 2000, y la frontera entre Israel y el Líbano sigue sin acordarse mediante un tratado.

A pesar del tratado de paz entre Israel y Egipto, Israel todavía es considerado ampliamente un país enemigo entre los egipcios. [418] Irán retiró su reconocimiento de Israel durante la Revolución Islámica . [419] Los ciudadanos israelíes no pueden visitar Siria, Líbano, Irak, Arabia Saudita y Yemen sin permiso del Ministerio del Interior . [420] Como resultado de la Guerra de Gaza de 2008-09 , Mauritania, Qatar, Bolivia y Venezuela suspendieron los lazos políticos y económicos con Israel, [421] aunque Bolivia renovó los lazos en 2019. [422]

Yitzhak Rabin y Yasser Arafat en la ceremonia de firma de los Acuerdos de Oslo con el entonces presidente estadounidense Bill Clinton

Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética fueron los dos primeros países en reconocer al Estado de Israel, habiendo declarado su reconocimiento casi simultáneamente. [423] Las relaciones diplomáticas con la Unión Soviética se rompieron en 1967, tras la Guerra de los Seis Días , y se renovaron en octubre de 1991. [424] Estados Unidos considera a Israel como su "socio más fiable en Oriente Medio", [425] basándose en "valores democráticos comunes, afinidades religiosas e intereses de seguridad". [426] Estados Unidos ha proporcionado 68.000 millones de dólares en asistencia militar y 32.000 millones de dólares en subvenciones a Israel desde 1967, en virtud de la Ley de Asistencia Exterior (período que comienza en 1962), [427] más que cualquier otro país durante ese período hasta 2003. [427] [428] [429] La mayoría de los estadounidenses encuestados también han mantenido opiniones consistentemente favorables de Israel. [430] [431] Se considera que el Reino Unido tiene una relación "natural" con Israel debido al Mandato para Palestina. [432] En 2007 , Alemania había pagado 25 mil millones de euros en reparaciones al Estado israelí y a los sobrevivientes individuales del Holocausto israelí. [433] Israel está incluido en la Política Europea de Vecindad de la Unión Europea . [434]

Aunque Turquía e Israel no establecieron relaciones diplomáticas plenas hasta 1991, [435] Turquía ha cooperado con el estado judío desde su reconocimiento de Israel en 1949. Los lazos de Turquía con otras naciones de mayoría musulmana en la región a veces han resultado en presión de los estados árabes y musulmanes para moderar su relación con Israel. [436] Las relaciones entre Turquía e Israel empeoraron después de la Guerra de Gaza de 2008-09 y la incursión de Israel a la flotilla de Gaza . [437] Las relaciones entre Grecia e Israel han mejorado desde 1995 debido al declive de las relaciones entre Israel y Turquía. [438] Los dos países tienen un acuerdo de cooperación en defensa y en 2010, la Fuerza Aérea israelí recibió a la Fuerza Aérea Helénica de Grecia en un ejercicio conjunto. Las exploraciones conjuntas de petróleo y gas de Chipre e Israel centradas en el campo de gas Leviatán son un factor importante para Grecia, dados sus fuertes vínculos con Chipre. [439] La cooperación en el cable eléctrico submarino más largo del mundo , el Interconector EuroAsia , ha fortalecido las relaciones entre Chipre e Israel . [440]

Azerbaiyán es uno de los pocos países de mayoría musulmana que desarrolla relaciones estratégicas y económicas con Israel. [441] Kazajstán también tiene una asociación económica y estratégica con Israel. [442] India estableció lazos diplomáticos plenos con Israel en 1992 y ha fomentado una fuerte asociación militar, tecnológica y cultural con el país desde entonces. [443] India es el mayor cliente del equipo militar israelí e Israel es el segundo socio militar más importante de India después de Rusia. [444] Etiopía es el principal aliado de Israel en África debido a intereses políticos, religiosos y de seguridad comunes. [445]

Ayuda exterior

Israel tiene un historial de proporcionar ayuda exterior de emergencia y respuesta humanitaria a desastres en todo el mundo. [446] En 1955 Israel comenzó su programa de ayuda exterior en Birmania. El enfoque del programa posteriormente se trasladó a África. [447] Los esfuerzos humanitarios de Israel comenzaron oficialmente en 1957, con el establecimiento de Mashav , la Agencia Israelí para la Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo. [448] En este período inicial, si bien la ayuda de Israel representaba solo un pequeño porcentaje de la ayuda total a África, su programa fue eficaz para crear buena voluntad; sin embargo, después de la guerra de 1967 las relaciones se deterioraron. [449] El programa de ayuda exterior de Israel posteriormente trasladó su enfoque a América Latina. [447] Desde finales de la década de 1970, la ayuda exterior de Israel ha disminuido gradualmente, aunque en los últimos años Israel ha tratado de restablecer la ayuda a África. [450] Hay otros grupos israelíes de respuesta humanitaria y de emergencia que trabajan con el gobierno de Israel, incluido IsraAid , un programa conjunto dirigido por organizaciones israelíes y grupos judíos norteamericanos, [451] ZAKA , [452] The Fast Israeli Rescue and Search Team, [453] Israeli Flying Aid, [454] Save a Child's Heart [455] y Latet . [456] Entre 1985 y 2015, Israel envió 24 delegaciones de la unidad de búsqueda y rescate de las FDI, el Home Front Command , a 22 países. [457] Actualmente, la ayuda exterior israelí ocupa un lugar bajo entre las naciones de la OCDE , gastando menos del 0,1% de su INB en asistencia para el desarrollo. [458] El país ocupó el puesto 38 en el Índice Mundial de Donaciones de 2018. [459]

Militar

Aviones de combate F-35 de la Fuerza Aérea de Israel

Las Fuerzas de Defensa de Israel (FDI) son el único brazo militar de las fuerzas de seguridad israelíes y están encabezadas por su Jefe de Estado Mayor , el Ramatkal , subordinado al Gabinete . Las FDI están formadas por el ejército , la fuerza aérea y la marina . Fueron fundadas durante la guerra árabe-israelí de 1948 mediante la consolidación de organizaciones paramilitares, principalmente la Haganah . [460] Las FDI también recurren a los recursos de la Dirección de Inteligencia Militar ( Aman ). [461] Las FDI han participado en varias guerras importantes y conflictos fronterizos, lo que las convierte en una de las fuerzas armadas más entrenadas para el combate del mundo. [462]

La mayoría de los israelíes son reclutados a los 18 años. Los hombres sirven dos años y ocho meses y las mujeres dos años. [463] Después del servicio obligatorio, los hombres israelíes se unen a las fuerzas de reserva y suelen hacer hasta varias semanas de servicio de reserva cada año hasta los cuarenta. La mayoría de las mujeres están exentas del servicio de reserva. Los ciudadanos árabes de Israel (excepto los drusos ) y aquellos que se dedican a estudios religiosos a tiempo completo están exentos , aunque la exención de los estudiantes de yeshivá ha sido una fuente de controversia. [464] [465] Una alternativa para aquellos que reciben exenciones por diversos motivos es Sherut Leumi , o servicio nacional, que implica un programa de servicio en marcos de bienestar social. [466] Una pequeña minoría de árabes israelíes también se ofrecen como voluntarios en el ejército. [467] Como resultado de su programa de reclutamiento, las FDI mantienen aproximadamente 176.500 tropas activas y 465.000 reservistas, lo que le da a Israel uno de los porcentajes más altos del mundo de ciudadanos con entrenamiento militar . [468]

Iron Dome es el primer sistema de defensa antimisiles antiartillería operativo del mundo .

