El Estado Islámico ( EI ), [b] también conocido como el Estado Islámico de Irak y el Levante ( EIIL ), el Estado Islámico de Irak y Siria ( EIIL ) y por su acrónimo árabe Daesh , [c] es un grupo yihadista salafista transnacional . Sus orígenes se encuentran en la organización Jaish al-Ta'ifa al-Mansurah fundada por Abu Omar al-Baghdadi en 2004. La organización se afilió a Al-Qaeda , por lo que EI era originalmente una rama de Al-Qaeda y luchó junto a ellos durante la insurgencia iraquí . EI finalmente se dividió y ganó prominencia global en 2014, cuando sus militantes capturaron con éxito grandes territorios en el noroeste de Irak y el este de Siria, aprovechando la guerra civil siria en curso . El EI, conocido por sus crímenes de guerra y sus numerosas violaciones de los derechos humanos, ha perseguido a cristianos , mandeos , musulmanes chiítas y sunitas sufíes y ha publicado vídeos de decapitaciones y ejecuciones de periodistas y trabajadores humanitarios. A finales de 2015, gobernaba una zona con una población estimada de 12 millones de personas [103] [104] [149], donde aplicaba su interpretación extremista de la ley islámica , gestionaba un presupuesto anual que superaba los 1.000 millones de dólares y comandaba a más de 30.000 combatientes [150] .
Después de un conflicto prolongado e intenso con las fuerzas estadounidenses, iraquíes y kurdas, el EI perdió el control de todos sus territorios en Oriente Medio en 2019, y posteriormente volvió a las tácticas de insurgencia y a operar desde escondites remotos mientras continuaba con sus esfuerzos de propaganda . Estos esfuerzos le han granjeado un número significativo de seguidores en el norte de África y en el Sahel . [151] [152]
Entre 2004 y 2013, el EI se alió con Al Qaeda (principalmente bajo el nombre de « Estado Islámico de Irak y el Levante ») y participó en la insurgencia iraquí contra la ocupación estadounidense . El grupo luego cambió su nombre a «Estado Islámico de Irak y el Levante» durante aproximadamente un año, [153] [154] antes de declararse un califato mundial , [155] [156] llamado simplemente Estado Islámico ( الدولة الإسلامية , ad-Dawlah al-Islāmiyah ). [157] Como califato autoproclamado, exigió la obediencia religiosa, política y militar de los musulmanes en todo el mundo , [158] a pesar del rechazo de su legitimidad por parte de los musulmanes mayoritarios y su condición de Estado por parte de las Naciones Unidas y la mayoría de los gobiernos. [159] En los años siguientes, las Fuerzas Armadas iraquíes y las Fuerzas Democráticas Sirias hicieron retroceder al EI y degradaron su infraestructura financiera y militar, [160] con la ayuda de asesores, armas, entrenamiento, suministros y ataques aéreos de la coalición liderada por Estados Unidos , [161] y más tarde con ataques aéreos rusos, bombardeos, ataques con misiles de crucero y tácticas de tierra arrasada en Siria, que se centraron principalmente en arrasar los bastiones de la oposición siria en lugar de las bases del EI. [162] En marzo de 2019, el EI perdió el último de sus territorios en Asia occidental , aunque mantuvo una presencia territorial significativa en África a partir de 2023. [163]
El Estado Islámico (EI) [164] es también conocido como el Estado Islámico de Irak y el Levante (EIIL / ˈaɪsɪl / ) , el Estado Islámico de Irak y Siria (EIIL / ˈaɪsɪs / ) , [ 165] [ 166] y por su acrónimo árabe Da'ish [167] [168] o Daesh ( داعش , Dāʿish , IPA : [ˈdaːʕɪʃ] ), [169] y también como Dawlat al-Islam (árabe: دولة الإسلام). [170]
En abril de 2013, tras expandirse a Siria, el grupo adoptó el nombre de ad-Dawlah al-Islāmiyah fī 'l-ʿIrāq wa-sh-Shām ( الدولة الإسلامية في العراق والشام ). Como al-Shām es una región que a menudo se compara con el Levante o la región de Siria , el nombre del grupo se ha traducido de diversas formas como "Estado Islámico de Irak y el Levante ", [171] "Estado Islámico de Irak y el Levante" [172] (ambos abreviados como ISIS), o "Estado Islámico de Irak y el Levante" (abreviado como ISIL). [166]
Aunque el uso de uno u otro acrónimo ha sido objeto de debate, [166] la distinción entre ambos y su relevancia se ha considerado menos importante. [166] De mayor relevancia es el nombre Daesh, que es un acrónimo del nombre árabe de EIIL ad-Dawlah al-Islamīyah fī l-ʻIrāq wa-sh-Shām. Dāʿish ( داعش ), o Daesh. Este nombre ha sido ampliamente utilizado por los detractores de habla árabe de EIIL, [171] [173] por ejemplo al referirse al grupo mientras hablan entre ellos, aunque -y hasta cierto punto debido a eso- se considera despectivo, ya que se asemeja a las palabras árabes Daes ("el que aplasta o pisotea algo") y Dāhis (traducida libremente: "el que siembra discordia"). [169] [174] Dentro de las zonas bajo su control, el EIIL considera que el uso del nombre Daesh se castiga con azotes . [175]
A finales de junio de 2014, el grupo cambió su nombre a ad-Dawlah al-Islāmiyah ( lit. ' Estado Islámico ' o EI ), declarándose un califato mundial . [156] El nombre "Estado Islámico" y la afirmación del grupo de ser un califato han sido ampliamente rechazados, y la ONU, varios gobiernos y los principales grupos musulmanes se han negado a utilizar el nuevo nombre. [176] La declaración del grupo de un nuevo califato en junio de 2014 y su adopción del nombre "Estado Islámico" han sido criticadas y ridiculizadas por académicos musulmanes e islamistas rivales tanto dentro como fuera del territorio que controla. [177]
En un discurso pronunciado en septiembre de 2014, el presidente de los Estados Unidos, Barack Obama, dijo que el EI no era ni "islámico" (sobre la base de que ninguna religión aprueba el asesinato de inocentes) ni era un "estado" (en el sentido de que ningún gobierno reconoce al grupo como estado), [178] mientras que muchos se oponen a utilizar el nombre "Estado Islámico" debido a las amplias pretensiones religiosas y políticas de autoridad que ese nombre implica. El Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas , [179] los Estados Unidos, [178] Canadá, [180] Turquía, [181] Australia, [182] el Reino Unido [183] y otros países generalmente llaman al grupo "EI", mientras que gran parte del mundo árabe utiliza el acrónimo árabe "Dāʻish" (o "Daesh"). El ministro de Asuntos Exteriores de Francia, Laurent Fabius, dijo: "Este es un grupo terrorista y no un estado. No recomiendo utilizar el término Estado Islámico porque difumina las líneas entre el Islam, los musulmanes y los islamistas. Los árabes lo llaman 'Daesh' y yo los llamaré los 'asesinos de Daesh'". [184] El general retirado John Allen , el enviado estadounidense designado para coordinar la coalición; el teniente general del ejército estadounidense James Terry , jefe de operaciones contra el grupo; y el secretario de Estado John Kerry habían cambiado hacia el uso del término Daesh en diciembre de 2014, [185] que, sin embargo, sigue siendo peyorativo en 2021. [186]
En 2014, Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah denominó a ISIS como QSIS ( por sus siglas en inglés, Separatistas de Al Qaeda en Irak y Siria) y argumentó que ISIS no representa a la gran mayoría de los musulmanes. [187]
Propósito y estrategia
Ideología
El EI es una teocracia , un protoestado [188] o un cuasiestado [189] y un grupo yihadista salafista . [49] [48] [50] [51] [52] [190] La ideología de la organización ha sido descrita como un híbrido de qutbismo , [44] [45] [46] takfirismo , [44] [47] [191] [192] [193] [48] salafismo , [49] [52] yihadismo salafista, [49] [48] [50] [51] [194] [ 193 ] [195] [196] [ 197] [52] wahabismo , [49] [48] [50] [193] [194] [195] [ 196] [51] y fundamentalismo islamista sunita . [50] [51] [194] [197] [198] Aunque el EI afirma adherirse a la teología salafista de Ibn Taymiyyah , se rebela contra las interpretaciones salafistas tradicionales, así como contra las cuatro escuelas sunitas de derecho, y anatematiza a la mayoría de los salafistas como herejes. Los ideólogos del EI rara vez defienden la adhesión a la erudición islámica y los manuales de derecho como referencia, prefiriendo en su mayoría derivar fallos basados en la autointerpretación del Corán y las tradiciones musulmanas. [199] [191] [200] [201] Otras ideologías pueden incluir el sentimiento anti-yazidi , [30] [202] [203] [204] el sentimiento anti-chiita , [64] [81] [58] [ 205] [206] [207] [208] [209] el sentimiento anti-cristiano , [64] [210 ] [211 ] [212] el sentimiento anti-hindú , [213] [214] [215] [216] [217 ] [218] el sentimiento anti-LGBT , [219] [220] [221] [ 222] [223] [224] [225] el antisemitismo [d] y la misoginia [226] [227] [228] [229]
Según Robert Manne, hay un "consenso general" de que la ideología del Estado Islámico está "basada principalmente en los escritos del teórico radical egipcio de la Hermandad Musulmana Sayyid Qutb ". [230] [231] La Hermandad Musulmana inició la tendencia del islamismo político en el siglo XX, buscando el establecimiento gradual de un nuevo califato , una sociedad islámica integral regida por la ley sharia . Las doctrinas de Qutb de Jahiliyya (ignorancia preislámica), Hakimiyya (soberanía divina) y Takfir de sociedades enteras formaron una visión radicalizada del proyecto de islam político de la Hermandad Musulmana. El qutbismo se convirtió en el precursor de todo el pensamiento yihadista , desde Abdullah Azzam hasta Zawahiri y Daesh. [232] Junto a Sayyid Qutb, las figuras ideológicas más invocadas del EI incluyen a Ibn Taymiyya , Abdullah Azzam y Abu Bakr Naji . [233]
