Durante su expedición de 1542, el explorador español Ruy López de Villalobos nombró a las islas de Leyte y Samar " Felipinas " en honor al Príncipe de Asturias , más tarde Felipe II de Castilla . Con el tiempo, el nombre " Las Islas Filipinas " se usaría para las posesiones españolas del archipiélago. [18] : 6 Otros nombres, como " Islas del Poniente " (Islas Occidentales), " Islas del Oriente " (Islas Orientales), el nombre de Fernando de Magallanes y " San Lázaro " (Islas de San Lázaro), fueron utilizados por los españoles para referirse a las islas de la región antes de que se estableciera el dominio español. [19] [20] [21]
Durante la Revolución filipina , el Congreso de Malolos la proclamó República Filipina . [22] Las autoridades coloniales estadounidenses se refirieron al país como las Islas Filipinas (una traducción del nombre en español). [ 23] Estados Unidos comenzó a cambiar su nomenclatura de "las Islas Filipinas" a "las Filipinas" en la Ley de Autonomía Filipina y la Ley Jones . [24] El título oficial "República de Filipinas" se incluyó en la constitución de 1935 como el nombre del futuro estado independiente, [25] y en todas las revisiones constitucionales posteriores. [26] [27]
Hay evidencia de homínidos tempranos que vivieron en lo que ahora es Filipinas hace 709.000 años. [28] Un pequeño número de huesos de la cueva de Callao potencialmente representan una especie desconocida, el Homo luzonensis , que vivió hace 50.000 a 67.000 años. [29] [30] Los restos humanos modernos más antiguos en las islas son de las cuevas de Tabon en Palawan , datados por U/Th en 47.000 ± 11–10.000 años atrás. [31] El hombre de Tabon es presumiblemente un Negrito , entre los primeros habitantes del archipiélago descendientes de las primeras migraciones humanas fuera de África a través de la ruta costera a lo largo del sur de Asia hasta las masas de tierra ahora hundidas de Sundaland y Sahul . [32]
Los primeros austronesios llegaron a Filipinas desde Taiwán alrededor del 2200 a. C., y se asentaron en las islas Batanes (donde construyeron fortalezas de piedra conocidas como ijangs ) [33] y el norte de Luzón . Los artefactos de jade se han datado en el año 2000 a. C., [34] [35] con artículos de jade lingling-o fabricados en Luzón con materias primas de Taiwán. [36] Para el año 1000 a. C., los habitantes del archipiélago se habían desarrollado en cuatro sociedades: tribus de cazadores-recolectores , sociedades guerreras, plutocracias de las tierras altas y principados portuarios. [37]
Primeros estados (900–1565)
Una pareja de la clase noble de las Filipinas precoloniales vestida de oro
El registro escrito conocido más antiguo que se conserva en Filipinas es la inscripción en placa de cobre de Laguna de principios del siglo X d. C. , que se escribió en malayo antiguo utilizando la escritura kawi temprana con varias palabras sánscritas técnicas y honoríficos javaneses antiguos o tagalos antiguos . [38] En el siglo XIV, varios grandes asentamientos costeros surgieron como centros comerciales y se convirtieron en el foco de cambios sociales . [39] Algunas entidades políticas tenían intercambios con otros estados de Asia. [40] : 3 [41] El comercio con China comenzó durante la última dinastía Tang , [42] [43] y se expandió durante la dinastía Song . [44] [45] [43] A lo largo del segundo milenio d. C., algunas entidades políticas también formaron parte del sistema tributario de China . [18] : 177–178 [40] : 3 Con un amplio comercio y diplomacia, esto trajo a comerciantes y migrantes del sur de China del sur de Fujian , conocidos como "Langlang" [46] y "Sangley" en años posteriores, [47] [48] que gradualmente se asentarían y se mezclarían en Filipinas. Los rasgos culturales indios, como los términos lingüísticos y las prácticas religiosas, comenzaron a difundirse en Filipinas durante el siglo XIV, a través del Imperio hindú indianizado Majapahit . [49] [50] En el siglo XV, el Islam se estableció en el archipiélago de Sulu y se extendió desde allí. [39]
Las políticas fundadas en Filipinas entre los siglos X y XVI incluyen Maynila , [51] Tondo , Namayan , Pangasinan , Cebú , Butuan , Maguindanao , Lanao , Sulu y Ma-i . [52] Las primeras políticas típicamente tenían una estructura social de tres niveles: nobleza, hombres libres y deudores-esclavos dependientes. [40] : 3 [53] : 672 Entre la nobleza había líderes conocidos como datus , quienes eran responsables de gobernar grupos autónomos ( barangays o dulohan). [54] Cuando los barangays se unían para formar un asentamiento más grande o una alianza geográficamente más flexible, [40] : 3 [55] sus miembros más estimados serían reconocidos como un " datu supremo ", [56] : 58 [37] rajá o sultán , [57] y gobernarían la comunidad. [58] Se cree que la densidad de población fue baja durante los siglos XIV al XVI [56] : 18 debido a la frecuencia de los tifones y la ubicación de Filipinas en el Cinturón de Fuego del Pacífico . [59] El explorador portugués Fernando de Magallanes llegó en 1521, reclamó las islas para España y fue asesinado por los hombres de Lapulapu en la Batalla de Mactan . [60] : 21 [61] : 261
El dominio colonial español y estadounidense (1565-1934)