The military relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel as well as some foreign imports. The Arrow missile is one of the world's few operational anti-ballistic missile systems.[469] The Python air-to-air missile series is often considered one of the most crucial weapons in its military history.[470] Israel's Spike missile is one of the most widely exported anti-tank guided missiles in the world.[471] Israel's Iron Dome anti-missile air defense system gained worldwide acclaim after intercepting hundreds of rockets fired by Palestinian militants from the Gaza Strip.[472][473] Since the Yom Kippur War, Israel has developed a network of reconnaissance satellites.[474] The Ofeq programme has made Israel one of seven countries capable of launching such satellites.[475]

Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons[476] and per a 1993 report, chemical and biological weapons of mass destruction.[477][needs update] Israel has not signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons[478] and maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity toward its nuclear capabilities.[479] The Israeli Navy's Dolphin submarines are believed to be armed with nuclear missiles offering second-strike capability.[480] Since the Gulf War in 1991, all homes in Israel are required to have a reinforced security room, Merkhav Mugan, impermeable to chemical and biological substances.[481]

Since Israel's establishment, military expenditure constituted a significant portion of the country's gross domestic product, with peak of 30.3% of GDP in 1975.[482] In 2021, Israel ranked 15th in the world by total military expenditure, with $24.3 billion, and 6th by defense spending as a percentage of GDP, with 5.2%.[483] Since 1974, the United States has been a particularly notable contributor of military aid.[484] Under a memorandum of understanding signed in 2016, the U.S. is expected to provide the country with $3.8 billion per year, or around 20% of Israel's defense budget, from 2018 to 2028.[485] Israel ranked 9th globally for arms exports in 2022.[486] The majority of Israel's arms exports are unreported for security reasons.[487] Israel is consistently rated low in the Global Peace Index, ranking 134th out of 163 nations in 2022.[488]

Legal system

Supreme Court of Israel, Givat Ram, Jerusalem

Israel has a three-tier court system. At the lowest level are magistrate courts, situated in most cities across the country. Above them are district courts, serving as both appellate courts and courts of first instance; they are situated in five of Israel's six districts. The third and highest tier is the Supreme Court, located in Jerusalem; it serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and the High Court of Justice. In the latter role, the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, allowing individuals, both citizens and non-citizens, to petition against the decisions of state authorities.[489]

Israel's legal system combines three legal traditions: English common law, civil law, and Jewish law.[301] It is based on the principle of stare decisis (precedent) and is an adversarial system. Court cases are decided by professional judges with no role for juries.[490][better source needed] Marriage and divorce are under the jurisdiction of the religious courts: Jewish, Muslim, Druze, and Christian. The election of judges is carried out by a selection committee chaired by the justice minister (currently Yariv Levin).[491] Israel's Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty seeks to defend human rights and liberties in Israel. The United Nations Human Rights Council and Israeli human rights organization Adalah have highlighted that this law does not in fact contain a general provision for equality and non-discrimination.[441][492] As a result of "Enclave law", large portions of Israeli civil law are applied to Israeli settlements and Israeli residents in the occupied territories.[493]

Economy

The Diamond Exchange District in Ramat Gan
Tel Aviv Stock Exchange

Israel is considered the most advanced country in Western Asia and the Middle East in economic and industrial development.[494][495] As of October 2023, the IMF estimated Israel's GDP at 521.7 billion dollars and Israel's GDP per capita at 53.2 thousand (ranking 13th worldwide).[496] It is the third richest country in Asia by nominal per capita income.[497] Israel has the highest average wealth per adult in the Middle East.[498]The Economist ranked Israel as the 4th most successful economy among the developed countries for 2022.[499] It has the most billionaires in the Middle East, and the 18th most in the world.[500] In recent years Israel had one of the highest growth rates in the developed world.[501] In 2010, it joined the OECD.[42][502] The country is ranked 20th in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report[503] and 35th on the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business index.[504] Israel was also ranked 5th in the world by share of people in high-skilled employment.[505] Israeli economic data covers the economic territory of Israel, including the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank.[349]

Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of the agricultural and industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self-sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Imports to Israel, totaling $96.5 billion in 2020, include raw materials, military equipment, investment goods, rough diamonds, fuels, grain, and consumer goods.[301] Leading exports include machinery, equipment, software, cut diamonds, agricultural products, chemicals, textiles, and apparel; in 2020, Israeli exports reached $114 billion.[301] The Bank of Israel holds $201 billion of foreign-exchange reserves, the 17th highest in the world.[301] Since the 1970s, Israel has received military aid from the United States, as well as economic assistance in the form of loan guarantees, which account for roughly half of Israel's external debt. Israel has one of the lowest external debts in the developed world, and is a lender in terms of net external debt (assets vs. liabilities abroad), which in 2015 stood at a surplus of $69 billion.[506]

Israel has the second-largest number of startup companies after the United States,[507] and the third-largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies.[508] It is the world leader for number of start-ups per capita.[509] Israel has been dubbed the "Start-Up Nation".[510][511][512][513] Intel[514] and Microsoft[515] built their first overseas research and development facilities in Israel, and other high-tech multinational corporations have opened research and development centres in the country.

The days which are allocated to working times in Israel are Sunday through Thursday (for a five-day workweek), or Friday (for a six-day workweek). In observance of Shabbat, in places where Friday is a work day and the majority of population is Jewish, Friday is a "short day". Several proposals have been raised to adjust the work week with the majority of the world.[516]

Science and technology

Matam high-tech park in Haifa

Israel's development of cutting-edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences have evoked comparisons with Silicon Valley.[517][518] Israel is first in the world in expenditure on research and development as a percentage of GDP.[519] It is ranked 14th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023,[520] and fifth in the 2019 Bloomberg Innovation Index.[521] Israel has 140 scientists, technicians, and engineers per 10,000 employees, the highest number in the world.[522][523][524] Israel has produced six Nobel Prize-winning scientists since 2004[525] and has been frequently ranked as one of the countries with the highest ratios of scientific papers per capita.[526][527][528] Israeli universities are ranked among the top 50 world universities in computer science (Technion and Tel Aviv University), mathematics (Hebrew University of Jerusalem) and chemistry (Weizmann Institute of Science).[529]

In 2012, Israel was ranked ninth in the world by the Futron's Space Competitiveness Index.[530] The Israel Space Agency coordinates all Israeli space research programmes with scientific and commercial goals, and have designed and built at least 13 commercial, research and spy satellites.[531] Some of Israel's satellites are ranked among the world's most advanced space systems.[532] Shavit is a space launch vehicle produced by Israel to launch small satellites into low Earth orbit.[533] It was first launched in 1988, making Israel the eighth nation to have a space launch capability. In 2003, Ilan Ramon became Israel's first astronaut, serving on the fatal mission of Space Shuttle Columbia.[534]

The ongoing water shortage has spurred innovation in water conservation techniques, and a substantial agricultural modernization, drip irrigation, was invented in Israel. Israel is also at the technological forefront of desalination and water recycling. The Sorek desalination plant is the largest seawater reverse osmosis desalination facility in the world.[535] By 2014, Israel's desalination programmes provided roughly 35% of Israel's drinking water and it is expected to supply 70% by 2050.[536] As of 2015, over 50 percent of the water for Israeli households, agriculture and industry is artificially produced.[537] In 2011, Israel's water technology industry was worth around $2 billion a year with annual exports of products and services in the tens of millions of dollars. As a result of innovations in reverse osmosis technology, Israel is set to become a net exporter of water.[538]

A horizontal parabolic dish, with a triangular structure on its top.
The world's largest solar parabolic dish at the Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center[539]