Abu Omar al-Baghdadi , el primer emir del ISI , se radicalizó como miembro de la Hermandad Musulmana durante su juventud. [234] Motaz Al-Khateeb afirma que los textos religiosos y la jurisprudencia islámica "por sí solos no pueden explicar el surgimiento" de Daesh ya que la Hermandad Musulmana y Daesh "se basan en la misma jurisprudencia islámica" pero "son diametralmente opuestos" en estrategia y comportamiento. [235] A través de la declaración oficial de creencias publicada originalmente por al-Baghdadi en 2007 y posteriormente actualizada desde junio de 2014, ISIL definió su credo como "un camino intermedio entre los jariyitas extremistas y los laxos murji'itas ". [48] : 38 La ideología de ISIL representa el Islam radical yihadista-salafista, una forma estricta y puritana del Islam sunita . [236] Organizaciones musulmanas como Islamic Networks Group (ING) en Estados Unidos han argumentado en contra de esta interpretación del Islam . [237] El EI promueve la violencia religiosa y considera infieles o apóstatas a los musulmanes que no están de acuerdo con sus interpretaciones . [238]
Según Hayder al Khoei, la filosofía del EI está representada por el simbolismo de la variante del Estándar Negro de la legendaria bandera de batalla de Mahoma que ha adoptado: la bandera muestra el Sello de Mahoma dentro de un círculo blanco, con la frase encima, " No hay más dios que Alá ". [239] Se dice que este simbolismo simboliza la creencia del EI de que representa la restauración del califato del Islam primitivo , con todas las ramificaciones políticas, religiosas y escatológicas que esto implicaría. [240]
Abu Abdullah al-Muhajir, un teórico e ideólogo yihadista egipcio, es considerado como la inspiración clave para las primeras figuras del EI. [241] [242] [243] El manual legal de Al-Muhajir sobre la violencia, Fiqh ad-Dima ( La jurisprudencia de la yihad o La jurisprudencia de la sangre ), [244] [241] [242] [243] [245] fue adoptado por el EI como su referencia estándar para justificar sus extraordinarios actos de violencia. [244] [241] [242] [243] El libro ha sido descrito por el experto en antiterrorismo Orwa Ajjoub como una racionalización y justificación de "operaciones suicidas, la mutilación de cadáveres, la decapitación y el asesinato de niños y no combatientes". [243] Sus justificaciones teológicas y legales influyeron en el EI, [241] [242] [243] Al Qaeda, [241] y Boko Haram , [242] así como en varios otros grupos terroristas yihadistas. [241] Numerosos medios de comunicación han comparado su manual de referencia con Management of Savagery de Abu Bakr Naji , [246] [247] [248] [249] ampliamente leído entre los comandantes y combatientes del EI. [250]
El EI se adhiere a los principios yihadistas globales y sigue la ideología de línea dura de Al Qaeda y muchos otros grupos yihadistas modernos. [25] [238]
Los líderes del Estado Islámico (EI) son abiertos y claros en cuanto a su compromiso casi exclusivo con el movimiento wahabí del Islam sunita. El grupo hace circular imágenes de libros de texto religiosos wahabíes de Arabia Saudita en las escuelas que controla. En los vídeos del territorio del grupo se han visto textos wahabíes pegados en los laterales de una furgoneta misionera oficial.
— David D. Kirkpatrick, The New York Times [251]
Según The Economist , las prácticas saudíes seguidas por el grupo incluyen el establecimiento de una policía religiosa para erradicar el "vicio" y hacer cumplir la asistencia a las oraciones del salat , el uso generalizado de la pena capital y la destrucción o reutilización de cualquier edificio religioso no sunita. [252] Bernard Haykel ha descrito el credo del líder del EI, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, como "una especie de wahabismo salvaje". [251] Los principales líderes religiosos saudíes han emitido declaraciones condenando al EI [253] e intentando distanciar al grupo de las creencias religiosas oficiales saudíes. [254]
Se discute qué conexión, si la hay, existe entre el salafismo yihadista del EI y el wahabismo y el salafismo propiamente dicho. El EI tomó prestados dos elementos del qutbismo y del islamismo del siglo XX para su versión de la cosmovisión wahabí. Mientras que el wahabismo rechaza la rebelión violenta contra los gobernantes terrenales, el EI abraza el llamado político a las revoluciones. Si bien históricamente los wahabíes no fueron activistas defensores de un califato , el EI tomó prestada la idea de la restauración de un califato global. [255]
Aunque el carácter religioso del EI es mayoritariamente wahabí, se aparta de la tradición wahabí en cuatro aspectos críticos: alianza dinástica, llamado a establecer un califato global, violencia pura y apocaliptismo. [256]
El EI no siguió el modelo de los tres primeros estados saudíes al aliar la misión religiosa de los ulemas najdíes con la familia Al Saud , sino que los considera apóstatas. El llamado a un califato global es otra desviación del wahabismo. El califato, entendido en la ley islámica como la política islámica ideal que une a todos los territorios musulmanes, no figura mucho en los escritos najdíes tradicionales. Irónicamente, el wahabismo surgió como un movimiento anticalifato. [257]
Aunque la violencia no estuvo ausente en el primer Estado saudí, las exhibiciones del Estado Islámico de decapitaciones, inmolaciones y otras formas de violencia destinadas a inspirar miedo no imitan las prácticas saudíes tempranas. Fueron introducidas por Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi, ex líder de Al-Qaeda en Irak, quien se inspiró en el erudito yihadista egipcio Abu Abdallah Al Muhajir. El manual legal de este último sobre la violencia, conocido popularmente como Fiqh ad-Dima (La jurisprudencia de la sangre), es la referencia estándar del Estado Islámico para justificar sus actos de violencia. [257] La dimensión apocalíptica del Estado Islámico también carece de un precedente wahabí convencional. [257]
El EI aspira a volver a los primeros tiempos del Islam, rechazando todas las innovaciones en la religión, que, a su juicio, corrompen su espíritu original. Condena a los califatos posteriores y al Imperio Otomano por desviarse de lo que llama Islam puro y busca revivir el proyecto qutbista original de restauración de un califato global regido por una estricta doctrina salafista-yihadista. Siguiendo las doctrinas salafistas-yihadistas, el EI condena a los seguidores de la ley secular como infieles, colocando al actual gobierno de Arabia Saudita en esa categoría. [189]
El EI considera que sólo una autoridad legítima puede asumir la dirección de la yihad y que la primera prioridad, por encima de otras áreas de combate, como la lucha contra países no musulmanes, es la purificación de la sociedad islámica. Por ejemplo, el EI considera al grupo sunita palestino Hamás como apóstata que no tiene autoridad legítima para dirigir la yihad y considera la lucha contra Hamás como el primer paso hacia la confrontación del EI con Israel. [251] [258]
El Estado Islámico fue diseñado por Sayyid Qutb, enseñado por Abdullah Azzam, globalizado por Osama bin Laden, trasladado a la realidad por Abu Musab al-Zarqawi e implementado por los al-Baghdadis: Abu Omar y Abu Bakr.
— Hassan Hassan, El sectarismo del Estado islámico: raíces ideológicas y contexto político . [259]
El Estado Islámico añadió un enfoque sectario a una capa de opiniones radicales. En particular, se vinculó con el movimiento salafista-yihadista que surgió de la yihad afgana.
— Hassan Hassan, El sectarismo del Estado islámico: raíces ideológicas y contexto político . [259]
Escatología islámica
Una diferencia entre el EI y otros movimientos islamistas y yihadistas, incluida Al Qaeda , es el énfasis del grupo en la escatología y el apocalipticismo , es decir, la creencia en un Día del Juicio Final por parte de Dios. El EI cree que derrotará al ejército de “Roma” en la ciudad de Dabiq . [50]
El destacado estudioso del islamismo militante Will McCants escribe:
Las referencias al fin de los tiempos llenan la propaganda del Estado Islámico. Es un gran argumento de venta para los combatientes extranjeros, que quieren viajar a las tierras donde tendrán lugar las batallas finales del apocalipsis. Las guerras civiles que azotan hoy esos países [Irak y Siria] dan credibilidad a las profecías. El Estado Islámico ha avivado el fuego apocalíptico... Para la generación de Bin Laden, el apocalipsis no era un gran argumento de reclutamiento. Los gobiernos de Oriente Medio hace dos décadas eran más estables y el sectarismo estaba más moderado. Era mejor reclutar llamando a las armas contra la corrupción y la tiranía que contra el Anticristo. Hoy, sin embargo, el discurso de reclutamiento apocalíptico tiene más sentido que antes.