La administración de Filipinas se consideraba una carga para la economía de Nueva España, [78] : 1077 y se debatió abandonarla o intercambiarla por otro territorio. Este curso de acción fue rechazado debido al potencial económico de las islas, la seguridad y el deseo de continuar la conversión religiosa en la región. [56] : 7–8 [82] La colonia sobrevivió con un subsidio anual de la corona española [78] : 1077 con un promedio de 250.000 pesos, [56] : 8 generalmente pagados como 75 toneladas de lingotes de plata de las Américas. [83] Las fuerzas británicas ocuparon Manila de 1762 a 1764 durante la Guerra de los Siete Años , y el gobierno español fue restaurado con el Tratado de París de 1763. [ 64] : 81–83 Los españoles consideraron su guerra con los musulmanes en el sudeste asiático una extensión de la Reconquista . [84] [85] El conflicto hispano-morro duró varios cientos de años; España conquistó partes de Mindanao y Jolo durante el último cuarto del siglo XIX, [86] y los moros musulmanes del Sultanato de Sulu reconocieron la soberanía española. [87] [88]
Los puertos filipinos se abrieron al comercio mundial durante el siglo XIX y la sociedad filipina comenzó a cambiar. [89] [90] La identidad social cambió, y el término filipino abarcó a todos los residentes del archipiélago en lugar de referirse únicamente a los españoles nacidos en Filipinas . [91] [92]
La Primera República Filipina se promulgó el 21 de enero de 1899. [102] La falta de reconocimiento por parte de los Estados Unidos condujo a un estallido de hostilidades que, después de que el comandante militar estadounidense en el lugar rechazara una propuesta de alto el fuego y una declaración de guerra por parte de la naciente República, [h] se intensificaron hasta convertirse en la Guerra Filipino-Estadounidense . [103] [104] [105] [106]
La guerra resultó en la muerte de 250.000 a 1 millón de civiles, principalmente debido al hambre y las enfermedades. [107] Muchos filipinos fueron transportados por los estadounidenses a campos de concentración , donde murieron miles. [108] [109] Después de la caída de la Primera República Filipina en 1902, se estableció un gobierno civil estadounidense con la Ley Orgánica de Filipinas . [110] Las fuerzas estadounidenses continuaron asegurando y extendiendo su control de las islas, reprimiendo un intento de extensión de la República Filipina , [98] : 200–202 [107] asegurando el Sultanato de Sulu , [111] [112] estableciendo el control de las áreas montañosas del interior que habían resistido la conquista española, [113] y alentando el reasentamiento a gran escala de cristianos en Mindanao, una vez predominantemente musulmán. [114] [115]
La Commonwealth y la Segunda Guerra Mundial (1935-1946)
Los avances culturales en Filipinas fortalecieron una identidad nacional, [116] [117] : 12 y el tagalo comenzó a tener precedencia sobre otros idiomas locales. [71] : 121 La Comisión Taft otorgó gradualmente funciones gubernamentales a los filipinos ; [78] : 1081 , 1117 la Ley Tydings-McDuffie de 1934 otorgó una transición de diez años hacia la independencia a través de la creación de la Mancomunidad de Filipinas al año siguiente, [118] con Manuel Quezón presidente y Sergio Osmeña vicepresidente. [119] Las prioridades de Quezón eran la defensa, la justicia social, la desigualdad, la diversificación económica y el carácter nacional. [78] : 1081 , 1117 El filipino (una variedad estandarizada del tagalo) se convirtió en el idioma nacional, [120] : 27–29 se introdujo el sufragio femenino , [121] [61] : 416 y se consideró la reforma agraria . [122] [123] [124]
El izamiento de la bandera de Filipinas durante la declaración de la independencia filipina el 4 de julio de 1946
Los esfuerzos de reconstrucción de posguerra y de poner fin a la Rebelión de Hukbalahap tuvieron éxito durante la presidencia de Ramon Magsaysay , [138] pero la insurgencia comunista esporádica continuó estallando mucho después. [139] Bajo el sucesor de Magsaysay, Carlos P. García , el gobierno inició una política de "Filipinos Primero" que promovía las empresas de propiedad filipina. [71] : 182 Después de García, Diosdado Macapagal trasladó el Día de la Independencia del 4 de julio al 12 de junio (la fecha de la declaración de Emilio Aguinaldo) [140] y reclamó el este de Borneo del Norte . [141] [142]
En las franjas occidentales del Cinturón de Fuego del Pacífico , Filipinas tiene una actividad sísmica y volcánica frecuente. [216] : 4 La región es sísmicamente activa y ha sido construida por placas que convergen entre sí desde múltiples direcciones. [217] [218] Se registran alrededor de cinco terremotos diariamente, aunque la mayoría son demasiado débiles para sentirse. [219] Los últimos terremotos importantes fueron en 1976 en el Golfo de Moro y en 1990 en Luzón . [220] Filipinas tiene 23 volcanes activos ; de ellos, Mayon , Taal , Canlaon y Bulusan tienen el mayor número de erupciones registradas. [221] [202] : 26
El país tiene valiosos [222] depósitos minerales como resultado de su compleja estructura geológica y alto nivel de actividad sísmica. [223] [224] Se cree que tiene los segundos depósitos de oro más grandes del mundo (después de Sudáfrica), grandes depósitos de cobre, [225] y los depósitos de paladio más grandes del mundo . [226] Otros minerales incluyen cromo , níquel , molibdeno , platino y zinc . [227] Sin embargo, la mala gestión y aplicación de la ley, la oposición de las comunidades indígenas y el daño ambiental pasado han dejado estos recursos en gran parte sin explotar. [225] [228]