Israel has embraced solar energy; its engineers are on the cutting edge of solar energy technology[540] and its solar companies work on projects around the world.[541][542] Over 90% of Israeli homes use solar energy for hot water, the highest per capita.[323][543] According to government figures, the country saves 8% of its electricity consumption per year because of its solar energy use in heating.[544] The high annual incident solar irradiance at its geographic latitude creates ideal conditions for what is an internationally renowned solar research and development industry in the Negev Desert.[540][541][542] Israel had a modern electric car infrastructure involving a countrywide network of charging stations.[545][546][547] However, Israel's electric car company Better Place shut down in 2013.[548]

Energy

Israel began producing natural gas from its own offshore gas fields in 2004. In 2009, a natural gas reserve, Tamar, was found near the coast of Israel. A second reserve, Leviathan, was discovered in 2010.[549] The natural gas reserves in these two fields could make Israel energy-secure for more than 50 years. In 2013, Israel began commercial production of natural gas from the Tamar field. As of 2014, Israel produced over 7.5 billion cubic meters (bcm) of natural gas a year.[550] Israel had 199 billion bcm of proven reserves of natural gas as of 2016.[551] The Leviathan gas field started production in 2019.[552]

Ketura Sun is Israel's first commercial solar field. Built in 2011 by the Arava Power Company, the field consists of 18,500 photovoltaic panels made by Suntech, which will produce about 9 gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electricity per year.[553] In the next twenty years, the field will spare the production of some 125,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide.[554]

Transport

Ben Gurion International Airport

Israel has 19,224 kilometres (11,945 mi) of paved roads[555] and 3 million motor vehicles.[556] The number of motor vehicles per 1,000 persons is 365, relatively low among developed countries.[556] The country aims to have 30% of vehicles on its roads powered by electricity by 2030.[557]

Israel has 5,715 buses on scheduled routes,[558] operated by several carriers, the largest and oldest of which is Egged, serving most of the country.[559] Railways stretch across 1,277 kilometres (793 mi) and are operated by government-owned Israel Railways.[560] Following major investments beginning in the early to mid-1990s, the number of train passengers per year has grown from 2.5 million in 1990, to 53 million in 2015; railways transport 7.5 million tons of cargo per year.[560]

Israel is served by three international airports: Ben Gurion Airport, the country's main hub for international air travel; Ramon Airport; and Haifa Airport. Ben Gurion, Israel's largest airport, handled over 21.1 million passengers in 2023.[561] The country has three main ports: the Port of Haifa, the country's oldest and largest, on the Mediterranean coast, Ashdod Port; and the smaller Port of Eilat on the Red Sea.

Tourism

Ein Bokek resort on the shore of the Dead Sea

Tourism, especially religious tourism, is an important industry in Israel, with the country's beaches, archaeological, other historical and biblical sites, and unique geography also drawing tourists. Israel's security problems have taken their toll on the industry, but the number of tourists is on the rebound.[562] In 2017, a record 3.6 million tourists visited Israel, yielding a 25 percent growth since 2016 and contributed NIS 20 billion to the Israeli economy.[563][564][565][566]

Real estate

Housing prices in Israel are listed in the top third of all countries,[567] with an average of 150 salaries required to buy an apartment.[568] As of 2022, there are about 2.7 million properties in Israel, with an annual increase of over 50,000.[569] However, the demand for housing exceeds supply, with a shortage of about 200,000 apartments as of 2021.[570] As a result, by 2021 housing prices rose by 5.6%.[571] In 2021, Israelis took a record of NIS 116.1 billion in mortgages, an increase of 50% from 2020.[572]

Demographics

Immigration to Israel in the years 1948–2015. The two peaks were in 1949 and 1990.

Israel has the largest Jewish population in the world and is the only country where Jews are the majority.[573] As of 31 May 2024, Israel's population was an estimated 9,907,100. In 2022, the government recorded 73.6% of the population as Jews, 21.1% as Arabs, and 5.3% as "Others" (non-Arab Christians and people who have no religion listed).[12] Over the last decade, large numbers of migrant workers from Romania, Thailand, China, Africa, and South America have settled in Israel. Exact figures are unknown, as many of them are living in the country illegally,[574] but estimates run from 166,000 to 203,000.[575] By June 2012, approximately 60,000 African migrants had entered Israel.[576] About 93% of Israelis live in urban areas.[577] 90% of Palestinian Israelis reside in 139 densely populated towns and villages concentrated in the Galilee, Triangle and Negev regions, with the remaining 10% in mixed cities and neighbourhoods.[578][579][580][581][582] The OECD in 2016 estimated the average life expectancy at 82.5 years, the 6th-highest in the world.[583] Israeli Arab life expectancy lags by 3 to 4 years[584][585] and is higher than in most Arab and Muslim countries.[586][587] The country has the highest fertility rate in the OECD and the only one which is above the replacement figure of 2.1.[44] Retention of Israel's population since 1948 is about even or greater, when compared to other countries with mass immigration.[588] Jewish emigration from Israel (called yerida), primarily to the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest,[589] but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel's future.[590][591]

Approximately 80% of Israeli Jews are born in Israel, 14% are immigrants from Europe and the Americas, and 6% are immigrants from Asia and Africa.[592] Jews from Europe and the former Soviet Union and their descendants born in Israel, including Ashkenazi Jews, constitute approximately 44% of Jewish Israelis. Jews from Arab and Muslim countries and their descendants, including both Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews,[593] form most of the rest of the Jewish population.[594][595] Jewish intermarriage rates run at over 35% and recent studies suggest that the percentage of Israelis descended from both Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews increases by 0.5 percent yearly, with over 25% of schoolchildren now originating from both.[596] Around 4% of Israelis (300,000), ethnically defined as "others", are Russian descendants of Jewish origin or family who are not Jewish according to rabbinical law, but were eligible for citizenship under the Law of Return.[597][598][599]

The total number of Israeli settlers beyond the Green Line is over 600,000 (≈10% of the Jewish Israeli population).[600] In 2016, 399,300 Israelis lived in West Bank settlements,[340] including those that predated the establishment of the State of Israel and which were re-established after the Six-Day War, in cities such as Hebron and Gush Etzion bloc. Additionally there were more than 200,000 Jews living in East Jerusalem,[341] and 22,000 in the Golan Heights.[340] Approximately 7,800 Israelis lived in settlements in the Gaza Strip, known as Gush Katif, until they were evacuated by the government as part of its 2005 disengagement plan.[601]

Israeli Arabs (including the Arab population of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights) comprise 21.1% of the population or 1,995,000 people.[602] In a 2017 poll, 40% of Arab citizens of Israel identified as "Arab in Israel" or "Arab citizen of Israel", 15% identified as "Palestinian", 8.9% as "Palestinian in Israel" or "Palestinian citizen of Israel", and 8.7% as "Arab"; a poll found that 60% of Israeli Arabs have a positive view of the state.[603][604]

Major urban areas

Israel has four major metropolitan areas: Gush Dan (Tel Aviv metropolitan area; population 3,854,000), Jerusalem (population 1,253,900), Haifa (924,400), and Beersheba (377,100).[605]

Israel's largest municipality, in population and area, is Jerusalem with 981,711 residents in an area of 125 square kilometres (48 sq mi).[606] Israeli government statistics on Jerusalem include the population and area of East Jerusalem, the status of which is in international dispute.[607] Tel Aviv and Haifa rank as Israel's next most populous cities, with populations of 474,530 and 290,306, respectively.[606]The (mainly Haredi) city of Bnei Brak is the most densely populated city in Israel and one of the 10 most densely populated cities in the world.[608]

Israel has 16 cities with populations over 100,000. As of 2018 there are 77 Israeli localities granted "municipalities" (or "city") status by the Ministry of the Interior,[609] four of which are in the West Bank.[610]

^a This number includes East Jerusalem and West Bank areas, which had a total population of 573,330 inhabitants in 2019.[611] Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem is internationally unrecognized.