— William McCants, El apocalipsis del ISIS: la historia, la estrategia y la visión apocalíptica del Estado Islámico [260]
Objetivos
Desde 2004, como muy tarde, un objetivo importante del grupo ha sido la fundación de un estado islámico sunita . [261] En concreto, el EIIL ha tratado de establecerse como un califato , un estado islámico dirigido por un grupo de autoridades religiosas bajo un líder supremo, el califa , que se cree que es el sucesor de Mahoma . [262] En junio de 2014, el EIIL publicó un documento en el que afirmaba haber rastreado el linaje de su líder al-Baghdadi hasta Mahoma, [262] y al proclamar un nuevo califato el 29 de junio, el grupo nombró a al-Baghdadi como su califa. Como califa, exigió la lealtad de todos los musulmanes devotos del mundo , según la jurisprudencia islámica ( fiqh ). [263]
ISIL ha detallado sus objetivos en su revista Dabiq , diciendo que continuará tomando territorio y apoderándose de toda la Tierra hasta que:
Bendita bandera... cubre todas las extensiones orientales y occidentales de la Tierra, llenando el mundo con la verdad y la justicia del Islam y poniendo fin a la falsedad y la tiranía de la yahiliyyah [estado de ignorancia], incluso si Estados Unidos y su coalición las desprecian.
— Quinta edición de Dabiq , la revista en inglés del Estado Islámico [264]
Según el periodista alemán Jürgen Todenhöfer , que pasó diez días en Mosul con el EI , la opinión que escuchaba constantemente era que el EI quiere "conquistar el mundo" y que todos los que no crean en la interpretación del Corán que hace el grupo serán asesinados. A Todenhöfer le impactó la creencia de los combatientes del EI de que "todas las religiones que están de acuerdo con la democracia tienen que morir" [265] y su "increíble entusiasmo", incluido el entusiasmo por matar a "cientos de millones" de personas [266] .
Cuando se proclamó el califato, el EIIL declaró: "La legalidad de todos los emiratos, grupos, estados y organizaciones se vuelve nula por la expansión de la autoridad del califato y la llegada de sus tropas a sus áreas". [262] Esto fue un rechazo a las divisiones políticas en el suroeste de Asia que fueron establecidas por el Reino Unido y Francia durante la Primera Guerra Mundial en el Acuerdo Sykes-Picot . [267]
Todas las áreas no musulmanas serían objeto de conquista después de que se ocuparan de las tierras musulmanas, según el manual islamista Management of Savagery . [268]
En los documentos encontrados tras la muerte de Samir Abd Muhammad al-Khlifawi, un ex coronel del servicio de inteligencia de la Fuerza Aérea iraquí antes de la invasión estadounidense, que había sido descrito como "el jefe estratégico" del EI, se detallaba la planificación de la toma del norte de Siria por parte del EI, lo que hizo posible "los posteriores avances del grupo en Irak". Al-Khlifawi pidió la infiltración de las zonas a conquistar con espías que averiguaran "todo lo posible sobre las ciudades objetivo: quién vivía allí, quién estaba al mando, qué familias eran religiosas, a qué escuela islámica de jurisprudencia religiosa pertenecían, cuántas mezquitas había, quién era el imán, cuántas esposas e hijos tenía y qué edad tenían". A esta vigilancia y espionaje vendrían los asesinatos y los secuestros: "la eliminación de toda persona que pudiera haber sido un líder o un oponente potencial". En Raqqa , después de que las fuerzas rebeldes expulsaran al régimen de Bashar al-Assad y el EI se infiltrara en la ciudad, "primero desaparecieron decenas y luego cientos de personas". [269]
El experto en seguridad e inteligencia Martin Reardon ha descrito el propósito del EI como el de "romper" psicológicamente a aquellos bajo su control, "para asegurar su absoluta lealtad a través del miedo y la intimidación", mientras genera "odio y venganza abiertos" entre sus enemigos. [270] Jason Burke , un periodista que escribe sobre el yihadismo salafista , ha escrito que el objetivo del EI es "aterrorizar, movilizar [y] polarizar". [271] Sus esfuerzos para aterrorizar tienen como objetivo intimidar a las poblaciones civiles y obligar a los gobiernos del enemigo objetivo "a tomar decisiones precipitadas que de otra manera no elegirían". Su objetivo es movilizar a sus partidarios motivándolos con, por ejemplo, espectaculares ataques mortales en lo profundo del territorio occidental (como los ataques de París de noviembre de 2015 ), polarizar alejando a las poblaciones musulmanas -particularmente en Occidente- de sus gobiernos, aumentando así el atractivo del autoproclamado califato del EI entre ellos, y: "Eliminar a los partidos neutrales a través de la absorción o la eliminación". [271] [272] La periodista Rukmini Maria Callimachi también destaca el interés del EI en la polarización o en eliminar lo que llama la "zona gris" entre los negros (no musulmanes) y los blancos (EI). "La zona gris son los musulmanes moderados que viven en Occidente y son felices y se sienten comprometidos con la sociedad de aquí". [273]
Un trabajo publicado en línea en 2004 titulado Management of Savagery [274] ( Idarat at Tawahoush ), descrito por varios medios de comunicación como influyente en el EI [275] y destinado a proporcionar una estrategia para crear un nuevo califato islámico, [276] recomendaba una estrategia de ataque fuera de su territorio en la que los combatientes "diversificarían y ampliarían los ataques de vejación contra el enemigo cruzado-sionista en cada lugar del mundo islámico, e incluso fuera de él si es posible, para dispersar los esfuerzos de la alianza del enemigo y así agotarlo al máximo posible". [277]
Raqqa en Siria estuvo bajo el control del EI desde 2013 y en 2014 se convirtió en la capital de facto del grupo. [279] El 17 de octubre de 2017, después de una larga batalla que provocó una destrucción masiva de la ciudad, las Fuerzas Democráticas Sirias (FDS) anunciaron la captura total de Raqqa del EI.