Biodiversidad
El carabao es el animal nacional de Filipinas. Simboliza fuerza, poder, eficiencia, perseverancia y trabajo duro. [229]
Filipinas es un país megadiverso , [230] [231] con algunas de las tasas más altas del mundo de descubrimiento y endemismo (67 por ciento). [232] [233] Con un estimado de 13.500 especies de plantas en el país (3.500 de las cuales son endémicas), [234] las selvas tropicales filipinas tienen una gran variedad de flora: [235] [236] se han identificado alrededor de 3.500 especies de árboles, [237] 8.000 especies de plantas con flores , 1.100 helechos y 998 especies de orquídeas [238] . [239] Filipinas tiene 167 mamíferos terrestres (102 especies endémicas), 235 reptiles (160 especies endémicas), 99 anfibios (74 especies endémicas), 686 aves (224 especies endémicas), [240] y más de 20.000 especies de insectos . [239]
Como parte importante de la ecorregión del Triángulo de Coral , [241] [242] las aguas filipinas tienen una vida marina única y diversa [243] y la mayor diversidad de especies de peces costeros del mundo. [244] El país tiene más de 3200 especies de peces (121 endémicas). [245] Las aguas filipinas sustentan el cultivo de peces, crustáceos, ostras y algas marinas. [246] [247]
Ocho tipos principales de bosques se distribuyen en Filipinas: dipterocarpáceas , bosque de playa , [248] bosque de pinos , bosque molave , bosque montano inferior , bosque montano superior (o bosque musgoso ), manglares y bosque ultrabásico . [249] Según estimaciones oficiales, Filipinas tenía 7.000.000 de hectáreas (27.000 millas cuadradas) de cubierta forestal en 2023. [250] La tala se había sistematizado durante el período colonial estadounidense [251] y la deforestación continuó después de la independencia, acelerándose durante la presidencia de Marcos debido a las concesiones de tala no reguladas. [252] [253] La cubierta forestal disminuyó del 70 por ciento de la superficie total de Filipinas en 1900 a aproximadamente el 18,3 por ciento en 1999. [254] Los esfuerzos de rehabilitación han tenido un éxito marginal. [255]
Las tormentas eléctricas vespertinas que traen lluvias son comunes en Filipinas entre junio y noviembre.
Filipinas tiene un clima marítimo tropical que suele ser cálido y húmedo. Hay tres estaciones: una estación seca y cálida de marzo a mayo, una estación lluviosa de junio a noviembre y una estación seca y fresca de diciembre a febrero. [262] El monzón del suroeste (conocido como habagat ) dura de mayo a octubre, y el monzón del noreste ( amihan ) dura de noviembre a abril. [263] : 24–25 El mes más frío es enero y el más cálido es mayo. Las temperaturas al nivel del mar en Filipinas tienden a estar en el mismo rango, independientemente de la latitud; la temperatura media anual es de alrededor de 26,6 °C (79,9 °F) pero es de 18,3 °C (64,9 °F) en Baguio , a 1.500 metros (4.900 pies) sobre el nivel del mar. [264] La humedad media del país es del 82 por ciento. [263] : 24–25 Las precipitaciones anuales alcanzan los 5000 milímetros (200 pulgadas) en la montañosa costa este, pero son menos de 1000 milímetros (39 pulgadas) en algunos valles protegidos. [262]
El área de responsabilidad de Filipinas tiene 19 tifones en un año típico, [265] generalmente de julio a octubre; [262] ocho o nueve de ellos tocan tierra . [266] [267] El tifón más húmedo registrado que azotó Filipinas dejó 2.210 milímetros (87 pulgadas) en Baguio del 14 al 18 de julio de 1911. [268] El país está entre los diez más vulnerables del mundo al cambio climático . [269] [270]
Desde 1975, Filipinas ha valorado sus relaciones con China [321] —su principal socio comercial, [322] y coopera significativamente con el país. [323] [316] Japón es el mayor contribuyente bilateral de asistencia oficial al desarrollo a Filipinas; [324] [325] aunque existe cierta tensión debido a la Segunda Guerra Mundial , mucha animosidad se ha desvanecido. [81] : 93 Los lazos históricos y culturales siguen afectando las relaciones con España . [326] [327] Las relaciones con los países de Oriente Medio están determinadas por el elevado número de filipinos que trabajan en esos países, [328] y por cuestiones relacionadas con la minoría musulmana en Filipinas; [329] se han planteado preocupaciones sobre el abuso doméstico y la guerra que afectan a los aproximadamente 2,5 millones de trabajadores filipinos en el extranjero en la región. [330] [331]
En 2021, se gastaron $4,090,500,000 (1.04 por ciento del PIB) en el ejército filipino. [342] [343] La mayor parte del gasto de defensa del país se destina al Ejército filipino, que lidera operaciones contra amenazas internas como las insurgencias separatistas comunistas y musulmanas ; su preocupación por la seguridad interna contribuyó al declive de la capacidad naval filipina que comenzó durante la década de 1970. [344] Un programa de modernización militar comenzó en 1995 [345] y se amplió en 2012 para construir un sistema de defensa más capaz. [346]