Language

Road sign in Hebrew, Arabic, and English

Israel's official language is Hebrew. Hebrew is the primary language of the state and is spoken daily by the majority of the population. Prior to 1948, opposition to Yiddish, the historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews, was common among supporters of the Zionist movement, including the Yishuv, who sought to promote Hebrew's revival as a unifying national language.[612] These sentiments were reflected in the early policies of the Israeli government, which largely banned Yiddish theatre performances and publications.[613] Until 2018, Arabic was also an official language of Israel;[11] in 2018 it was downgraded to having a "special status in the state".[9][10] Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority, with Hebrew taught in Arab schools.

Due to mass immigration from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia (some 130,000 Ethiopian Jews live in Israel),[614][615] Russian and Amharic are widely spoken.[616] Over one million Russian-speaking immigrants arrived in Israel between 1990 and 2004.[617] French is spoken by around 700,000 Israelis,[618] mostly originating from France and North Africa (see Maghrebi Jews). English was an official language during the Mandate period; it lost this status after the establishment of Israel, but retains a role comparable to that of an official language.[619][620][621] Many Israelis communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programmes are broadcast in English with subtitles and the language is taught from the early grades in elementary school. Israeli universities offer courses in the English language on various subjects.[622][better source needed]

Religion

A large open area with people bounded by old stone walls. To the left is a mosque with large golden dome.
The Dome of the Rock and the Western Wall, Jerusalem

The religious affiliation of the Israeli population as of 2022 was 73.6% Jewish, 18.1% Muslim, 1.9% Christian, and 1.6% Druze. The remaining 4.8% included faiths such as Samaritanism and Baháʼí, as well as "religiously unclassified".[623]

The religious affiliation of Israeli Jews varies widely: a 2016 survey by Pew Research indicates that 49% self-identify as Hiloni (secular), 29% as Masorti (traditional), 13% as Dati (religious) and 9% as Haredi (ultra-Orthodox).[624] Haredi Jews are expected to represent over 20% of Israel's Jewish population by 2028.[625]

Muslims constitute Israel's largest religious minority, making up about 17.6% of the population. About 2% of the population is Christian and 1.6% is Druze.[301] The Christian population comprises primarily Arab Christians and Aramean Christians, but also includes post-Soviet immigrants, foreign laborers, and followers of Messianic Judaism, considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity.[626] Members of many other religious groups, including Buddhists and Hindus, maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers.[627] Out of over one million immigrants from the former Soviet Union, about 300,000 are considered not Jewish by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel.[628]

Israel comprises a major part of the Holy Land, a region of significant importance to all Abrahamic religions. The city of Jerusalem is of special importance to Jews, Muslims, and Christians, as it is the home of sites that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as the Old City that incorporates the Western Wall and the Temple Mount (Al-Aqsa Mosque compound) and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[629] Other locations of religious importance are Nazareth (site of the Annunciation of Mary), Tiberias and Safed (two of the Four Holy Cities in Judaism), the White Mosque in Ramla (shrine of the prophet Saleh), and the Church of Saint George and Mosque of Al-Khadr, Lod (tomb of Saint George or Al Khidr). A number of other religious landmarks are located in the West Bank, including Joseph's Tomb, the birthplace of Jesus, Rachel's Tomb, and the Cave of the Patriarchs. The administrative center of the Baháʼí Faith and the Shrine of the Báb are located at the Baháʼí World Centre in Haifa; the leader of the faith is buried in Acre.[630][631][632] The Mahmood Mosque is affiliated with the reformist Ahmadiyya movement. Kababir, Haifa's mixed neighbourhood of Jews and Ahmadi Arabs, is one of a few of its kind in the country.[633][634]

Education

Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center at Bar-Ilan University

Education is highly valued in the Israeli culture and was viewed as a fundamental block of ancient Israelites.[635] In 2015, the country ranked third among OECD members for the percentage of 25–64 year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 49% compared with the OECD average of 35%.[636] In 2012, the country ranked third in the number of academic degrees per capita (20 percent of the population).[637]

Israel has a school life expectancy of 16 years and a literacy rate of 97.8%.[301] The State Education Law (1953) established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools. The public secular is the largest school group, and is attended by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction.[638] Education is compulsory for children between the ages of three and eighteen.[639] Schooling is divided into three tiers—primary school (grades 1–6), middle school (grades 7–9), and high school (grades 10–12)—culminating with Bagrut matriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, the Hebrew language, Hebrew and general literature, the English language, history, Biblical scripture and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate.[640]

Israel's Jewish population maintains a relatively high level of educational attainment where just under half of all Israeli Jews (46%) hold post-secondary degrees.[641][642] Israeli Jews (among those ages 25 and older) have average of 11.6 years of schooling making them one of the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the world.[643][644] In Arab, Christian and Druze schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam on Muslim, Christian or Druze heritage.[645] In 2020, 68.7% of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.[646]

Mount Scopus Campus of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem

Israel has a tradition of higher education where its quality university education has been largely responsible in spurring the nation's modern economic development.[647] Israel has nine public universities subsidized by the state and 49 private colleges.[640][648][649] The Hebrew University of Jerusalem houses the National Library of Israel, the world's largest repository of Judaica and Hebraica.[650] The Technion and the Hebrew University consistently ranked among world's 100 top universities by ARWU ranking.[529] Other major universities include the Weizmann Institute of Science, Tel Aviv University, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Bar-Ilan University, the University of Haifa, and the Open University of Israel.

Culture

Israel's cultural diversity stems from its diverse population: Jews from various diaspora communities brought their cultural and religious traditions with them.[651] Arab influences are present in many cultural spheres,[652] being found in Israeli architecture,[653] music,[654] and cuisine.[655] Israel is the only country where life revolves around the Hebrew calendar. Holidays are determined by the Jewish holidays. The official day of rest is Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath.[656]

Literature

Shmuel Yosef Agnon, laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature

Israeli literature is primarily poetry and prose written in Hebrew, as part of the renaissance of Hebrew as a spoken language since the mid-19th century, although a small body of literature is published in other languages. By law, two copies of all printed matter published in Israel must be deposited in the National Library of Israel. In 2001, the law was amended to include audio and video recordings, and other non-print media.[657] In 2016, 89 percent of the 7,300 books transferred to the library were in Hebrew.[658]

In 1966, Shmuel Yosef Agnon shared the Nobel Prize in Literature with German Jewish author Nelly Sachs.[659] Leading Israeli poets include Yehuda Amichai, Nathan Alterman, Leah Goldberg, and Rachel Bluwstein.[660] Internationally famous contemporary Israeli novelists include Amos Oz, Etgar Keret and David Grossman.[661][662]

Music and dance

Several dozen musicians in formal dress, holding their instruments, behind a conductor
Israel Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Zubin Mehta

Israeli music includes Mizrahi and Sephardic music, Hasidic melodies, Greek music, jazz, and pop rock.[663][664] The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra[665][666] has been in operation for over seventy years and performs more than two hundred concerts each year.[667] Itzhak Perlman, Pinchas Zukerman and Ofra Haza are among the internationally acclaimed musicians born in Israel. Israel has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest nearly every year since 1973, winning the competition four times and hosting it twice.[668][669] Eilat has hosted its own international music festival, the Red Sea Jazz Festival, every summer since 1987.[670] The nation's canonical folk songs are known as "Songs of the Land of Israel".[671]

Cinema and theatre

Ten Israeli films have been final nominees for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards. Palestinian Israeli filmmakers have made films dealing with the Arab-Israeli conflict and status of Palestinians within Israel, such as Mohammed Bakri's 2002 film Jenin, Jenin and The Syrian Bride.