Liderazgo y gobernanza
Fotografía policial de Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi tomada por las fuerzas armadas estadounidenses mientras se encontraba detenido en Camp Bucca en 2004
Entre 2013 y 2019, el EI estuvo encabezado y dirigido por Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi , el autoproclamado califa del Estado Islámico . Antes de sus muertes, tenía dos líderes adjuntos, Abu Muslim al-Turkmani para Irak y Abu Ali al-Anbari (también conocido como Abu Ala al-Afri) [280] para Siria, ambos de etnia turcomana . Un gabinete de líderes de alto rango asesoraba a al-Baghdadi, mientras que sus operaciones en Irak y Siria están controladas por "emires" locales, que encabezan grupos semiautónomos a los que el Estado Islámico se refiere como sus provincias. [281] Debajo de los líderes hay consejos de finanzas, liderazgo, asuntos militares, asuntos legales (incluidas decisiones sobre ejecuciones), asistencia a combatientes extranjeros , seguridad, inteligencia y medios de comunicación. Además, un consejo de la shura tiene la tarea de garantizar que todas las decisiones tomadas por los gobernadores y consejos cumplan con la interpretación del grupo de la sharia . [282] Aunque Al-Baghdadi había pedido a sus seguidores que me “avisaran cuando cometiera un error” en sus sermones, según los observadores “cualquier amenaza, oposición o incluso contradicción es erradicada instantáneamente”. [283]
Según iraquíes, sirios y analistas que estudian al grupo, casi todos los líderes del EI —incluidos los miembros de sus comités militares y de seguridad y la mayoría de sus emires y príncipes— son ex oficiales militares y de inteligencia iraquíes, específicamente ex miembros del gobierno Ba'ath de Saddam Hussein que perdieron sus trabajos y pensiones en el proceso de desba'athificación después de que ese régimen fuera derrocado. [284] [285] El ex estratega jefe de la Oficina del Coordinador de Contraterrorismo del Departamento de Estado de EE. UU., David Kilcullen , ha dicho que "sin duda no habría EI si no hubiéramos invadido Irak". [286] Se ha informado de que a los iraquíes y sirios se les ha dado mayor precedencia sobre otras nacionalidades dentro del EI porque el grupo necesita la lealtad de las poblaciones sunitas locales tanto en Siria como en Irak para ser sostenible. [287] Sin embargo, otros informes han indicado que los sirios están en desventaja con respecto a los miembros extranjeros y que algunos combatientes sirios nativos resienten el "favoritismo" que supuestamente se muestra hacia los extranjeros en materia de salario y alojamiento. [288]
En agosto de 2016, informes de prensa basados en informes de agencias de inteligencia occidentales sugirieron que el EI tenía un servicio secreto de varios niveles conocido en árabe como Emni , establecido en 2014, que se ha convertido en una combinación de una fuerza policial interna y una dirección de operaciones externas con sucursales regionales. Se creía que la unidad estaba bajo el mando general del operativo sirio de mayor rango del EI, portavoz y jefe de propaganda, Abu Mohammad al-Adnani [289] hasta su muerte por ataque aéreo a fines de agosto de 2016. [21]
El 27 de octubre de 2019, Estados Unidos llevó a cabo una operación especial dirigida al complejo de al-Baghdadi en Barisha , Idlib , en el noroeste de Siria. El ataque resultó en la muerte de al-Baghdadi ; tomado por sorpresa e incapaz de escapar, al-Baghdadi detonó un chaleco suicida , matándose deliberadamente a sí mismo y a dos niños que habían estado viviendo en el complejo antes del asalto. [290] [291] El presidente de Estados Unidos, Donald Trump, declaró en un anuncio televisado que Baghdadi, de hecho, había muerto durante la operación y que las fuerzas estadounidenses utilizaron el apoyo de helicópteros, aviones y drones a través del espacio aéreo controlado por Rusia y Turquía. [292] Dijo que "Rusia nos trató muy bien... Irak fue excelente. Realmente tuvimos una gran cooperación" y Turquía sabía que iban a entrar. [293] Agradeció a Turquía, Rusia, Siria, Irak y las fuerzas kurdas sirias por su apoyo. [293] El Ministerio de Defensa turco también confirmó el domingo que las autoridades militares turcas y estadounidenses intercambiaron y coordinaron información antes de un ataque en Idlib, Siria. [294] Fahrettin Altun , un alto funcionario del presidente turco Tayyib Erdogan, también declaró, entre otras cosas, que "Turquía estaba orgullosa de ayudar a Estados Unidos, nuestro aliado de la OTAN, a llevar a un notorio terrorista ante la justicia" y que Turquía "seguirá trabajando estrechamente con Estados Unidos y otros para combatir el terrorismo en todas sus formas y manifestaciones". [295] El portavoz del Kremlin, Dmitry Peskov, se negó a decir si Estados Unidos le había informado a Rusia sobre la redada con antelación, pero dijo que su resultado, si se confirmaba, representaba una contribución seria de Estados Unidos para combatir el terrorismo. [296] Rusia había afirmado anteriormente que Baghdadi fue asesinado en mayo de 2019 por su ataque aéreo. [297]
En septiembre de 2019, una declaración atribuida al brazo de propaganda del EI, la agencia de noticias Amaq , afirmó que Abdullah Qardash fue nombrado sucesor de al-Baghdadi. [298] Los analistas descartaron esta declaración como una invención, y se informó que los familiares dijeron que Qardash murió en 2017. [299] Rita Katz , analista de terrorismo y cofundadora de SITE Intelligence , señaló que la supuesta declaración usaba una fuente diferente en comparación con otras declaraciones y nunca se distribuyó en los canales de Amaq o EI. [300]
El 29 de octubre de 2019, Trump declaró en las redes sociales que el "reemplazo número uno" de al-Baghdadi había sido asesinado por fuerzas estadounidenses, sin dar un nombre. [301] Un funcionario estadounidense confirmó más tarde que Trump se refería al portavoz y líder principal del EI, Abul-Hasan al-Muhajir , [302] quien murió en un ataque aéreo estadounidense en Siria dos días antes. [303] El 31 de octubre, EI nombró a Abu Ibrahim al-Hashemi al-Qurayshi como sucesor de Baghdadi. [304] El 3 de febrero de 2022, un funcionario estadounidense informó que al-Hashimi se suicidó y suicidó a miembros de su familia al detonar un dispositivo explosivo durante una redada antiterrorista del Comando Conjunto de Operaciones Especiales de Estados Unidos . [305] El 30 de noviembre de 2022, EI anunció que su líder no identificado había muerto en batalla y nombró a un sucesor, sin proporcionar ninguna información adicional aparte de su seudónimo . Un portavoz del Comando Central de Estados Unidos confirmó que el líder del EI había sido asesinado a mediados de octubre por rebeldes antigubernamentales en el sur de Siria. [306] El 16 de febrero de 2023, el alto dirigente del EI, Hamza al-Homsi, se inmoló en una redada liderada por Estados Unidos en Siria. [307]
Civiles en zonas controladas por el Estado Islámico
En 2014, The Wall Street Journal estimó que ocho millones de personas vivían en el Estado Islámico. [308] La Comisión de Derechos Humanos de las Naciones Unidas ha declarado que el EI "busca subyugar a los civiles bajo su control y dominar todos los aspectos de sus vidas mediante el terror, el adoctrinamiento y la prestación de servicios a quienes obedecen". [309] Los civiles, así como el propio Estado Islámico, han publicado imágenes de algunos de los abusos de los derechos humanos. [310]
El control social de los civiles se realizaba mediante la imposición de la interpretación de la sharia por parte del EI, [311] aplicada por fuerzas de policía moral conocidas como Al-Hisbah y la Brigada Al-Khanssaa integrada exclusivamente por mujeres , una fuerza policial general, tribunales y otras entidades que gestionaban el reclutamiento, las relaciones tribales y la educación. [309] Al-Hisbah estaba dirigida por Abu Muhammad al-Jazrawi. [312]
En 2015, el EI publicó un código penal que incluye flagelaciones, amputaciones, crucifixiones, etc. [313]
Militar
Número de combatientes
Las estimaciones del tamaño del ejército del EI han variado ampliamente, desde decenas de miles [315] hasta 200.000. [99]
A principios de 2015, la periodista Mary Anne Weaver estimó que la mitad de los combatientes del EI eran extranjeros. [316] Un informe de la ONU estimó que un total de 15.000 combatientes de más de 80 países estaban en las filas del EI en noviembre de 2014. [317] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] La inteligencia estadounidense estimó un aumento a alrededor de 20.000 combatientes extranjeros en febrero de 2015, incluidos 3.400 del mundo occidental . [318] En septiembre de 2015, la CIA estimó que 30.000 combatientes extranjeros se habían unido al EI. [319]
Según Abu Hajjar, ex líder de alto rango del EI, los combatientes extranjeros reciben alimentos, gasolina y alojamiento, pero a diferencia de los combatientes nativos iraquíes o sirios, no reciben pago en salarios. [320] Desde 2012, más de 3.000 personas de los países de Asia central han ido a Siria, Irak o Afganistán para unirse al Estado Islámico o Jabhat al Nusra . [321]
Armas convencionales