La economía filipina es la 34.ª más grande del mundo , con un producto interno bruto[update] nominal estimado en 2023 de 435 700 millones de dólares estadounidenses. [14] Como país recientemente industrializado , [368] [369] la economía filipina ha estado en transición de una base agrícola a una con más énfasis en los servicios y la manufactura. [368] [370] La fuerza laboral del país era de alrededor de 50 millones en 2023 , y su tasa de desempleo era del 3,1 por ciento. [371] Las reservas internacionales brutas totalizaban 103 406 millones de dólares estadounidenses en enero de 2024. [ 372] La relación deuda/PIB disminuyó al 60,2 por ciento a fines de 2023 desde un máximo de 17 años del 63,7 por ciento al final del tercer trimestre de ese año, e indicó resiliencia durante la pandemia de COVID-19 . [373] La unidad monetaria del país es el peso filipino (₱ [374] o PHP [375] ). [376][update][update]
Filipinas es un importador neto, [302] : 55–56, 61–65, 77, 83, 111 [377] y una nación deudora . [378] En 2020 [update], los principales mercados de exportación del país fueron China, Estados Unidos, Japón, Hong Kong y Singapur; [379] las exportaciones primarias incluyeron circuitos integrados , maquinaria y repuestos de oficina, transformadores eléctricos, cableado aislado y semiconductores . [379] Sus principales mercados de importación ese año fueron China, Japón, Corea del Sur, Estados Unidos e Indonesia. [379] Los principales cultivos de exportación incluyen cocos , plátanos y piñas ; Es el mayor productor mundial de abacá , [202] : 226–242 y fue el segundo mayor exportador mundial de mineral de níquel en 2022, [380] así como el mayor exportador de metales revestidos de oro y el mayor importador de copra en 2020. [379]
Con una tasa de crecimiento anual promedio de seis a siete por ciento desde aproximadamente 2010, Filipinas ha surgido como una de las economías de más rápido crecimiento del mundo, [382] impulsada principalmente por su creciente dependencia del sector de servicios. [383] Sin embargo, el desarrollo regional es desigual, y Manila (en particular) obtiene la mayor parte del nuevo crecimiento económico. [384] [385] Las remesas de los filipinos en el extranjero contribuyen significativamente a la economía del país; [386] [383] alcanzaron un récord de US$37,20 mil millones en 2023, lo que representa el 8,5 por ciento del PIB. [387] Filipinas es el principal centro de subcontratación de procesos comerciales (BPO) del mundo. [388] [389] Aproximadamente 1,3 millones de filipinos trabajan en el sector de BPO, principalmente en servicio al cliente . [390]
Filipinas tiene uno de los sistemas de investigación agrícola más grandes de Asia, a pesar de un gasto relativamente bajo en investigación y desarrollo agrícola. [391] [392] El país ha desarrollado nuevas variedades de cultivos, incluidos el arroz , [393] [394] los cocos, [395] y los plátanos. [396] Las organizaciones de investigación incluyen el Instituto Filipino de Investigación del Arroz [397] y el Instituto Internacional de Investigación del Arroz . [398]
Filipinas es un destino de retiro popular para extranjeros debido a su clima y bajo costo de vida. [408] Las principales atracciones turísticas del país son sus numerosas playas ; [60] : 109 [409] Filipinas también es un destino destacado para los entusiastas del buceo. [410] [411] Los lugares turísticos incluyen Boracay , llamada la mejor isla del mundo por Travel + Leisure en 2012; [412] Coron y El Nido en Palawan; Cebú ; Siargao y Bohol . [413]
El turismo contribuyó con un 5,2 por ciento al PIB filipino en 2021 (menos que el 12,7 por ciento en 2019, antes de la pandemia de COVID-19), [414] y proporcionó 5,7 millones de puestos de trabajo en 2019. [415] Filipinas atrajo a 5,45 millones de visitantes internacionales en 2023, un 30 por ciento menos que el récord de 8,26 millones en 2019 antes de la pandemia; la mayoría de los turistas procedían de Corea del Sur (26,4 por ciento), Estados Unidos (16,5 por ciento), Japón (5,6 por ciento), Australia (4,89 por ciento) y China (4,84 por ciento). [416]
El transporte en Filipinas se realiza por carretera, aire, ferrocarril y agua. Las carreteras son la forma de transporte dominante, transportando al 98 por ciento de las personas y al 58 por ciento de la carga. [418] En diciembre de 2018, había 210.528 kilómetros (130.816 millas) de carreteras en el país. [419] La columna vertebral del transporte terrestre en el país es la Carretera Pan-Filipina , que conecta las islas de Luzón, Samar, Leyte y Mindanao. [420] El transporte entre islas se realiza mediante la Carretera Náutica Strong Republic de 919 kilómetros (571 millas) , un conjunto integrado de carreteras y rutas de ferry que unen 17 ciudades. [421] [422] Los jeepneys son un vehículo de servicio público popular e icónico; [202] : 496–497 Otros transportes terrestres públicos incluyen autobuses , UV Express , TNVS , Filcab, taxis y triciclos . [423] [424] El tráfico es un problema importante en Manila y en las carreteras arteriales hacia la capital. [425] [426]
En Filipinas se utilizan una gran variedad de embarcaciones; [438] la mayoría son embarcaciones de doble estabilizador conocidas como banca [439] o bangka . [440] Los barcos modernos utilizan madera contrachapada en lugar de troncos y motores en lugar de velas; [439] se utilizan para pescar y viajar entre islas. [440] Filipinas tiene más de 1.800 puertos marítimos ; [441] de estos, los principales puertos marítimos de Manila (el puerto principal y más activo del país), [442] Batangas , Subic Bay , Cebú , Iloilo , Davao , Cagayán de Oro , General Santos y Zamboanga son parte de la Red de Transporte de la ASEAN. [443] [444]