Continuing the strong theatrical traditions of the Yiddish theatre in Eastern Europe, Israel maintains a vibrant theatre scene. Founded in 1918, Habima Theatre in Tel Aviv is Israel's oldest repertory theater company and national theater.[672] Other theatres include Ohel, the Cameri and Gesher.[673][674]

Arts

Israeli Jewish art has been particularly influenced by the Kabbalah, the Talmud and the Zohar. Another art movement that held a prominent role in the 20th century was the School of Paris. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the Yishuv's art was dominated by art trends emanating Bezalel. Beginning in the 1920s, the local art scene was heavily influenced by modern French art, first introduced by Isaac Frenkel Frenel.[675][676] Jewish masters of the school of Paris, such as Soutine, Kikoine, Frenkel, Chagall heavily influenced the subsequent development of Israeli art.[677][678] Israeli sculpture took inspiration from modern European sculpture as well Mesopotamian, Assyrian and local art.[679][680] Avraham Melnikov's roaring lion, David Polus' Alexander Zaid and Ze'ev Ben Zvi's cubist sculpture exemplify some of the different streams in Israeli sculpture.[679][681][682]

Common themes in Israeli art are the mystical cities of Safed and Jerusalem, the bohemian café culture of Tel Aviv, agricultural landscapes, biblical stories and war. Today Israeli art has delved into Optical art, AI art, digital art and the use of salt in sculpture.[678]

Architecture

Bauhaus Museum, Tel Aviv

Due to the immigration of Jewish architects, architecture in Israel has come to reflect different styles. In the early 20th century Jewish architects sought to combine Occidental and Oriental architecture producing buildings that showcase a myriad of infused styles.[683] The eclectic style gave way to the modernist Bauhaus style with the influx of German Jewish architects (among them Erich Mendelsohn) fleeing Nazi persecution.[684][685] The White City of Tel Aviv is a UNESCO heritage site.[686] Following independence, multiple government projects were commissioned, a grand part built in a brutalist style with heavy emphasis on the use of concrete and acclimatization to the Israel's desert climate.[687][688]

Several novel ideas such as the Garden City were implemented Israeli cities; the Geddes plan of Tel Aviv became renowned internationally for its revolutionary design and adaptation to the local climate.[689] The design of kibbutzim also came to reflect ideology, such as the planning of the circular kibbutz Nahalal by Richard Kauffmann.[690]

Media

Israeli media is diverse, reflecting the spectrum of Israeli audiences. Notable newspapers include the leftwing Haaretz,[691] centrist Yedioth Ahronoth,[692] and center-right Israel Hayom.[693] There are several major TV channels which cater to different audiences, from Russian language Channel 9[694] to Arabic language Kan 33.[695] The 2024 Freedom House report found Israeli media is "vibrant and free to criticize government policy".[696] In the 2024 Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders, Israel was placed 101st of 180 countries, second in the Middle East and North Africa.[697][698] Reporters Without Borders noted that the Israel Defense Forces had killed more than 100 journalists in Gaza. Since the Israel–Hamas war, Israel had been "been trying to suppress the reporting coming out of the besieged enclave while disinformation infiltrates its own media ecosystem."[698] On 5 May 2024, Israel shut down the local offices of Qatari channel Al Jazeera.[699] Israel later briefly seized equipment belonging to the Associated Press, saying that its video stream of Gaza was being provided to Al Jazeera; after an intervention by the U.S. government the equipment was returned.[700][701][702]

Museums

Shrine of the Book, repository of the Dead Sea Scrolls in Jerusalem

The Israel Museum in Jerusalem is one of Israel's most important cultural institutions[703] and houses the Dead Sea Scrolls,[704] along with an extensive collection of Judaica and European art.[703] Israel's national Holocaust museum, Yad Vashem, is the world central archive of Holocaust-related information.[705] ANU - Museum of the Jewish People on the campus of Tel Aviv University, is an interactive museum devoted to the history of Jewish communities around the world.[706]

Israel has the highest number of museums per capita.[707] Several Israeli museums are devoted to Islamic culture, including the Rockefeller Museum and the L. A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art, both in Jerusalem. The Rockefeller specializes in archaeological remains from Middle East history. It is also the home of the first hominid fossil skull found in Western Asia, called Galilee Man.[708]

Cuisine

A meal including falafel, hummus, French fries and Israeli salad

Israeli cuisine includes local dishes as well as Jewish cuisine brought to the country by immigrants. Particularly since the late 1970s, an Israeli fusion cuisine has developed.[709] Israeli cuisine has adopted, and continues to adapt, elements of the Mizrahi, Sephardi, and Ashkenazi styles of cooking. It incorporates many foods traditionally eaten in the Levantine, Arab, Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cuisines, such as falafel, hummus, shakshouka, couscous, and za'atar. Schnitzel, pizza, hamburgers, French fries, rice and salad are common in Israel.

Roughly half of the Israeli-Jewish population attests to keeping kosher at home.[710][711] Kosher restaurants make up around a quarter of the total as of 2015.[709] Together with non-kosher fish, rabbits and ostriches, pork—often called "white meat" in Israel[712]—is produced and consumed, though it is forbidden by both Judaism and Islam.[713]

Sports

Maccabi Haifa F.C. fans at Sammy Ofer Stadium in the city of Haifa

The most popular spectator sports in Israel are association football and basketball.[714] The Israeli Premier League is the country's premier football league, and the Israeli Basketball Premier League is the premier basketball league.[715] Maccabi Haifa, Maccabi Tel Aviv, Hapoel Tel Aviv and Beitar Jerusalem are the largest football clubs. Maccabi Tel Aviv, Maccabi Haifa and Hapoel Tel Aviv have competed in the UEFA Champions League and Hapoel Tel Aviv reached the UEFA Cup quarter-finals. Israel hosted and won the 1964 AFC Asian Cup; in 1970 the Israel national football team qualified for the FIFA World Cup, the only time it participated in the World Cup. The 1974 Asian Games, held in Tehran, were the last Asian Games in which Israel participated, plagued by Arab countries that refused to compete with Israel. Israel was excluded from the 1978 Asian Games and since then has not competed in Asian sport events.[716] In 1994, UEFA agreed to admit Israel, and its football teams now compete in Europe. Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. has won the European championship in basketball six times.[717]

Israel has won nine Olympic medals since its first win in 1992, including a gold medal in windsurfing at the 2004 Summer Olympics.[718] Israel has won over 100 gold medals in the Paralympic Games and is ranked 20th in the all-time medal count. The 1968 Summer Paralympics were hosted by Israel.[719] The Maccabiah Games, an Olympic-style event for Jewish and Israeli athletes, was inaugurated in the 1930s, and has been held every four years since then. Krav Maga, a martial art developed by Jewish ghetto defenders during the struggle against fascism in Europe, is used by the Israeli security forces and police.[720]

Chess is a leading sport in Israel. There are many Israeli grandmasters and Israeli chess players have won a number of youth world championships.[721] Israel stages an annual international championship and hosted the World Team Chess Championship in 2005.