El EI depende principalmente de armas capturadas, cuyas principales fuentes incluyen las reservas iraquíes de Saddam Hussein de la insurgencia iraquí de 2003-11 [322] y armas de las fuerzas gubernamentales y de la oposición que lucharon en la guerra civil siria y durante la insurgencia iraquí posterior a la retirada estadounidense . Las armas capturadas, que incluyen blindados, armas, misiles tierra-aire e incluso algunas aeronaves, permitieron un rápido crecimiento territorial y facilitaron la captura de equipo adicional. [323] Por ejemplo, el EI capturó misiles antitanque TOW de fabricación estadounidense suministrados por Estados Unidos y Arabia Saudita al Ejército Libre Sirio en Siria. [324] El noventa por ciento de las armas del grupo en última instancia se originaron en China, Rusia o Europa del Este según Conflict Armament Research . [325]
Armas no convencionales
El grupo utiliza camiones y coches bomba , terroristas suicidas y artefactos explosivos improvisados , y ha utilizado armas químicas en Irak y Siria. [326] El EI capturó materiales nucleares de la Universidad de Mosul en julio de 2014, pero es poco probable que pueda convertirlos en armas. [327] En septiembre de 2015, un funcionario estadounidense declaró que el EI estaba fabricando y utilizando agente mostaza en Siria e Irak, y tenía un equipo activo de investigación de armas químicas. [328] El EI también ha utilizado el agua como arma de guerra. El grupo cerró las compuertas de la presa más pequeña de Nuaimiyah en Faluya en abril de 2014, inundando las regiones circundantes, mientras cortaba el suministro de agua al sur dominado por los chiítas . Alrededor de 12.000 familias perdieron sus hogares y 200 kilómetros cuadrados (77 millas cuadradas) de aldeas y campos quedaron inundados o secos. La economía de la región también sufrió la destrucción de tierras de cultivo y la escasez de electricidad. [329]
Durante la Batalla de Mosul , el EI utilizó cuadricópteros y drones disponibles comercialmente como plataformas de vigilancia y lanzamiento de armas utilizando cunas improvisadas para lanzar granadas y otros explosivos. [330] Una base de drones del EI fue atacada y destruida por dos Tornado de la Real Fuerza Aérea que utilizaron dos bombas guiadas Paveway IV . [331]
Mujer
El EI publica material dirigido a las mujeres, y los grupos de medios de comunicación las alientan a desempeñar papeles de apoyo dentro del EI, como proporcionar primeros auxilios, cocinar, dar clases de enfermería y coser, para que se conviertan en "buenas esposas de la yihad" . [332] En 2015, se estimó que las mujeres occidentales representaban más de 550, o el 10%, de los combatientes extranjeros occidentales del EI. [333]
Hasta 2016, las mujeres eran generalmente confinadas en una "casa de mujeres" al llegar, de la que se les prohibía salir. Estas casas eran a menudo pequeñas, sucias e infestadas de alimañas y el suministro de alimentos era escaso. Allí permanecían hasta que encontraban un marido o hasta que el marido con el que llegaban había completado su formación. Después de que se les permitiera salir del confinamiento, las mujeres seguían pasando la mayor parte de sus días en el interior, donde dedicaban su vida a cuidar de sus maridos y la gran mayoría de las mujeres en la zona de conflicto tienen hijos. Las madres desempeñan un papel importante en la transmisión de la ideología del EI a sus hijos. Se anima a las viudas a volver a casarse. [334]
En un documento titulado Mujeres en el Estado Islámico: Manifiesto y estudio de caso publicado por el ala de medios de comunicación de la Brigada Al-Khanssaa del EI , compuesta exclusivamente por mujeres, se hace hincapié en la importancia primordial del matrimonio y la maternidad (a partir de los nueve años). Las mujeres deben vivir una vida de "sedentarismo", cumpliendo su "deber divino de maternidad" en el hogar, con unas pocas excepciones como las maestras y los médicos. [335] [336] Se opone a la igualdad de las mujeres, así como a la educación en materias no religiosas, las "ciencias mundanas sin valor". [336]
Comunicaciones
Finanzas
Según un estudio de 2015 del Grupo de Acción Financiera Internacional , las cinco principales fuentes de ingresos del EI son las siguientes (enumeradas en orden de importancia):
ingresos procedentes de la ocupación de territorio (incluido el control de bancos, depósitos de petróleo, impuestos, extorsión y robo de activos económicos)
apoyo material proporcionado por combatientes extranjeros
Recaudación de fondos a través de redes de comunicación modernas [338]
Desde 2012, el EI ha elaborado informes anuales que ofrecen información numérica sobre sus operaciones, en un estilo similar a los informes corporativos, aparentemente en un intento de alentar a posibles donantes. [339] [340]
En 2014, la Corporación RAND analizó las fuentes de financiación del EI a partir de documentos capturados entre 2005 y 2010. [341] Encontró que las donaciones externas ascendían a solo el 5% de los presupuestos operativos del grupo, [341] y que las células dentro de Irak estaban obligadas a enviar hasta el 20% de los ingresos generados por secuestros, extorsiones y otras actividades al siguiente nivel de liderazgo del grupo, que luego redistribuiría los fondos a células provinciales o locales que estaban en dificultades o necesitaban dinero para llevar a cabo ataques. [341] En 2016, RAND estimó que las finanzas del EI provenientes de su mayor fuente de ingresos —los ingresos del petróleo y los impuestos que extrae de las personas bajo su control— habían caído de aproximadamente US$1.900 millones en 2014 a US$870 millones en 2016. [342]
A mediados de 2014, el Servicio Nacional de Inteligencia iraquí obtuvo información de que el EI tenía activos por valor de 2.000 millones de dólares estadounidenses , [343] lo que lo convertía en el grupo yihadista más rico del mundo. [344] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] Se dice que alrededor de tres cuartas partes de esta suma fueron saqueadas del banco central de Mosul y de los bancos comerciales de la ciudad. [345] Sin embargo, más tarde se puso en duda si el EI pudo recuperar algo cercano a esa suma del banco central, [346] e incluso si el saqueo había ocurrido realmente. [347]
En 2022, la empresa Lafarge fue declarada culpable de pagar al EI por la operación de sus instalaciones. "En 2013-2014, la empresa transfirió 6.000.000 de dólares al EI para que pudiera continuar con las operaciones de la empresa. Esto le permitió obtener 70 millones de dólares en ingresos por ventas de una planta que operaba en el norte de Siria, dijeron los fiscales". Lafarge, que se fusionó con Holcim en 2015, aceptó pagar 778 millones de dólares en decomisos y multas como parte de un acuerdo de culpabilidad para no ser condenada y sentenciada a prisión por brindar apoyo material a una organización terrorista. Ningún ejecutivo de Lafarge fue acusado en Estados Unidos, mientras que las autoridades francesas arrestaron a algunos de los ejecutivos involucrados, pero no proporcionaron nombres. El tribunal estadounidense enumera a seis ejecutivos de Lafarge sin identificar. Lafarge evacuó la planta de cemento en septiembre de 2014. Después, el EI tomó posesión del cemento restante y lo vendió por aproximadamente 3,21 millones de dólares. La bolsa suiza SIX suspendió la negociación de las acciones de Holcim antes de que se hiciera pública la noticia. Tras la reanudación de las operaciones, las acciones subieron un 3,2%. [348]
Sistema monetario
El EI intentó crear un dinar de oro moderno acuñando monedas de oro, plata y cobre, basadas en las monedas utilizadas por el Califato Omeya en el siglo VII. [349] A pesar de un impulso propagandístico a favor de la moneda, su adopción pareció haber sido mínima y su economía interna estaba efectivamente dolarizada , incluso con respecto a sus propias multas. [350]
Educación
La educación en el territorio controlado por el EI estaba organizada por el Diwan de Educación. [351] [352] El EI introdujo su propio plan de estudios que no incluía lecciones de historia, música, geografía o arte, pero sí conferencias sobre la ley islámica, la sharia y la yihad . [352] El Diwan de Educación a menudo competía con el Diwan de Extensión y Mezquitas, que organizaba centros educativos centrados en la sharia. [351]
Situación militar en Libia a principios de 2016: Ansar al-ShariaES
Como autoproclamado califato mundial , EI reclama autoridad religiosa, política y militar sobre todos los musulmanes del mundo, [158] y que "la legalidad de todos los emiratos, grupos, estados y organizaciones se vuelve nula por la expansión de la autoridad del khilāfah [califato] y la llegada de sus tropas a sus áreas". [262]
En Irak y Siria, el EI utilizó muchos de los límites de las gobernaciones existentes en esos países para subdividir el territorio que conquistó y reclamó; llamó a esas divisiones wilayah o provincias. [360] Para junio de 2015, el EI también había establecido "provincias" oficiales en Libia, Egipto (península del Sinaí), Arabia Saudita, Yemen, Argelia, Afganistán, [361] Pakistán, Nigeria y el Cáucaso Norte. [362] El EI recibió promesas de lealtad y publicó comunicados de prensa a través de grupos en Somalia, [363] Bangladesh, [364] Indonesia, Myanmar, [365] Tailandia [366] y Filipinas, [367] pero no ha anunciado más filiales oficiales, en lugar de eso identificó a los nuevos afiliados como simplemente "soldados del califato". [368]
La capital del EI , Raqqa, sufrió graves daños durante la batalla de Raqqa entre junio y octubre de 2017.