Filipinas tenía una capacidad energética instalada total de 26.882 MW en 2021; el 43 por ciento se generó a partir de carbón , el 14 por ciento de petróleo , el 14 por ciento de energía hidroeléctrica , el 12 por ciento de gas natural y el siete por ciento de fuentes geotérmicas . [445] Es el tercer mayor productor de energía geotérmica del mundo , detrás de Estados Unidos e Indonesia. [446] La presa más grande del país es la presa San Roque de 1,2 kilómetros de largo (0,75 millas) en el río Agno en Pangasinan . [447] El campo de gas de Malampaya , descubierto a principios de la década de 1990 frente a la costa de Palawan, redujo la dependencia de Filipinas del petróleo importado; proporciona alrededor del 40 por ciento de las necesidades energéticas de Luzón y el 30 por ciento de las necesidades energéticas del país. [202] : 347 [448]
El suministro de agua y el saneamiento fuera de Metro Manila lo proporciona el gobierno a través de distritos hídricos locales en ciudades o pueblos. [456] [457] [458] Metro Manila cuenta con el servicio de Manila Water y Maynilad Water Services . A excepción de los pozos poco profundos para uso doméstico, los usuarios de aguas subterráneas deben obtener un permiso de la Junta Nacional de Recursos Hídricos . [457] En 2022, las extracciones totales de agua aumentaron a 91 mil millones de metros cúbicos (3,2 × 10 12 pies cúbicos) desde 89 mil millones de metros cúbicos (3,1 × 10 12 pies cúbicos) en 2021 y los gastos totales en agua ascendieron a ₱144.81 mil millones. [459]^^
La mayor parte de las aguas residuales en Filipinas fluyen hacia fosas sépticas. [457] En 2015, el Programa Conjunto de Monitoreo del Abastecimiento de Agua y el Saneamiento señaló que el 74 por ciento de la población filipina tenía acceso a un saneamiento mejorado y que se habían logrado "buenos avances" entre 1990 y 2015. [460] El noventa y seis por ciento de los hogares filipinos tenían una fuente mejorada de agua potable y el 92 por ciento de los hogares tenían instalaciones sanitarias en 2016 [update]; sin embargo, las conexiones de las instalaciones sanitarias a los sistemas de alcantarillado adecuados siguen siendo en gran medida insuficientes, especialmente en las comunidades rurales y urbanas pobres. [461] : 46
Demografía
Al 1 de mayo de 2020, Filipinas tenía una población de 109.035.343 habitantes. [13] Más del 60 por ciento de la población del país vive en la zona costera [462] y en 2020, el 54 por ciento vivía en áreas urbanas . [463] Manila , su capital, y Ciudad Quezón (la ciudad más poblada del país) se encuentran en Metro Manila . Aproximadamente 13,48 millones de personas (el 12 por ciento de la población de Filipinas) viven en Metro Manila, [463] el área metropolitana más poblada del país [464] y la quinta más poblada del mundo . [465] Entre 1948 y 2010, la población de Filipinas aumentó casi cinco veces, pasando de 19 millones a 92 millones. [466]
La edad media del país es de 25,3 años y el 63,9 por ciento de su población tiene entre 15 y 64 años. [467] La tasa media de crecimiento anual de la población de Filipinas está disminuyendo, [468] aunque los intentos del gobierno de reducir aún más el crecimiento de la población han sido polémicos . [469] El país redujo su tasa de pobreza del 49,2 por ciento en 1985 [470] al 18,1 por ciento en 2021, [471] y su desigualdad de ingresos empezó a disminuir en 2012. [470]
Etnicidad
Grupos étnicos dominantes por provincia
El país tiene una diversidad étnica sustancial, debido a la influencia extranjera y la división del archipiélago por el agua y la topografía. [272] Según el censo de 2020, los grupos étnicos más grandes de Filipinas eran los tagalos (26,0 por ciento), los visayos [excluidos los cebuanos , hiligaynon y waray ] (14,3 por ciento), los ilocanos y cebuanos (ambos ocho por ciento), los hiligaynon (7,9 por ciento), los bikol (6,5 por ciento) y los waray (3,8 por ciento). [6] Los pueblos indígenas del país estaban formados por 110 grupos entnolingüísticos, [472] con una población combinada de 15,56 millones, en 2020; [6] incluyen a los igorot , los lumad , los mangyan y los pueblos indígenas de Palawan . [473]
El filipino y el inglés son los idiomas oficiales del país. [5] El filipino, una versión estandarizada del tagalo , se habla principalmente en Metro Manila. [503] El filipino y el inglés se utilizan en el gobierno, la educación, la prensa escrita, los medios de difusión y los negocios, a menudo con un tercer idioma local; [504] el cambio de código entre el inglés y otros idiomas locales, en particular el tagalo , es común. [505] La constitución filipina prevé el español y el árabe de forma voluntaria y opcional. [5] El español, una lengua franca muy utilizada a finales del siglo XIX, ha disminuido mucho en uso , [506] [507] aunque los préstamos españoles todavía están presentes en los idiomas filipinos. [508] [509] [510] El árabe se enseña principalmente en las escuelas islámicas de Mindanao . [511]
Los idiomas principales que se hablan generalmente en casa en 2020 [update]son tagalo, binisaya , hiligaynon , ilocano , cebuano y bikol . [512] Diecinueve lenguas regionales son lenguas oficiales auxiliares como medio de instrucción: [4]