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Recognition by other UN member states: Russia (West Jerusalem),[1] the Czech Republic (West Jerusalem),[2] Honduras,[3] Guatemala,[4] Nauru,[5] and the United States.[6]
  2. ^ Jerusalem is Israel's largest city if including East Jerusalem, which is widely recognized as occupied territory.[7] If East Jerusalem is not counted, the largest city would be Tel Aviv.
  3. ^ Arabic has a "special status" as set by the Basic Law of 2018, which allows it to be used by official institutions.[9][10] Prior to that law's passage, Arabic had been an official language alongside Hebrew.[11]
  4. ^ a b Israeli population and economic data covers the economic territory of Israel, including the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank.[349][350]
  5. ^ The personal name "Israel" appears much earlier, in material from Ebla.[63]
  1. ^ /ˈɪzri.əl, -r-/; Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל Yīsrāʾēl [jisʁaˈʔel]; Arabic: إِسْرَائِيل ʾIsrāʾīl
  2. ^ Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl [mediˈnat jisʁaˈʔel]; Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل Dawlat Isrāʾīl

Citations

  1. ^ "Foreign Ministry statement regarding Palestinian-Israeli settlement". mid.ru. 6 April 2017. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020. Retrieved 15 December 2018.
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  4. ^ "Guatemala se suma a EEUU y también trasladará su embajada en Israel a Jerusalén" [Guatemala joins US, will also move embassy to Jerusalem]. Infobae (in Spanish). 24 December 2017. Archived from the original on 17 April 2020. Retrieved 25 December 2017. Guatemala's embassy was located in Jerusalem until the 1980s, when it was moved to Tel Aviv.
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  24. ^ a b Gil, Moshe (1992). A History of Palestine, 634-1099. Cambridge University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Archived from the original on 17 May 2024. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
  25. ^ Morris, Benny (1999). Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001 (reprint ed.). Knopf. ISBN 9780679744757. Archived from the original on 22 March 2024. Retrieved 22 March 2024. The fear of territorial displacement and dispossession was to be the chief motor of Arab antagonism to Zionism down to 1948 (and indeed after 1967 as well). Also quoted, among many, by Mark M. Ayyash (2019). Hermeneutics of Violence: A Four-Dimensional Conception. University of Toronto Press, p. 195 Archived 22 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine, ISBN 1487505868. Accessed 22 March 2024.
  26. ^ Fildis, Ayse; Nisanci, Ensar (2019). "British Colonial Policy "Divide and Rule": Fanning Arab Rivalry in Palestine" (PDF). International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational Studies. 6 (1). UTM Press. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 May 2024. Retrieved 10 May 2024.
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  28. ^ Meir-Glitzenstein, Esther (Fall 2018). "Turning Points in the Historiography of Jewish Immigration from Arab Countries to Israel". Israel Studies. 23 (3). Indiana University Press: 114–122. doi:10.2979/israelstudies.23.3.15. JSTOR 10.2979/israelstudies.23.3.15. S2CID 150208821. The mass immigration from Arab countries began in mid-1949 and included three communities that relocated to Israel almost in their entirety: 31,000 Jews from Libya, 50,000 from Yemen, and 125,000 from Iraq. Additional immigrants arrived from Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, Iran, India, and elsewhere. Within three years, the Jewish population of Israel doubled. The ethnic composition of the population shifted as well, as immigrants from Muslim counties and their offspring now comprised one third of the Jewish population—an unprecedented phenomenon in global immigration history. From 1952–60, Israel regulated and restricted immigration from Muslim countries with a selective immigration policy based on economic criteria, and sent these immigrants, most of whom were North African, to peripheral Israeli settlements. The selective immigration policy ended in 1961 when, following an agreement between Israel and Morocco, about 100,000 Jews immigrated to the State. From 1952–68 about 600,000 Jews arrived in Israel, three quarters of whom were from Arab countries and the remaining immigrants were largely from Eastern Europe. Today fewer than 30,000 remain in Muslim countries, mostly concentrated in Iran and Turkey.
  29. ^ Fischbach 2008, p. 26–27.
  30. ^ Slater 2020, pp. 81–92, 350, "[p. 350] It is no longer a matter of serious dispute that in the 1947–48 period—beginning well before the Arab invasion in May 1948—some 700,000 to 750,000 Palestinians were expelled from or fled their villages and homes in Israel in fear of their lives—an entirely justifiable fear, in light of massacres carried out by Zionist forces."
  31. ^ Ghanim, Honaida (March 2009). "Poetics of Disaster: Nationalism, Gender, and Social Change Among Palestinian Poets in Israel After Nakba". International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society. 22 (1): 23–39 [25–26]. doi:10.1007/s10767-009-9049-9. ISSN 0891-4486. JSTOR 40608203. S2CID 144148068. Archived from the original on 6 November 2021. Around 750,000–900,000 Palestinians were systematically expelled from their homes and lands and about 531 villages were deliberately destroyed.
  32. ^ Cleveland, William L.; Bunton, Martin (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East. Westview Press. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-429-97513-4. Not only was there no Palestinian Arab state, but the vast majority of the Arab population in the territory that became Israel-over 700,000 people-had become refugees. The Arab flight from Palestine began during he intercommunal war and was at first the normal reaction of a civilian population to nearby fighting-a temporary evacuation from the zone of combat with plans to return once hostilities ceased. However, during spring and early summer 1948, the flight of the Palestinian Arabs was transformed itno a permanent mass exodus ... Once the Arab flight had started, it was encouraged by the Haganah ... Haganah field officers interpreted Plan D as giving them authority to undertake the systematic expulsion of the Palestinian Arabs living within the area allocated to the Jewish state as well as those whose villages were situated just inside the territory awarded to the Arab state ... Throughout the remainder of 1948 and into 1949, there were incidents of forced expulsion of Arabs. As a result, by the time the last armistice agreement was concluded in 1949, there remained only 160,000 Arabs within the borders of Israel.
  33. ^ Beker, Avi (2005). "The Forgotten Narrative: Jewish Refugees from Arab Countries". Jewish Political Studies Review. 17 (3/4): 3–19. ISSN 0792-335X. JSTOR 25834637. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 23 May 2024.
  34. ^ Dinstein, Yoram (11 October 2021). Israel Yearbook on Human Rights, Volume 6 (1976). BRILL. p. 282. ISBN 978-90-04-42287-2. Archived from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 23 May 2024.
  35. ^ a b "How Israel's electoral system works". CNN.com. CNN International. Retrieved 14 October 2021.
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  37. ^ Getzoff, Marc (1 December 2023). "Most Technologically Advanced Countries In The World 2023". Global Finance Magazine. Retrieved 6 August 2024.
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  43. ^ "Israel to join prestigious OECD economic club". France 24. 27 May 2010. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 23 November 2023.
  44. ^ a b "Israel's birth rate remains highest in OECD by far, at 2.9 children per woman". Times of Israel. 21 June 2024.
  45. ^ Noah Rayman (29 September 2014). "Mandatory Palestine: What It Was and Why It Matters". Time. Archived from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2015.
  46. ^ "Popular Opinion". The Palestine Post. 7 December 1947. p. 1. Archived from the original on 15 August 2012.
  47. ^ Elli Wohlgelernter (30 April 1998). "One Day that Shook the world". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012.
  48. ^ "On the Move". Time. 31 May 1948. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 6 August 2007.
  49. ^ Levine, Robert A. (7 November 2000). "See Israel as a Jewish Nation-State, More or Less Democratic". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 July 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
  50. ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley (1995). "Israel". International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E–J. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 907. ISBN 978-0-8028-3782-0.
  51. ^ Barton & Bowden 2004, p. 126. "The Merneptah Stele ... is arguably the oldest evidence outside the Bible for the existence of Israel as early as the 13th century BCE."
  52. ^ Tchernov, Eitan (1988). "The Age of 'Ubeidiya Formation (Jordan Valley, Israel) and the Earliest Hominids in the Levant". Paléorient. 14 (2): 63–65. doi:10.3406/paleo.1988.4455.
  53. ^ Rincon, Paul (14 October 2015). "Fossil teeth place humans in Asia '20,000 years early'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 17 August 2017. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
  54. ^ Bar-Yosef, Ofer (7 December 1998). "The Natufian Culture in the Levant, Threshold to the Origins of Agriculture" (PDF). Evolutionary Anthropology. 6 (5): 159–177. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:5<159::AID-EVAN4>3.0.CO;2-7. S2CID 35814375. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 July 2021. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