En marzo de 2019, el EI había perdido la mayor parte de su territorio en sus antiguas zonas centrales en Siria e Irak, y quedó reducido a una zona en el desierto y a células insurgentes. [369]
A finales de 2020 y principios de 2021, los afiliados africanos del EI volvieron a apoderarse de territorio y asentamientos en conflictos como la insurgencia de Boko Haram , en Nigeria, y la insurgencia de Cabo Delgado , en Mozambique. Entre las tomas de control más notables por parte del EI se incluyen Mocímboa da Praia y el bosque de Sambisa . [370] [371]
El 17 de noviembre de 2021, los partidarios del EI instaron a la creación de "Nuevas Provincias" en Indonesia. [372] En octubre de 2022, la provincia del Sahel del EI capturó el comité rural y la ciudad de Ansongo en Mali. [373]
Reacción internacional
Crítica internacional
El grupo ha recibido numerosas críticas a nivel internacional por su extremismo, por parte de gobiernos y organismos internacionales como las Naciones Unidas y Amnistía Internacional . El 24 de septiembre de 2014, el Secretario General de las Naciones Unidas, Ban Ki-moon, declaró: "Como han dicho los líderes musulmanes de todo el mundo, grupos como el EIIL -o Da'ish- no tienen nada que ver con el Islam , y ciertamente no representan a un estado. Deberían ser llamados más apropiadamente el 'Estado no islámico'". [374] El EIIL ha sido clasificado como una organización terrorista por las Naciones Unidas, la Unión Europea y sus estados miembros, Estados Unidos, Rusia, India, Turquía, Arabia Saudita y muchos otros países. Más de 60 países están librando una guerra directa o indirecta contra el EIIL (véase § Países y grupos en guerra con el EI). El grupo fue descrito como una secta en una columna del Huffington Post por la notable autoridad en sectas Steven Hassan . [375]
Twitter ha eliminado muchas cuentas utilizadas para difundir propaganda del EI, y Google desarrolló un "Método de redireccionamiento" que identifica a las personas que buscan material relacionado con el EI y las redirige a contenido que desafía las narrativas del EI. [376]
Crítica islámica
La declaración de un califato por parte del grupo ha sido criticada y su legitimidad ha sido cuestionada por los gobiernos de Medio Oriente, por teólogos e historiadores musulmanes sunitas , así como por otros grupos yihadistas. [377]
Líderes y organizaciones religiosas
En todo el mundo, los líderes religiosos islámicos han condenado abrumadoramente la ideología y las acciones del EIIL, argumentando que el grupo se ha desviado del camino del verdadero Islam y que sus acciones no reflejan las verdaderas enseñanzas o virtudes de la religión. [378]
Extremism within Islam goes back to the seventh century, to the Khawarijes. From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines which set them apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shia Muslims. They were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to takfir, whereby they declared other Muslims to be unbelievers and therefore deemed worthy of death.[379][380] Other scholars have also described the group not as Sunnis, but as Khawarij.[380][381] Sunni critics, including Salafi and jihadist muftis such as Adnan al-Aroor and Abu Basir al-Tartusi, say that ISIL and related terrorist groups are not Sunnis, but are instead modern-day Kharijites (Muslims who have stepped outside the mainstream of Islam) serving an imperial anti-Islamic agenda.[382]
ISIS has been excommunicated from Islam by a number of scholars. Sheikh Muhammad al-Yaqoubi enumerated in his book, Refuting ISIS, that their form of Kharijism has removed them from Islam and fighting them is a religious duty, stating: "ISIS' leaders are people of unbelief and misguidance, and Muslims should not be lured by their jihad or deceived by their propaganda, as their actions speak louder than their words."[383]Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz, the former Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia, also stated that Kharijites are not Muslims, saying: "the majority are of the opinion that they are disobedient and misguided innovators, though they do not deem them unbelievers. However, the correct opinion is that they are unbelievers."[384]
In late August 2014, the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia, Abdul-Aziz ibn Abdullah Al ash-Sheikh, condemned ISIL and al-Qaeda saying, "Extremist and militant ideas and terrorism which spread decay on Earth, destroying human civilization, are not in any way part of Islam, but are enemy number one of Islam, and Muslims are their first victims".[385] In late September 2014, 126 Sunni imams and Islamic scholars—primarily Sufi[386]—from around the Muslim world signed an open letter to the Islamic State's leader al-Baghdadi, explicitly rejecting and refuting his group's interpretations of Islamic scriptures, the Quran and hadith, which it used in order to justify its actions.[387] "[You] have misinterpreted Islam into a religion of harshness, brutality, torture and murder ... this is a great wrong and an offence to Islam, to Muslims and to the entire world", the letter states.[388] It rebukes the Islamic State for its killing of prisoners, describing the killings as "heinous war crimes" and its persecution of the Yazidis of Iraq as "abominable". Referring to the "self-described 'Islamic State'", the letter censures the group for carrying out killings and acts of brutality under the guise of jihad—holy struggle—saying that its "sacrifice" without legitimate cause, goals and intention "is not jihad at all, but rather, warmongering and criminality".[388][389] It also accuses the group of instigating fitna—sedition—by instituting slavery under its rule in contravention of the anti-slavery consensus of the Islamic scholarly community.[388] The group's persecution of Shia Muslims has also been condemned.[30][390][391]
Pro-YPG demonstration against ISIL in Vienna, Austria, 10 October 2014
The current Grand Imam of al-Azhar and former president of al-Azhar University, Ahmed el-Tayeb, has strongly condemned the Islamic State, stating that it is acting "under the guise of this holy religion and have given themselves the name 'Islamic State' in an attempt to export their false Islam".[392] Citing the Quran, he stated: "The punishment for those who wage war against God and his Prophet and who strive to sow corruption on earth is death, crucifixion, the severing of hands and feet on opposite sides or banishment from the land. This is the disgrace for them in this world and in the hereafter, they will receive grievous torment." Although el-Tayeb has been criticised for not expressly stating that the Islamic State is heretical,[393] the Ash'ari school of Islamic theology, to which el-Tayeb belongs, does not allow calling a person who follows the shahada an apostate.[393] El-Tayeb has strongly come out against the practice of takfirism (declaring a Muslim an apostate) which is used by the Islamic State to "judge and accuse anyone who doesn't tow their line with apostasy and outside the realm of the faith" declaring "Jihad on peaceful Muslims" using "flawed interpretations of some Qur'anic texts, the prophet's Sunna, and the Imams' views believing incorrectly, that they are leaders of Muslim armies fighting infidel peoples, in unbelieving lands".[394]
In late December 2015, nearly 70,000 Indian Muslim clerics associated with the Indian Barelvi movement issued a fatwa condemning ISIL and similar organisations, saying they are "not Islamic organisations". Approximately 1.5 million Sunni Muslim followers of this movement have formally decried violent extremists.[395]
Whether Sunni or Shia, Salafi or Sufi, conservative or liberal, Muslims – and Muslim leaders – have almost unanimously condemned and denounced ISIL not merely as un-Islamic but actively anti-Islamic.[378]
Hassan Hassan, an analyst at the Delma Institute, wrote in The Guardian that because the Islamic State "bases its teachings on religious texts that mainstream Muslim clerics do not want to deal with head on, new recruits leave the camp feeling that they have stumbled on the true message of Islam".[190]
Theologian and Qatar-based TV broadcaster Yusuf al-Qaradawi stated: "[The] declaration issued by the Islamic State is void under sharia and has dangerous consequences for the Sunnis in Iraq and for the revolt in Syria", adding that the title of caliph can "only be given by the entire Muslim nation", not by a single group.[396] He also stated on his official website "United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the leaders of Daesh (ISIS/ISIL) terrorist group are from one species and they are two sides of the same coin".[397] In a similar vein, the Syrian Islamic scholarMuhammad al-Yaqoubi says, "[t]he followers of ISIS do not want to adhere to Islamic law but rather they want to twist Islamic law to conform to their fantasies. To this end, they pick and choose the evidences that corroborate their misguidance, despite being weak or abrogated."[398]
Academics Robyn Creswell and Bernard Haykel of The New Yorker have criticised ISIL's execution of Muslims for breach of traditional sharia law while violating it simultaneously themselves (encouraging women to emigrate to its territory, travelling without a Wali—male guardian—and in violation of his wishes).[399] as well as its love of archaic imagery (horsemen and swords) while engaging in bid'ah (religious innovation) in establishing female religious police (known as Al-Khansaa Brigade).[400]
Two days after the beheading of Hervé Gourdel, hundreds of Muslims gathered in the Grand Mosque of Paris to show solidarity against the beheading. The protest was led by the leader of the French Council of the Muslim Faith, Dalil Boubakeur, and was joined by thousands of other Muslims around the country under the slogan "Not in my name".[401][better source needed] French president François Hollande said Gourdel's beheading was "cowardly" and "cruel", and confirmed that airstrikes would continue against ISIL in Iraq. Hollande also called for three days of national mourning, with flags flown at half-mast throughout the country and said that security would be increased throughout Paris.[401][better source needed]
Other jihadist groups
According to The New York Times, "All of the most influential jihadist theorists are criticising the Islamic State as deviant, calling its self-proclaimed caliphate null and void" and they have denounced it for its beheadings of journalists[402] and aid workers.[251] ISIL is widely denounced by a broad range of Islamic clerics, including Saudi and al-Qaeda-oriented clerics.[51][251]Muhammad al-Yaqoubi states, "It is enough of a proof of the extreme ideology of ISIS that the top leaders of Salafi-Jihadism have disclaimed it."[403] Other critics of ISIL's brand of Sunni Islam include Salafists who previously publicly supported jihadist groups such as al-Qaeda: for example, the Saudi government official Saleh Al-Fawzan, known for his extremist views, who claims that ISIL is a creation of "Zionists, Crusaders and Safavids", and the Jordanian-Palestinian writer Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi, the former spiritual mentor to Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, who was released from prison in Jordan in June 2014 and accused ISIL of driving a wedge between Muslims.[382]