El Islam es la segunda religión más grande del país, con un 6,4 por ciento de la población en el censo de 2020. [522] La mayoría de los musulmanes viven en Mindanao y las islas cercanas, [519] y la mayoría se adhiere a la escuela Shafi'i del Islam sunita . [527]
Alrededor del 0,2 por ciento de la población sigue religiones indígenas , [522] cuyas prácticas y creencias populares a menudo se sincretizan con el cristianismo y el islam. [216] : 29–30 [528] El budismo es practicado por aproximadamente el 0,04% de la población, [522] principalmente por filipinos de ascendencia china. [529]
Salud
Esperanza de vida en Filipinas, 1938-2021
La atención sanitaria en Filipinas es proporcionada por los gobiernos nacional y local, aunque los pagos privados representan la mayor parte del gasto sanitario. [461] : 25–27 [530] El gasto sanitario per cápita en 2022 fue de ₱ 10.059,49 y los gastos sanitarios fueron el 5,5 por ciento del PIB del país. [531] La asignación presupuestaria de 2023 para la atención sanitaria fue de ₱ 334,9 mil millones. [532] La promulgación en 2019 de la Ley de Atención Sanitaria Universal por parte del presidente Duterte facilitó la inscripción automática de todos los filipinos en el programa nacional de seguro médico . [533] [534] Desde 2018, se han establecido Centros Malasakit (ventanillas únicas) en varios hospitales operados por el gobierno para proporcionar asistencia médica y financiera a pacientes indigentes. [535]
La esperanza de vida media en Filipinas en 2023 [update]es de 70,48 años (66,97 años para los hombres y 74,15 años para las mujeres). [10] El acceso a los medicamentos ha mejorado debido a la creciente aceptación de los medicamentos genéricos por parte de los filipinos . [461] : 58 Las principales causas de muerte del país en 2021 fueron las cardiopatías isquémicas , las enfermedades cerebrovasculares , la COVID-19 , las neoplasias y la diabetes . [536] Las enfermedades transmisibles están correlacionadas con los desastres naturales, principalmente las inundaciones. [537] Un millón de filipinos tienen tuberculosis activa , la cuarta tasa de prevalencia mundial más alta. [538]
Filipinas tiene 1.387 hospitales , de los cuales el 33 por ciento son administrados por el gobierno; 23.281 puestos de salud barangay, 2.592 unidades de salud rurales, 2.411 casas de maternidad y 659 enfermerías brindan atención primaria en todo el país. [539] Desde 1967, Filipinas se ha convertido en el mayor proveedor mundial de enfermeras; [540] el setenta por ciento de los graduados en enfermería van al extranjero a trabajar, lo que causa problemas para retener a los profesionales capacitados. [541]
Educación
Fundada en 1611, la Universidad de Santo Tomás es la universidad más antigua que aún se conserva en Asia. [542]
La educación primaria y secundaria en Filipinas consta de seis años de período elemental, cuatro años de escuela secundaria básica y dos años de escuela secundaria superior. [543] La educación pública, proporcionada por el gobierno, es gratuita en los niveles elemental y secundario y en la mayoría de las instituciones públicas de educación superior . [544] [545] Las escuelas secundarias de ciencias para estudiantes talentosos se establecieron en 1963. [546] El gobierno proporciona capacitación y desarrollo técnico-vocacional a través de la Autoridad de Educación Técnica y Desarrollo de Habilidades . [547] En 2004, el gobierno comenzó a ofrecer educación alternativa a niños, jóvenes y adultos fuera de la escuela para mejorar la alfabetización; [548] [549] Las madaris se incorporaron en 16 regiones ese año, principalmente en las áreas musulmanas de Mindanao bajo el Departamento de Educación . [550] Las escuelas católicas , que suman más de 1.500, [551] y las instituciones de educación superior son una parte integral del sistema educativo. [552]
Filipinas tiene una diversidad cultural significativa, reforzada por la geografía fragmentada del país. [40] : 61 [563] Las culturas española y estadounidense influyeron profundamente en la cultura filipina como resultado de una larga colonización. [564] [272] Las culturas de Mindanao y el archipiélago de Sulu se desarrollaron de manera distinta, ya que tuvieron una influencia española limitada y más influencia de las regiones islámicas cercanas. [53] : 503 Los grupos indígenas como los igorrotes han conservado sus costumbres y tradiciones precoloniales resistiendo a los españoles . [565] [566] Sin embargo, durante el siglo XIX surgió una identidad nacional con símbolos nacionales compartidos y piedras de toque culturales e históricas . [563]
Los legados hispánicos incluyen el predominio del catolicismo [61] : 5 [564] y la prevalencia de nombres y apellidos españoles , que resultó de un edicto de 1849 que ordenaba la distribución sistemática de los nombres de familia y la implementación de las costumbres de nombres españoles ; [202] : 75 [60] : 237 los nombres de muchos lugares también tienen orígenes españoles. [567] La influencia estadounidense en la cultura filipina moderna [272] es evidente en el uso del inglés [568] : 12 y el consumo filipino de comida rápida y películas y música estadounidenses. [564]