  55. ^ Steiglitz, Robert (1992). "Migrations in the Ancient Near East". Anthropological Science. 3 (101): 263. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2020.
  56. ^ "Canaanites". obo. Archived from the original on 3 April 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  57. ^ Glassman, Ronald M. (2017), Glassman, Ronald M. (ed.), "The Political Structure of the Canaanite City-States: Monarchy and Merchant Oligarchy", The Origins of Democracy in Tribes, City-States and Nation-States, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 473–477, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-51695-0_49, ISBN 978-3-319-51695-0, archived from the original on 29 April 2024, retrieved 1 December 2023
  58. ^ Braunstein, Susan L. (2011). "The Meaning of Egyptian-Style Objects in the Late Bronze Cemeteries of Tell el-Farʿah (South)". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 364 (364): 1–36. doi:10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0001. JSTOR 10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0001. S2CID 164054005.
  59. ^ Dever, William G. Beyond the Texts, Society of Biblical Literature Press, 2017, pp. 89–93
  60. ^ S. Richard, "Archaeological sources for the history of Palestine: The Early Bronze Age: The rise and collapse of urbanism", The Biblical Archaeologist (1987)
  61. ^ K.L. Noll, Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion, A&C Black, 2012, rev.ed. pp. 137ff.
  62. ^ Thomas L. Thompson, Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources, Brill, 2000 pp. 275–276: 'They are rather a very specific group among the population of Palestine which bears a name that occurs here for the first time that at a much later stage in Palestine's history bears a substantially different signification.'
  63. ^ Hasel, Michael G. (1 January 1994). "Israel in the Merneptah Stela". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 296 (296): 45–61. doi:10.2307/1357179. JSTOR 1357179. S2CID 164052192.
    * Bertman, Stephen (14 July 2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1.
    * Meindert Dijkstra (2010). "Origins of Israel between history and ideology". In Becking, Bob; Grabbe, Lester (eds.). Between Evidence and Ideology Essays on the History of Ancient Israel read at the Joint Meeting of the Society for Old Testament Study and the Oud Testamentisch Werkgezelschap Lincoln, July 2009. Brill. p. 47. ISBN 978-90-04-18737-5. As a West Semitic personal name it existed long before it became a tribal or a geographical name. This is not without significance, though is it rarely mentioned. We learn of a maryanu named ysr"il (*Yi¡sr—a"ilu) from Ugarit living in the same period, but the name was already used a thousand years before in Ebla. The word Israel originated as a West Semitic personal name. One of the many names that developed into the name of the ancestor of a clan, of a tribe and finally of a people and a nation.
  64. ^ Lemche, Niels Peter (1998). The Israelites in History and Tradition. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-664-22727-2.
  65. ^ Miller, James Maxwell; Hayes, John Haralson (1986). A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-21262-9.
  66. ^ Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)
  67. ^ Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5
  68. ^ Gnuse, Robert Karl (1997). No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel. Sheffield Academic Press Ltd. pp. 28, 31. ISBN 978-1-85075-657-6.
  69. ^ Steiner, Richard C. (1997), "Ancient Hebrew", in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), The Semitic Languages, Routledge, pp. 145–173, ISBN 978-0-415-05767-7
  70. ^ Killebrew 2005, p. 230.
  71. ^ Shahin 2005, p. 6.
  72. ^ a b Dever, William (2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?. Eerdmans. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-3-927120-37-2. After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.
  73. ^ Faust 2015, p. 476: "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt.."
  74. ^ Redmount 2001, p. 61: "A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative."
  75. ^ Lipschits, Oded (2014). "The History of Israel in the Biblical Period". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). The Jewish Study Bible (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-997846-5. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
  76. ^ Kuhrt, Amiele (1995). The Ancient Near East. Routledge. p. 438. ISBN 978-0-415-16762-8.
  77. ^ Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories (1st Touchstone ed.). Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86912-4.
  78. ^ Wright, Jacob L. (July 2014). "David, King of Judah (Not Israel)". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  79. ^ Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem", in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives, SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57: "...They became territorial kingdoms later, Israel in the first half of the ninth century BCE and Judah in its second half..."
  80. ^ The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995 Archived 9 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date."
  81. ^ Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 146–7: Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power.
  82. ^ Finkelstein, Israel (2013). The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel. pp. 65–66, 73, 78, 87–94. ISBN 978-1-58983-911-3. OCLC 880456140.
  83. ^ Finkelstein, Israel (1 November 2011). "Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria". Tel Aviv. 38 (2): 194–207. doi:10.1179/033443511x13099584885303. ISSN 0334-4355. S2CID 128814117.
  84. ^ Israel., Finkelstein. The forgotten kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-58983-910-6. OCLC 949151323.
  85. ^ Broshi, Maguen (2001). Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-84127-201-6. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
  86. ^ a b Broshi, M., & Finkelstein, I. (1992). "The Population of Palestine in Iron Age II" Archived 5 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 287(1), 47–60.
  87. ^ Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 307: "Intensive excavations throughout Jerusalem have shown that the city was indeed systematically destroyed by the Babylonians. The conflagration seems to have been general. When activity on the ridge of the City of David resumed in the Persian period, the-new suburbs on the western hill that had flourished since at least the time of Hezekiah were not reoccupied."
  88. ^ Lipschits, Oded (1999). "The History of the Benjamin Region under Babylonian Rule". Tel Aviv. 26 (2): 155–190. doi:10.1179/tav.1999.1999.2.155. ISSN 0334-4355.
  89. ^ Wheeler, P. (2017). "Review of the book Song of Exile: The Enduring Mystery of Psalm 137, by David W. Stowe". The Catholic Biblical Quarterly. 79 (4): 696–697. doi:10.1353/cbq.2017.0092. S2CID 171830838.
  90. ^ a b "Second Temple Period (538 BCE to 70 CE) Persian Rule". Biu.ac.il. Archived from the original on 16 January 1999. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
  91. ^ Harper's Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103
  92. ^ Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1. T & T Clark. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-567-08998-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
  93. ^ Helyer, Larry R.; McDonald, Lee Martin (2013). "The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era". In Green, Joel B.; McDonald, Lee Martin (eds.). The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts. Baker Academic. pp. 45–47. ISBN 978-0-8010-9861-1. OCLC 961153992. The ensuing power struggle left Hyrcanus with a free hand in Judea, and he quickly reasserted Jewish sovereignty... Hyrcanus then engaged in a series of military campaigns aimed at territorial expansion. He first conquered areas in the Transjordan. He then turned his attention to Samaria, which had long separated Judea from the northern Jewish settlements in Lower Galilee. In the south, Adora and Marisa were conquered; (Aristobulus') primary accomplishment was annexing and Judaizing the region of Iturea, located between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains
  94. ^ Ben-Sasson, H.H. (1976). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6. The expansion of Hasmonean Judea took place gradually. Under Jonathan, Judea annexed southern Samaria and began to expand in the direction of the coast plain... The main ethnic changes were the work of John Hyrcanus... it was in his days and those of his son Aristobulus that the annexation of Idumea, Samaria and Galilee and the consolidation of Jewish settlement in Trans-Jordan was completed. Alexander Jannai, continuing the work of his predecessors, expanded Judean rule to the entire coastal plain, from the Carmel to the Egyptian border... and to additional areas in Trans-Jordan, including some of the Greek cities there.
  95. ^ Ben-Eliyahu, Eyal (30 April 2019). Identity and Territory: Jewish Perceptions of Space in Antiquity. Univ of California Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-520-29360-1. OCLC 1103519319. From the beginning of the Second Temple period until the Muslim conquest—the land was part of imperial space. This was true from the early Persian period, as well as the time of Ptolemy and the Seleucids. The only exception was the Hasmonean Kingdom, with its sovereign Jewish rule—first over Judah and later, in Alexander Jannaeus's prime, extending to the coast, the north, and the eastern banks of the Jordan.