An Islamic Frontsharia court judge in Aleppo, Mohamed Najeeb Bannan, stated: "The legal reference is the Islamic Sharia. The cases are different, from robberies to drug use, to moral crimes. It's our duty to look at any crime that comes to us... After the regime has fallen, we believe that the Muslim majority in Syria will ask for an Islamic state. Of course, it's very important to point out that some say the Islamic Sharia will cut off people's hands and heads, but it only applies to criminals. And to start off by killing, crucifying etc. That is not correct at all." In response to being asked what the difference between the Islamic Front's and ISIL's version of sharia would be, he said, "One of their mistakes is before the regime has fallen, and before they've established what in Sharia is called Tamkeen [having a stable state], they started applying Sharia, thinking God gave them permission to control the land and establish a Caliphate. This goes against the beliefs of religious scholars around the world. This is what [IS] did wrong. This is going to cause a lot of trouble. Anyone who opposes [IS] will be considered against Sharia and will be severely punished."[404]
Al-Qaeda and al-Nusra have been trying to take advantage of ISIL's rise, by attempting to present themselves as "moderate" compared to "extremist" ISIL, although they have the same aim of establishing sharia and a caliphate, but doing so in a more gradual manner.[405] Al-Nusra has criticised the way in which ISIL fully and immediately institutes sharia in the areas that fall under its control, since it alienates people too much. It supports the gradual, slower approach favoured by al-Qaeda, preparing society to accept sharia and indoctrinating people through education before implementing the hudud aspects in sharia, which they believe supports punishments such as throwing homosexuals from the top of buildings, chopping limbs off, and public stoning.[264] Al-Nusra and ISIL are both hostile towards the Druze. However, while al-Nusra has typically destroyed Druze shrines and pressured them to convert to Sunni Islam, ISIL regards the entire Druze community as a valid target for violence, as it does the Yazidis.[406][407]
In February 2014, Ayman al-Zawahiri, the leader of Al-Qaeda, announced that his group Al-Qaeda had cut ties with the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and denounced ISIL after being unable to reconcile a conflict between them and the al-Qaeda affiliate al-Nusra Front.[408]
In September 2015, Ayman al-Zawahiri, the leader of al-Qaeda, called for consultation (shura) within the "prophetic method" to be used when establishing the caliphate, criticising al-Baghdadi for not following the required steps. Al-Zawahiri has called upon ISIL members to close ranks and join al-Qaeda in fighting against Assad, the Shia, Russia, Europe, and America and to stop the infighting between jihadist groups. He called upon jihadists to establish Islamic entities in Egypt and the Levant, slowly implementing sharia before establishing a caliphate, and has called for violent assaults against America and the West.[409]
The Jaysh al-Islam group within the Islamic Front criticised ISIL, saying: "They killed the people of Islam and leave the idol worshippers ... They use the verses talking about the disbelievers and implement it on the Muslims".[410] The main criticism of defectors from ISIL has been that the group is fighting and killing other Sunni Muslims,[411] as opposed to just non-Sunnis being brutalised.[412] In one case, a supposed defector from ISIL executed two activists of a Syrian opposition group in Turkey who had sheltered them.[413]
Other commentaries
Scholar Ian Almond criticised the media commentators, the lack of balance in reporting, and the "way we are learning to talk about ISIS." While there was talk about 'radical evil' and 'radical Islam', Almond found it striking because "some of the most revered and oft-quoted figures in our Western political tradition have been capable of the most vicious acts of savagery – and yet all we ever hear about is how much the Middle East has to learn from us." Almond goes on to cite how Winston Churchill "wanted to gas women and children", how Ronald Reagan's Central American policies "disembowelled more children than ISIS," how President Barack Obama's "planes and drones have dropped bombs on as many schoolchildren as ISIS," how former secretary of state Madeleine Albright commented on the deaths of Iraqi children killed by sanctions, how Henry Kissinger and Margaret Thatcher "assisted in the torture and disappearance of thousands of Chilean students and labour activists... For anyone familiar with the history of both U.S. and European torture and murder over the past 150 years, it might not be all that hyperbolic to say that in ISIS, what we see more than anything else is a more expansive, explicit version of our own cruelties. In bombing ISIS and its would-be imperialism, we are really bombing a version of ourselves."[414]
Author and commentator Tom Engelhardt attributed the rise of ISIL and the destruction that followed to what he dubbed as America's drive to establish its own caliphate in the region.[415]
A leader article in the New Scientist magazine contextualised ISIL within the nation state construct. Although the group is described as medieval in the pejorative sense, "it is also hyper-modern, interested in few of the trappings of a conventional state apart from its own brutal brand of law enforcement. In fact, it is more of a network than a nation, having made canny use of social media to exert influence far beyond its geographical base."[416]
Designation as a terrorist organisation
The United Nations Security Council in its Resolution 1267 (1999) described Osama bin Laden and his al-Qaeda associates as operators of a network of terrorist training camps.[453] The UN's Al-Qaida Sanctions Committee first listed ISIL in its Sanctions List under the name "Al-Qaida in Iraq" on 18 October 2004, as an entity/group associated with al-Qaeda. On 2 June 2014, the group was added to its listing under the name "Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant". The European Union adopted the UN Sanctions List in 2002.[418]
Many world leaders and government spokespeople have called ISIL a terrorist group or banned it, without their countries having formally designated it as such. The following are examples:
The Government of Germany banned ISIL in September 2014. Activities banned include donations to the group, recruiting fighters, holding ISIL meetings and distributing its propaganda, flying ISIL flags,[454] wearing ISIL symbols and all ISIL activities. "The terror organisation Islamic State is a threat to public safety in Germany as well", said German politician Thomas de Maizière. He added, "Today's ban is directed solely against terrorists who abuse religion for their criminal goals."[455] Being a member of ISIL is also illegal in accordance with §129a and §129b of the German criminal code.[456]
In October 2014, Switzerland banned ISIL's activities in the country, including propaganda and financial support of the fighters, with prison sentences as potential penalties.[457]
In mid-December 2014, India banned ISIL after the arrest of an operator of a pro-ISIL Twitter account.[458][better source needed]
Pakistan designated ISIL as a banned organisation in late August 2015, under which all elements expressing sympathy for the group would be blacklisted and sanctioned.[440]
Media sources worldwide have described ISIL as a terrorist organisation.[166][285][339][311][426][459]
Following the D-ISIS Ministerial in June 2023, Minister Belkin announced Abdallah Makki Muslih al-Rufay’i and Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn ‘Ali al-Mainuki, as terrorists under Executive Order 13224.[460]
Militia, cult, territorial authority, and other classifications
By 2014, ISIL was increasingly being viewed as a militia in addition to a terrorist group and a cult.[461] As major Iraqi cities fell to ISIL in June 2014, Jessica Lewis, a former US Army intelligence officer at the Institute for the Study of War, described ISIL at that time as
not a terrorism problem anymore, [but rather] an army on the move in Iraq and Syria, and they are taking terrain. They have shadow governments in and around Baghdad, and they have an aspirational goal to govern. I don't know whether they want to control Baghdad, or if they want to destroy the functions of the Iraqi state, but either way the outcome will be disastrous for Iraq.[461]
Supporters of the Turkish Labour Party protesting in London following the 2015 Ankara bombings
Lewis has called ISIL
an advanced military leadership. They have incredible command and control and they have a sophisticated reporting mechanism from the field that can relay tactics and directives up and down the line. They are well-financed, and they have big sources of manpower, not just the foreign fighters, but also prisoner escapees.[461]
Former US Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel saw an "imminent threat to every interest we have", but former top counter-terrorism adviser Daniel Benjamin derided such talk as a "farce" that panics the public.[462]
Writing for The Guardian, Pankaj Mishra rejects the idea that the group is a resurgence of medieval Islam, saying instead:
In actuality, ISIS is the canniest of all traders in the flourishing international economy of disaffection: the most resourceful among all those who offer the security of collective identity to isolated and fearful individuals. It promises, along with others who retail racial, national and religious supremacy, to release the anxiety and frustrations of the private life into the violence of the global.[463]
On 28 January 2017, then U.S. President Donald Trump issued a National Security Presidential Memorandum which called for a comprehensive plan to destroy ISIL to be formulated by the Defense Department within 30 days.[464]
Supporters
A United Nations report from May 2015[update] showed that 25,000 "foreign terrorist fighters" from 100 countries had joined "Islamist" groups, many of them working for IS or al-Qaeda.[465]
According to a June 2015 Reuters report that cited "jihadist ideologues" as a source, 90% of IS's fighters in Iraq were Iraqi, and 70% of its fighters in Syria were Syrian. The article stated that the group had 40,000 fighters and 60,000 supporters across its two primary strongholds in Iraq and Syria.[101] According to scholar Fawaz Gerges writing in ISIS: A History, some "30 percent of the senior figures" in IS's military command were former army and police officers from the disbanded Iraqi security forces, turned towards Sunni Islamism and drawn to IS by the US de-Ba'athification policy following the US invasion of Iraq.[283]
A 2014 analysis of 2,195,000 Arabic-language social media posts cited by The Guardian had 47% of the postings from Qatar, 35% from Pakistan, 31% from Belgium and almost 24% from the UK classified as supportive of IS.[466] According to a 2015 poll by Pew Research Center, Muslim populations of various Muslim-majority countries have overwhelmingly negative views of IS, with the highest percentage of those expressing favorable views not exceeding 14%.[467] In most of these countries, concerns about Islamic extremism have been growing.[468]
IS's claims to territory have brought it into armed conflict with many governments, militias and other armed groups. International rejection of IS as a terrorist entity and rejection of its claim to even exist have placed it in conflict with countries around the world.