Los días festivos en Filipinas se clasifican como regulares o especiales. [569] Los festivales son principalmente religiosos, y la mayoría de las ciudades y pueblos tienen un festival de este tipo (generalmente para honrar a un santo patrón ). [570] [571] Los festivales más conocidos incluyen Ati-Atihan , [572] Dinagyang , [573] Moriones , [574] Sinulog , [575] y Flores de Mayo , una devoción de un mes a la Virgen María que se celebra en mayo. [576] La temporada navideña del país comienza tan temprano como el 1 de septiembre, [577] : 149 y la Semana Santa es una observancia religiosa solemne para su población cristiana. [578] [577] : 149
Los valores filipinos se basan principalmente en alianzas personales basadas en el parentesco , la obligación, la amistad, la religión (en particular el cristianismo) y el comercio. [81] : 41 Se centran en la armonía social a través del pakikisama , [579] : 74 motivados principalmente por el deseo de aceptación por parte de un grupo. [580] [581] [568] : 47 La reciprocidad a través de utang na loob (una deuda de gratitud) es un rasgo cultural filipino significativo, y una deuda internalizada nunca puede ser pagada por completo. [579] : 76 [582] La principal sanción por divergir de estos valores son los conceptos de hiya (vergüenza) [583] y pérdida de amor propio ( autoestima ). [581]
La familia es fundamental en la sociedad filipina; normas como la lealtad, el mantenimiento de relaciones estrechas y el cuidado de los padres ancianos están arraigadas en la sociedad filipina. [584] [585] Se valora el respeto por la autoridad y los ancianos, y se demuestra con gestos como mano y los honoríficos po y opo y kuya (hermano mayor) o ate (hermana mayor). [586] [587] Otros valores filipinos son el optimismo sobre el futuro, el pesimismo sobre el presente, la preocupación por otras personas, la amistad y la amabilidad, la hospitalidad , la religiosidad, el respeto por uno mismo y por los demás (en particular las mujeres ) y la integridad. [588]
El arte filipino combina el arte popular indígena con influencias extranjeras, principalmente de España y Estados Unidos. [589] [590] Durante el período colonial español, el arte se utilizó para difundir el catolicismo y apoyar el concepto de grupos racialmente superiores. [590] Las pinturas clásicas eran principalmente religiosas; [591] Entre los artistas destacados durante el gobierno colonial español se encuentran Juan Luna y Félix Resurrección Hidalgo , cuyas obras llamaron la atención sobre Filipinas. [592] El modernismo fue introducido en Filipinas durante las décadas de 1920 y 1930 por Victorio Edades y las escenas pastorales populares por Fernando Amorsolo . [593]
La iglesia barroca Paoay de principios del siglo XVIII en Ilocos Norte , un tesoro cultural nacional y Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la UNESCO como una de las cuatro iglesias barrocas de Filipinas [594]
La arquitectura tradicional filipina tiene dos modelos principales: el bahay kubo indígena y el bahay na bato , que se desarrolló bajo el dominio español. [202] : 438–444 Algunas regiones, como Batanes , difieren ligeramente debido al clima; se utilizó piedra caliza como material de construcción y las casas se construían para resistir tifones. [595] [596]
El dominio estadounidense introdujo nuevos estilos arquitectónicos en la construcción de edificios gubernamentales y teatros Art Decó . [602] Durante el período estadounidense, comenzó la construcción de edificios escolares de Gabaldon , [603] y se realizó cierta planificación urbana utilizando diseños arquitectónicos y planes maestros de Daniel Burnham en partes de Manila y Baguio . [604] [605] Parte del plan de Burnham fue la construcción de edificios gubernamentales que recordaban a la arquitectura griega o neoclásica . [602] [599] Se pueden ver edificios de los períodos español y estadounidense en Iloilo , especialmente en la Calle Real . [606]
Música y danza
Tinikling , una danza que representa los rápidos movimientos de las patas de un pájaro que hace cosquillas para eludir las trampas de un granjero [607]
Hay dos tipos de danza folclórica filipina , derivada de influencias indígenas tradicionales y de la influencia española. [216] : 173 Aunque las danzas nativas se habían vuelto menos populares, [608] : 77 la danza folclórica comenzó a revivir durante la década de 1920. [608] : 82 La Cariñosa , una danza filipina hispana, se considera extraoficialmente la danza nacional del país. [609] Las danzas indígenas populares incluyen el Tinikling y el Singkil , que incluyen el aplauso rítmico de cañas de bambú. [610] [611] Las danzas actuales varían desde el delicado ballet [612] hasta el breakdance orientado a la calle . [613] [614]
El teatro dramático producido localmente se estableció a fines de la década de 1870. La influencia española en esa época introdujo las obras de zarzuela (con música) [623] y las comedias , con danza. Las obras se hicieron populares en todo el país, [608] : 69–70 y fueron escritas en varios idiomas locales. [623] La influencia estadounidense introdujo el vodevil y el ballet. [608] : 69–70 El teatro realista se volvió dominante durante el siglo XX, con obras centradas en cuestiones políticas y sociales contemporáneas. [623]
La literatura filipina consiste en obras escritas generalmente en filipino, español o inglés . Algunas de las primeras obras conocidas fueron creadas entre los siglos XVII y XIX. [624] Incluyen Ibong Adarna , una epopeya sobre un pájaro mágico homónimo, [625] y Florante at Laura del autor tagalo Francisco Balagtas . [626] [627] José Rizal escribió las novelas Noli Me Tángere ( Cáncer social ) y El filibusterismo ( El reinado de la avaricia ), [628] ambas describen las injusticias del dominio colonial español. [629]
La literatura popular no se vio relativamente afectada por la influencia colonial hasta el siglo XIX debido a la indiferencia española. La mayoría de las obras literarias impresas durante el gobierno colonial español eran de naturaleza religiosa, aunque las élites filipinas que luego aprendieron español escribieron literatura nacionalista. [216] : 59–62 La llegada de los estadounidenses inició el uso literario filipino del inglés [216] : 65–66 e influyó en el desarrollo de la industria del cómic filipino que floreció desde la década de 1920 hasta la de 1970. [630] [631] A fines de la década de 1960, durante la presidencia de Ferdinand Marcos, la literatura filipina se vio influenciada por el activismo político ; muchos poetas comenzaron a usar el tagalo, de acuerdo con las tradiciones orales del país. [216] : 69–71
La producción cinematográfica local comenzó en 1919 con el estreno del primer largometraje producido en Filipinas : Dalagang Bukid ( Una chica del campo ), dirigida por José Nepomuceno . [116] [117] : 8 Las compañías de producción siguieron siendo pequeñas durante la era del cine mudo , pero las películas sonoras y las producciones más grandes surgieron en 1933. La década de 1940 de la posguerra hasta principios de la de 1960 se considera un punto culminante para el cine filipino. La década de 1962-1971 vio un declive en las películas de calidad, aunque la industria cinematográfica comercial se expandió hasta la década de 1980. [116] Entre las películas filipinas aclamadas por la crítica se encuentran Himala ( Milagro ) y Oro, Plata, Mata ( Oro, Plata, Muerte ), ambas estrenadas en 1982. [647] [648] Desde principios del siglo XXI, la industria cinematográfica del país ha luchado para competir con películas extranjeras de mayor presupuesto [649] (en particular, películas de Hollywood ). [650] [651] Sin embargo, las películas de arte han prosperado y varias películas independientes han tenido éxito a nivel nacional e internacional. [652] [653] [654]
Filipinas tiene una gran cantidad de estaciones de radio y periódicos . [643] Los periódicos en inglés son populares entre ejecutivos, profesionales y estudiantes. [120] : 233–251 Los tabloides tagalos menos costosos , que crecieron durante la década de 1990, son populares (particularmente en Manila); [655] sin embargo, el número general de lectores de periódicos está disminuyendo a favor de las noticias en línea . [641] [656] Los tres periódicos más importantes, por lectores y credibilidad a nivel nacional, [120] : 233 son Philippine Daily Inquirer , Manila Bulletin y The Philippine Star . [657] [658] Aunque la libertad de prensa está protegida por la constitución, [659] el país fue catalogado como el séptimo país más peligroso para los periodistas en 2022 por el Comité para la Protección de los Periodistas debido a 13 asesinatos sin resolver de periodistas. [660]
The Philippine population are the world's top Internet users.[661] In early 2021, 67 percent of Filipinos (73.91 million) had Internet access; the overwhelming majority used smartphones.[662] The Philippines ranked 56th on the Global Innovation Index in 2023,[663] up from its 2014 ranking of 100th.[664]
From its Malayo-Polynesian origins, traditional Philippine cuisine has evolved since the 16th century. It was primarily influenced by Hispanic, Chinese, and American cuisines, which were adapted to the Filipino palate.[665][666] Filipinos tend to prefer robust flavors,[667] centered on sweet, salty, and sour combinations.[668]: 88 Regional variations exist throughout the country; rice is the general staple starch[669] but cassava is more common in parts of Mindanao.[670][671]Adobo is the unofficial national dish.[672] Other popular dishes include lechón, kare-kare, sinigang,[673]pancit, lumpia, and arroz caldo.[674][675][676]Traditional desserts are kakanin (rice cakes), which include puto, suman, and bibingka.[677][678] Ingredients such as calamansi,[679]ube,[680] and pili are used in Filipino desserts.[681][682] The generous use of condiments such as patis, bagoong, and toyo impart a distinctive Philippine flavor.[674][668]: 73
Unlike other East or Southeast Asian countries, most Filipinos do not eat with chopsticks; they use spoons and forks.[683] Traditional eating with the fingers[684] (known as kamayan) had been used in less urbanized areas,[685]: 266–268, 277 but has been popularized with the introduction of Filipino food to foreigners and city residents.[686][687]
Basketball, played at the amateur and professional levels, is considered the country's most popular sport.[688][689] Other popular sports include boxing and billiards, boosted by the achievements of Manny Pacquiao and Efren Reyes.[577]: 142[690] The national martial art is Arnis.[691]Sabong (cockfighting) is popular entertainment, especially among Filipino men, and was documented by the Magellan expedition.[692]Video gaming and esports are emerging pastimes,[693][694] with the popularity of indigenous games such as patintero, tumbang preso, luksong tinik, and piko declining among young people;[695][694] several bills have been filed to preserve and promote traditional games.[696]
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