  96. ^ a b Schwartz, Seth (2014). The ancient Jews from Alexander to Muhammad. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-1-107-04127-1. OCLC 863044259. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024. The year 70 ce marked transformations in demography, politics, Jewish civic status, Palestinian and more general Jewish economic and social structures, Jewish religious life beyond the sacrificial cult, and even Roman politics and the topography of the city of Rome itself. [...] The Revolt's failure had, to begin with, a demographic impact on the Jews of Palestine; many died in battle and as a result of siege conditions, not only in Jerusalem. [...] As indicated above, the figures for captives are conceivably more reliable. If 97,000 is roughly correct as a total for the war, it would mean that a huge percentage of the population was removed from the country, or at the very least displaced from their homes. Nevertheless, only sixty years later, there was a large enough population in the Judaean countryside to stage a massively disruptive second rebellion; this one appears to have ended, in 135, with devastation and depopulation of the district.
  97. ^ Werner Eck, "Sklaven und Freigelassene von Römern in Iudaea und den angrenzenden Provinzen", Novum Testamentum 55 (2013): 1–21
  98. ^ Raviv, Dvir; Ben David, Chaim (2021). "Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account?". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 34 (2): 585–607. doi:10.1017/S1047759421000271. ISSN 1047-7594. S2CID 245512193. Scholars have long doubted the historical accuracy of Cassius Dio's account of the consequences of the Bar Kokhba War (Roman History 69.14). According to this text, considered the most reliable literary source for the Second Jewish Revolt, the war encompassed all of Judea: the Romans destroyed 985 villages and 50 fortresses, and killed 580,000 rebels. This article reassesses Cassius Dio's figures by drawing on new evidence from excavations and surveys in Judea, Transjordan, and the Galilee. Three research methods are combined: an ethno-archaeological comparison with the settlement picture in the Ottoman Period, comparison with similar settlement studies in the Galilee, and an evaluation of settled sites from the Middle Roman Period (70–136 CE). The study demonstrates the potential contribution of the archaeological record to this issue and supports the view of Cassius Dio's demographic data as a reliable account, which he based on contemporaneous documentation.
  99. ^ a b Mor, Menahem (18 April 2016). The Second Jewish Revolt. BRILL. pp. 483–484. doi:10.1163/9789004314634. ISBN 978-90-04-31463-4. Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the sikarikon laws were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.
  100. ^ Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2.
  101. ^ H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6, page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."
  102. ^ Ariel Lewin. The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6
  103. ^ Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History. 4:6.3-4
  104. ^ Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (1996). Atlas of Jewish History. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-415-08800-8.
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  108. ^ a b Ehrlich, Michael (2022). The Islamization of the Holy Land, 634–1800. Arc Humanities Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-1-64189-222-3. OCLC 1302180905. The Jewish community strove to recover from the catastrophic results of the Bar Kokhva revolt (132–135 CE). Although some of these attempts were relatively successful, the Jews never fully recovered. During the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, many Jews emigrated to thriving centres in the diaspora, especially Iraq, whereas some converted to Christianity and others continued to live in the Holy Land, especially in Galilee and the coastal plain. During the Byzantine period, the three provinces of Palestine included more than thirty cities, namely, settlements with a bishop see. After the Muslim conquest in the 630s, most of these cities declined and eventually disappeared. As a result, in many cases the local ecclesiastical administration weakened, while in others it simply ceased to exist. Consequently, many local Christians converted to Islam. Thus, almost twelve centuries later, when the army led by Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in the Holy Land, most of the local population was Muslim.
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  114. ^ a b Ellenblum, Ronnie (2010). Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-58534-0. OCLC 958547332. From the data given above it can be concluded that the Muslim population of Central Samaria, during the early Muslim period, was not an autochthonous population which had converted to Christianity. They arrived there either by way of migration or as a result of a process of sedentarization of the nomads who had filled the vacuum created by the departing Samaritans at the end of the Byzantine period [...] To sum up: in the only rural region in Palestine in which, according to all the written and archeological sources, the process of Islamization was completed already in the twelfth century, there occurred events consistent with the model propounded by Levtzion and Vryonis: the region was abandoned by its original sedentary population and the vacuum was apparently filled by nomads who, at a later stage, gradually became sedentarized
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  179. ^ Imseis 2021, pp. 13–14: 'As to territorial boundaries, under the plan the Jewish State was allotted approximately 57 percent of the total area of Palestine even though the Jewish population comprised only 33 percent of the country. In addition, according to British records relied upon by the ad hoc committee, the Jewish population possessed registered ownership of only 5.6 percent of Palestine, and was eclipsed by the Arabs in land ownership in every one of Palestine's 16 sub-districts. Moreover, the quality of the land granted to the proposed Jewish state was highly skewed in its favour. UNSCOP reported that under its majority plan "[t]he Jews will have the more economically developed part of the country embracing practically the whole of the citrus-producing area"—Palestine's staple export crop—even though approximately half of the citrus-bearing land was owned by the Arabs. In addition, according to updated British records submitted to the ad hoc committee's two sub-committees, "of the irrigated, cultivable areas" of the country, 84 per cent would be in the Jewish State and 16 per cent would be in the Arab State".'
  180. ^ Morris 2008, p. 75: "The night of 29–30 November passed in the Yishuv's settlements in noisy public rejoicing. Most had sat glued to their radio sets broadcasting live from Flushing Meadow. A collective cry of joy went up when the two-thirds mark was achieved: a state had been sanctioned by the international community."
  181. ^ a b Morris 2008, p. 396: "The immediate trigger of the 1948 War was the November 1947 UN partition resolution. The Zionist movement, except for its fringes, accepted the proposal."
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  184. ^ Morris 2008, p. 66: at 1946 "The League demanded independence for Palestine as a "unitary" state, with an Arab majority and minority rights for the Jews.", p. 67: at 1947 "The League's Political Committee met in Sofar, Lebanon, on 16–19 September, and urged the Palestine Arabs to fight partition, which it called "aggression," "without mercy." The League promised them, in line with Bludan, assistance "in manpower, money and equipment" should the United Nations endorse partition.", p. 72: at December 1947 "The League vowed, in very general language, "to try to stymie the partition plan and prevent the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.""
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  190. ^ Henry Laurens (2007). La Question de Palestine. Vol. 3. Paris: Fayard. p. 104. L'entrée en guerre des pays arabes pose un problem juridique complexe. Le franchissement des frontières peut constituer un acte d'aggression ou une menace contre la paix, justifiant une condannation et une intervention des Nations unies, mais si les armées pénètrent seulement dans la partie arabe du plan de partage, elles peuvent être considérées comme appelées par la population et à ce stade leur intervention ne serait pas par elle-même une menace contre la paix. Elle ne commencerait qu'avec l'attaque de la partie juive. Or, en certains points, les armées arabes menacent directement le territoire juif et dans d'autres les Juifs se sont déjà largement installés en territoire arabe. [The entry into (the) war of the Arab countries poses a complex legal problem. The crossing of the borders can constitute an act of aggression or a threat against peace, justifying a condemnation and an intervention by the United Nations, but if the armies penetrate only the Arab part of the partition plan, they can be considered as called on (to do so) by the population and at this stage their intervention would not in itself be a threat against the peace. That would only start were the Jewish part attacked. Now, the Arab armies do directly threaten Jewish territory at certain points while in others the Jews have already largely taken up positions in Arab territory.]
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Sources

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Government

General information

Maps

31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35