Global Coalition to Counter the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
The Global Coalition to Counter the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), also referred to as the Counter-ISIL Coalition or Counter-DAESH Coalition,[469] is a US-led group of nations and non-state actors that have committed to "work together under a common, multifaceted, and long-term strategy to degrade and defeat ISIL/Daesh". According to a joint statement issued by 59 national governments and the European Union on 3 December 2014, participants in the Counter-ISIL Coalition are focused on multiple lines of effort:[470]
Supporting military operations, capacity building, and training;
Stopping the flow of foreign terrorist fighters;
Cutting off ISIL/Daesh's access to financing and funding;
Addressing associated humanitarian relief and crises; and
Operation Inherent Resolve is the operational name given by the US to military operations against ISIL and Syrian al-Qaeda affiliates. Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve (CJTF–OIR) is co-ordinating the military portion of the response. The Arab League, European Union, NATO, and GCC are part of the Counter-ISIL Coalition:[470] According to the Pentagon, by December 2017 over 80,000 ISIL fighters had been killed in Iraq and Syria by CJTF-OIR airstrikes.[161] By then the coalition had flown over 170,000 sorties,[471] 75–80% of combat sorties were conducted by the military of the United States, with the other 20–25% by Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Jordan, Belgium, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom.[472] According to the UK-based monitoring group Airwars, the air strikes and artillery of US-led coalition killed as many as 6,000 civilians in Iraq and Syria by the end of 2017.[473]
Lebanon, which the U.S. considers part of the Global Coalition, fought off several incursions by ISIL, with the largest engagements taking place from June 2014 to August 2017, when several thousand ISIL fighters invaded from Syria and occupied Lebanese territory. The U.S. and UK-backed Lebanese Army succeeded in repulsing this invasion, killing or capturing over 1,200 ISIL fighters in the process.[474]
On 21 December 2019, over 33 Islamist militants were killed in Mali by French forces using attack helicopters, drones and ground troops, alongside the border with Mauritania where an Al-Qaeda-linked group operates.[475]
Other state opponents not part of the Counter-ISIL Coalition
Iran[476] – military advisors, training, ground troops in Iraq and Syria, and air power in Syria, beside Iranian borders (see Iranian intervention in Iraq)
Al-Nusra Front is a branch of al-Qaeda operating in Syria. Al-Nusra has launched many attacks and bombings, mostly against targets affiliated with or supportive of the Syrian government.[506] There have been media reports that many of al-Nusra's foreign fighters have left to join al-Baghdadi's ISIL.[507]
In February 2014, after continued tensions, al-Qaeda publicly disavowed any relations with ISIL.[508] However, ISIL and al-Nusra Front still cooperate with each other occasionally when they fight against the Syrian government.[509]
The two groups [ISIL and al-Nusra] share a nihilistic worldview, a loathing for modernity, and for the West. They subscribe to the same perverted interpretations of Islam. Other common traits include a penchant for suicide attacks, and sophisticated exploitation of the internet and social media. Like ISIL, several Al Qaeda franchises are interested in taking and holding territory; AQAP has been much less successful at it. The main differences between Al Qaeda and ISIL are largely political—and personal. Over the past decade, Al Qaeda has twice embraced ISIL (and its previous manifestations) as brothers-in-arms.
— Bobby Ghosh, "ISIL and Al Qaeda: Terror's frenemies", Quartz[510]
Military Situation in Iraq in May 2020
On 10 September 2015, an audio message was released by al-Qaeda's leader Ayman al-Zawahiri criticising ISIL's self-proclaimed caliphate and accusing it of "sedition". This was described by some media outlets as a "declaration of war".[511] However, although al-Zawahiri denied ISIL's legitimacy, he suggested that there was still room for cooperation against common enemies, and said that if he were in Iraq, he would fight alongside ISIL.[512]
Human rights abuse and war crime findings
The Islamic State has been widely condemned for crimes against humanity.[513][514] In July 2014, the BBC reported the United Nations' chief investigator as stating: "Fighters from the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) may be added to a list of war crimes suspects in Syria."[515] By June 2014, according to United Nations reports, ISIL had killed hundreds of prisoners of war.[516]
In November 2014, the UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria said that ISIL was committing crimes against humanity.[514][517] A report by Human Rights Watch in November 2014 accused ISIL groups in control of Derna, Libya of war crimes and human rights abuses and of terrorising residents. Human Rights Watch documented three apparent summary executions and at least ten public floggings by the Islamic Youth Shura Council, which joined ISIL in November. It also documented the beheading of three Derna residents and dozens of seemingly politically motivated assassinations of judges, public officials, members of the security forces and others. Sarah Leah Watson, Director of HRW Middle East and North Africa, said: "Commanders should understand that they may face domestic or international prosecution for the grave rights abuses their forces are committing."[518] ISIL members were also reported to perform human sacrifices,[519] despite the act being forbidden in Islam.[520]
The United Nations Commission on Human Rights has stated that the group "seeks to subjugate civilians under its control and dominate every aspect of their lives through terror, indoctrination, and the provision of services to those who obey".[309] ISIL and Al-Qaeda were both reported for exploiting Turkey-Syria earthquake event for their propaganda.[521]
According to the Iraq Body Count project, the Islamic State's fighters killed a minimum of 25,645 Iraqi civilians from 2014 to 2016.[522]
Notes
^Attributed to multiple sources:[64][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91]
^Arabic: الدولة الإسلامية, romanized: al-Dawla al-ʾIslāmiyya
^Attributed to multiple sources:[64][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91]
^ISIL Tunisia, ISIL Bengal, ISIL Greater Sahara (ISGS), and ISIL East Asia (ISEA) are not considered terrorist organizations by Japan.[441]
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General and cited references
Abass, Ademola (2014). Complete International Law: Text, Cases and Materials (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Boffey, Daniel. "'Islamic State' is a slur on our faith, say leading Muslims". The Guardian.
Gerhard Böwering, ed. (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0.
Chulov, Martin (11 December 2014). "Isis: the inside story". The Guardian.
Fishman, Brian (2008). "Using the Mistakes of al Qaeda's Franchises to Undermine Its Strategies". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 618: 46–54. doi:10.1177/0002716208316650. JSTOR 40375774. S2CID 146236345.
Fraile Ordonez, Siobhan (28 September 2015). "The Non-Islamic Non-State". St Andrews Foreign Affairs Review. Archived from the original on 14 February 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
Morris, Andrea Michelle. "Who Becomes a Foreign Fighter? Characteristics of the Islamic State's Soldiers" Terrorism and Political Violence 35#2 (2023) pp 1–19; DOI:10.1080/09546553.2022.2144730
Simon, Steven (2008). "The Price of the Surge: How U.S. Strategy Is Hastening Iraq's Demise". Foreign Affairs. Vol. 87, no. 3. pp. 57–72, 74–76. JSTOR 20032651.
Tausch, Arno (Spring 2015). "Estimates on the Global Threat of Islamic State Terrorism in the Face of the 2015 Paris and Copenhagen Attacks" (PDF). Middle East Review of International Affairs. 19 (1). Rubin Center, Research in International Affairs, Idc Herzliya, Israel. SSRN 2702356. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2018. Retrieved 22 November 2019.
Letter dated 24 July 2023 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 1267 (1999), 1989 (2011) and 2253 (2015) concerning Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (Da'esh), Al-Qaida and associated individuals, groups, undertaking at the Wayback Machine (archived 23 August 2023), publication by the United Nations Security Council
.jpg/1280px-UNOfficeofHumanitarianCoordinator-Baghdad_(UN_DF-SD-04-02188).jpg)
Ansar al-Sharia 
ES
.jpg/1280px-London_protest_2015_Ankara_bombings_(2).jpg)
.jpg/1280px-Liberation_of_Palmyra_by_RSII_coalition_(1).jpg)
Iran[476] – military advisors, training, ground troops in Iraq and Syria, and air power in Syria, beside Iranian borders (see Iranian intervention in Iraq).jpg/1280px-Russian_Sukhoi_Su-34_at_Latakia_(1).jpg)
Russia[477] – arms supplier to Iraqi and Syrian governments. Security operations within state borders in 2015.[478] Airstrikes in Syria (see Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War).[479]
Azerbaijan[480] – security operations within state borders
Pakistan – Military deployment over Saudi Arabia-Iraq border. Arresting ISIL figures in Pakistan.[481]
Yemen (Supreme Political Council)[482]
Afghanistan – security operations within state borders (see Islamic State–Taliban conflict)[452]
al-Qaeda[148]
al-Nusra Front[483]—with localised truces and co-operation at times
Hamas[488]
Hezbollah[489]
Houthis[490]
Kurdistan Workers' Party—ground troops in Iraqi Kurdistan and in Syrian Kurdistan[491]
Syrian Democratic Forces
Nineveh Plain Protection Units – an Assyrian Christian militia in the Nineveh Plains in Northern Iraq[492]
Amal Movement[493]
Syrian Resistance – Suqur al-Furat[494][better source needed]
Liwa al-Quds[495]
Liwa Abu al-Fadhal al-Abbas
Abu al-Fadl al-Abbas Forces
Arab Nationalist Guard[497]
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command[498]
Syrian Revolutionary Command Council[499]
Unified Military Command of Eastern Ghouta[501]
Fatah Halab[502]
Mare' Operations Room[503]
Golan Regiment[504].svg/1280px-Syrian_Civil_War_map_(November_24,_2023).svg.png)
.png/1280px-Iraqi_Civil_War_map_(2014%E2%80%93present).png)
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote